EEE 3121 - Signals & Systems

Lecture 1: Signals and Systems

Instructor: Jerry MUWAMBA

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

February 2021
University of Zambia
School of Engineering,
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Course Requirements
It is an OBLIGATION for all students taking this course to attend all lectures and
lab sessions.
Prerequisite
EEE 2019
Simulation Software: Multisim, MATLAB
Time Allocation
Lectures 4 hours/week
Labs 3 hours/week
Assessment
Assignments (8) /Quizzes 5%
Labs/Mini-Projects 15%
1 Test (2 hours) 20%
1 Final Exam (3 hours) 60%

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References
Our main reference text book in this course is
[1] B. P. Lathi and R. A. Green, Linear Systems and Signals, 3rd Ed., 2018, Oxford
University Press, New York. ISBN 978-0-19-020017-6
[2] Kuo Franklin, F., Network Analysis and Synthesis, 3rd Ed., 1986, J. Wiley (SE),
ISBN 0-471-51118-8.
[3] Sundararanjan, D., A Practical Approach to Signals and Systems, 2008, John Wiley
& Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, ISBN 978-0-470-82353-8.
However, feel free to use pretty much any additional text which you might find
relevant to our course.

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Introduction

 The chief objective of this course is to bring to the fore the fundamentals of
electric system theory. Thus, most of the time will be devoted to system analysis
and some time on system synthesis and design.
 In system analysis we concern ourselves with determining the response (output),
given the excitation (input) and the system (network).
 In system synthesis we concern ourselves with designing the system given the
excitation and the desired response.

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1.1 Signal Analysis
 For electric systems, the excitation and response are given in terms of voltage and
currents as functions of time, t. Generally, these functions of time are called
signals.
 In electrical engineering, signals are described using time and frequency. Signals
can be described equally well in terms of spectral or frequency information.

Excit at ion LT I Response

System

Fig 1.1: Objects of our concern

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1.1 Signal Analysis Cont’d

 The signal translation between time and frequency domain is aided by Fourier
series, the Fourier integral, and the Laplace transform.
 These terms shall be defined and studied in detail later in this course.
s (t )
A0

0 t
T 0 0
2
T0

Fig 1.2: Sinusoidal signal

 Let us focus our attention on how to describe a signal in terms of both the
frequency and time.

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1.1 Signal Analysis Cont’d
 Consider the signal of the form
s (t )  A 0 sin(0t   0 ) (1.1)

where A 0 is the amplitude,  0 is the phase shift, and 0 is the angular

frequency given by
2
0  (1.2)
T0
here T 0 is the period of the sinusoid. Fig. 1.2 above depicts the signal plotted
against time.

 If we let the angular frequency  be the independent variable, an equally

complete description of the signal is obtained as shown in Figs. 1.3a and b.

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1.1 Signal Analysis Cont’d

Amplit ude A0

0 0 
Angular Frequency

Fig 1.3a: Plot of amplitude A versus angular frequency  .

P hase

0

0 0 
Angular Frequency
Fig 1.3b: Plot of phase  versus angular frequency  .

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1.1 Signal Analysis Cont’d
 Now suppose that the signal has 2n+1 sinusoidal components, such that,
n
s (t )  A
i n
i
sin(it  i ) (1.3)

 Spectral description of the signal would have 2n+1 line spectra as depicted in Figs.
1.4a and b.

 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 

Fig 1.4a: Discrete amplitude spectrum.

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1.1 Signal Analysis Cont’d


1 2 3 4
 4 3 2 1 0 

Fig 1.4b: Discrete phase spectrum.

 When the number these spectral lines become infinite, the intervals i 1  i
between the lines approach zero. Thus the discrete line spectra fuse into a
continuous spectra as depicted by Figs. 1.5a and b.
 The continuous counterpart of Eq. 1.3 is of the form

s (t )   
A () sin t   ()  d  (1.4)

here A ( ) is known as the amplitude spectrum and  ( ) as the phase

spectrum.
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1.1 Signal Analysis Cont’d
A ( )
 Later in this course, we shall learn that
periodic signals can be described in
terms of discrete spectra using Fourier
series.
 0 

 A nonperiodic signal such as the Fig 1.5a: Continuous amplitude spectrum.

triangular pulse in Fig. 1.6 can only be
described in terms of continuous  ( )
spectra using the Fourier integral
transform.
 0 

Fig 1.5b: Continuous Pahse spectrum.

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1.2 Complex Frequency
 The complex frequency variable of the form
s    j (1.5)
is a generalized frequency variable whose real part  describes growth and decay
of the amplitudes of signals, and whose imaginary part j  is angular frequency.

s (t )

0 T t

Fig 1.6: Triangular signal.

 The concept of complex frequency is developed by examining the cisoidal signal
S(t )  A e j t (1.6)

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1.2 Complex Frequency Cont’d
 Fig. 1.7 shows S(t ) represented as a rotating phasor. Here, the angular frequency
 can be thought of as a velocity at the end of the phasor.
Im S
j

Re S

Fig 1.7: Rotating phasor.

 The velocity  is always at right angles to the phasor. In general, if the velocity
s is inclined at any arbitrary angle  , it has a component  at right angles
to the phasor S and a component  , parallel to S .

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1.2 Complex Frequency Cont’d
 Fig. 1.8 (a) shows that the phasor S decreases in amplitude as it spins in a
counterclockwise fashion. Thus the signal S(t ) is made of damped sinusoids.

Fig 1.8: (a) Rotating phasor with exponentially decreasing amplitude. (b) Rotating
phasor with exponentially increasing amplitude.

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1.2 Complex Frequency Cont’d
 The signal S(t ) is thus of the form
Re S(t )  A e  t cos t
 t
(1.7)
Im S(t )  A e sin t

Fig 1.9: Damped sinusoids.

 The plots of Eq. 1.7 are depicted in Fig. 1.9

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1.2 Complex Frequency Cont’d

Fig 1.10: Exponentially increasing sinusoid.

 Fig. 1.10 shows an exponentially increasing sinusoid when the real component of
velocity is  .

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1.2 Complex Frequency Cont’d

 Thus, the generalized cisoidal signal is of the form

S(t )  A e st  A e (  j  )t (1.8)

which describes the growth and decay of amplitudes apart from angular frequency.
If   0 , sinusoid is undamped, and if j   0 , the signal is purely exponential,
which is of the form

S(t )  A e  t (1.9)

 If   j   0 , the signal is simply a constant.

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1.3 System Analysis

 Let us focus our energy on the fundamental properties of linear networks and
general characteristics of signal processing by linear systems.
Basic Definitions
Linear. A system is linear if and only if the principles of superposition and
proportionality hold. Thus, for a given System, let [ e1(t ), r1(t ) ] and
[e2 (t ), r2 (t ) ] be excitation-response pairs, then for an excitation
e(t )  e1(t )  e2 (t ) , the response ought to be r (t )  r1(t )  r2 (t ) .
Likewise, for excitation C 1e1(t ) , were C 1 is a constant, the response ought to be
C 1r1(t ) , implying the constant is preserved by the linear system.
Passive. A linear system is passive if and only if the energy delivered to the System
is nonnegative for any arbitrary excitation, and no voltages or currents appear
between any two terminals before an excitation is applied.

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1.3 System Analysis Cont’d
Basic Definitions
Reciprocal. A linear time-invariant (LTI) System is reciprocal if and only if points
of excitation and measurement of response are interchanged, the relationship
between excitation and response remains the same.

C 1e1(t )  C 2e2 (t ) LT I C 1r1(t )  C 2r2 (t )

System

Fig 1.11: Linear System.

Causal. A system is causal if its response is nonanticipatory. Thus, if
e (t )  0  t  T (1.10)
then r (t )  0  t  T
Simply put, a system is causal if before an excitation is applied at t  T , the
response is zero for   t  T .

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1.3 System Analysis Cont’d
Basic Definitions
Time invariant. A system is time-invariant if e (t )  r (t ) implies that
e (t  T )  r (t  T ) , here the symbol  denoting “gives rise to.” It is worth
noting that linear systems need not be time invariant.
Derivative. By means of the time-invariant property, it follows that, if an input e (t )
gives rise to an output r (t ) , then for an input e (t ) ,i.e., the derivative of e (t ) ,
an output r (t ) is obtained.
Proof: let the excitation e (t   ) for a real quantity  , by the time-invariant
property, the response would be r (t   ) . Suppose the excitation were
1
e1(t )  e (t   )  e (t )  (1.11)
  
it follows from the linearity and time-invariant properties, that the response is
1
r1(t )  r (t   )  r (t )  (1.12)
  

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1.3 System Analysis Cont’d

Taking the limit as   0 , yields

d
lim e1(t )  e(t )
 0 dt (1.13)
d
lim r1(t )  r (t )
 0 dt
It is worth noting that this idea can extended to higher derivatives and the integrals
of e(t ) and r (t ) .

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1.3 System Analysis Cont’d
Ideal models
 Some of the idealized models of linear systems are shown below whose properties
renders them useful in signal processing.

d
e(t ) Ke(t ) f (t ) K f (t )
Amplifier d dt
K
dt

Fig 1.12: Amplifier. Fig 1.13: Differentiator.

t
f (t ) t
K  f ( )d f (t ) f (t  T )
K D (T )
0

Fig 1.14: Integrator. Fig 1.15 Time-delay System.

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1.3 System Analysis Cont’d

 Let the triangular pulse in Fig. 1.16 be the excitation to each of the four systems
just described. Their respective responses are as shown in Fig. 1.17.

e(t )

0 1 2 t

Fig 1.16: Excitation function.

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1.3 System Analysis Cont’d
r (t ) r (t )

K 1

0 1 2 t

0 1 2 t (a) 1 (b)

r (t )
r (t )
1
1
1
2

0 T T 1 T 2 t
0 1 2 t (c) (d)

Fig. 1.17: (a) Amplifier output. (b) Differentiator output. (c) Integrator output. (d)
Delayed output.

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1.3 System Analysis Cont’d
Ideal elements
 Idealized linear mathematical models of physical circuits elements are used to
analyse electric networks and/or systems.
 The most common elements are resistor R, [ohms], capacitor C, [farads], and
inductor L, [henrys]. Any pair of two terminals into which energy is supplied or
withdrawn is know as a port.

Energy T wo-port Response

Source LT I System Measurement

Fig 1.18: Two-port System.

 Fig. 1.18 shows an example of a two-port System. The energy sources for
excitation functions are ideal current and voltage sources, see Figs. 1.19a and b.

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1.3 System Analysis Cont’d


v(t ) i (t )


Fig 1.19a: Voltage source. Fig 1.19b: Current source.

 An ideal voltage source is an energy source that provides, at a given port, a voltage
signal independent of the current at that port. Interchanging the words “current”
and “voltage” in the last definition, defines an ideal current source.
 The key problem in system analysis, is to find the relationships that exist between
the currents and voltages at the ports of the system.

 Consider the R, L and C elements shown in Fig.1.20. Since the currents and
voltages are expressed as functions of time, the equations defining them are of the
form
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1.3 System Analysis Cont’d
i (t ) i (t ) i (t )
  

v(t ) R v(t ) L v(t ) C

  
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 1.20: (a) Resistor. (b) Inductor. (c) Capacitor.

1
v(t )  R i (t ) or i (t )  v(t )
R
di (t ) 1 t
v(t )  L or i (t )   v(x )dx  i (0) (1.14)
dt L 0
1 t dv(t )
v(t ) 
C  i(x )dx  v(0)
0
or i (t )  C
dt

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1.3 System Analysis Cont’d

here, the constants of integration i (0) and v(0) are initial conditions.
 In complex frequency domain, using the variable s , ignoring initial conditions for
now, the above equations are of the form

1
V (s )  R I (s ) or I (s )  V (s )
R
1
V (s )  sLI (s ) or I (s )  V (s ) (1.15)
sL
1
V (s )  I (s ) or I (s )  sCV (s )
sC

 Notice that in the time-domain, the voltage-current relationships are given in terms
of differential equations. However, in the complex-frequency domain, they are
expressed in algebraic equations, much simpler to solve.

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1.3 System Analysis Cont’d
I (s ) I (s ) I (s )
  
1
V (s ) R V (s ) sL V (s )
sC
  
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 1.21: (a) Resistor. (b) Inductor. (c) Capacitor.

 If a System consists of an interconnection of linear circuit elements, it is described

by a transfer function H (s ) . Thus the response R (s ) and excitation E (s ) are
related by the equation of the form
R (s )  H (s )E (s ) (1.16)

 In System analysis, E (s ) is given, H (s ) is directly obtained from the System.

Thus, the task is to determine R (s ) .

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1.4 System Synthesis
 In System synthesis, the response R (s ) and excitation E (s ) are given, thus we
are required to synthesize the System from the system function
R (s )
H (s )  (1.17)
E (s )

I (s )
 1
 Black
I (s ) V (s ) R V (s ) box

 1

Fig 1.22: Driving-point impedance Fig 1.23: Black box.

 A driving-point immittance is defined to be a function for which the variables are

measured at the same port. Thus a driving-point impedance Z (s ) is of the form
V (s ) (1.18)
Z (s ) 
I (s )
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1.4 System Synthesis Cont’d

here, the excitation is a current I (s ) and the response is a voltage V (s ) , as shown

in Fig. 1.22.
 In Fig. 1.22 driving-point impedance is obtained as
V (s )
Z (s )  R (1.19)
I (s )
 Let the resistor in Fig. 1.22 be enclosed in a “black box.” Assume we have no
access to this box, except at the terminals 1-1 in Fig.1.23. There is need to
determine the System in the black box.
 Let excitation I (s ) , the voltage response V (s ) is proportional to I (s ) by the
equation
V (s )  KI (s ) (1.20)
 The trivial solution, though not unique, is that the black box consists of a resistor
of value R  K  .

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1.4 System Synthesis Cont’d

 Suppose the excitation is a voltage V (s ) , the response is a current I (s ) , and

that
I (s )
Y (s )   3  3s (1.21)
V (s )
 Our task is to synthesize a System equivalent to the System in the black box. It
follows that a possible solution is shown in Fig. 1.24.

1 I 1(s ) I 2 (s )

1  
Y (s ) 3 T wo-port
V 1(s ) V 2 (s )
3 LT I System
 
1

Fig 1.24: System realization for Fig 1.25: Two-port System.

Y(s).

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1.4 System Synthesis Cont’d

 The previous example has shown that the problem of driving-point synthesis,
consists of decomposing a given immittance function into basic recognizable parts
(such as 3 + 3s).
 Realizable driving-point immittances belong to a class of functions called positive
real functions. Properties of p.r. functions can be used to test a given driving-point
function for realizability.
 A transfer function or transmittance takes many different forms. For example,
consider the two-port System in Fig. 1.25. For excitation I 1(s ) and response
V 2 (s ) , the transfer function is a transfer impedance
V 2 (s )
Z 21(s )  (1.22)
I 1(s )

 Similarly, if V 1(s ) were the excitation and V 2 (s ) the response, then a voltage-ratio
transfer function is obtained.

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1.4 System Synthesis Cont’d

V 2 (s )
H (s )  (1.23)
V 1(s )

 As for driving-point functions, there are certain properties which a transfer

function must satisfy in order to be realizable.
 The filter design is critical in transfer function synthesis. A filter is defined as a
System which passes a certain portion of a frequency spectrum and blocks the rest
of the spectrum.
H ( j )

0 C 

Fig 1.26: Ideal amplitude spectrum for low-pass filter.

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1.4 System Synthesis Cont’d
 One aspect of filter design is to synthesize the System from the transfer function
H (s ) . The other aspect deals with the problem of obtaining a realizable
transmittance H (s ) given the specification of, for example, the magnitude
characteristic in Fig. 1.26. This part of synthesis is generally referred to as the
approximation problem.
 It is approximate because the frequency response characteristics of the R, L and C
elements are continuous, except at resonance points. As such a System with these
elements cannot be made to cut off abruptly at the cutoff frequency C .
H ( j ) H ( j )

A A

0 C  0 C 

Fig 1.27: Realizable low-pass filter characteristics.

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1.4 System Synthesis Cont’d

 Fig. 1.27 shows the magnitude characteristics of low-pass filters that can
practically be realized.
 In filter design problems, certain problems in magnitude and frequency
normalization will be discussed. This allows us to deal with element values such as
R = 0.5ohm and C = 2farads instead of “practical” element values of, for
example, R = 500,000 ohms and C = 2 picofarads (pico  10.12 )

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 End of Lecture 1

Thank you for your attention!

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