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WSN Answers

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navyavaranasi46
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WSN MID-II Question Bank

UNIT -3
1) Explain in briefly about IEEE 802.15.4 ?
IEEE 802.15.4 is a technical standard that defines the physical (PHY) and media access control
(MAC) layers for low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs). It is primarily designed
for low-power, low-data-rate communications, making it ideal for applications such as home
automation, sensor networks, and industrial monitoring.
Key features of IEEE 802.15.4:
 Low power consumption: Suitable for battery-powered devices.
 Short-range communication: Typically operates within a few meters.
 Low data rates: Typically up to 250 kbps, ideal for sending small packets of data.
 Mesh networking support: Allows devices to relay data, increasing coverage.IEEE
802.15.4 is the foundation for protocols like Zigbee, 6LoWPAN, and Thread, which are
widely used in IoT applications
2) Describe BTMA protocol in detail?
BTMA (Busy Tone Multiple Access) is a wireless communication protocol designed to reduce
collisions and enhance the efficiency of channel access in wireless networks, especially in
environments where carrier sensing is unreliable due to factors like hidden terminals. It uses a
"busy tone" to signal the use of the channel, helping manage medium access and avoid packet
collisions.

How BTMA Works:


BTMA operates with two separate channels:

1. Data Channel: Used for transmitting actual data between devices.


2. Busy Tone Channel: A separate narrowband channel used to indicate whether the data channel
is busy or free.
Key Concepts:
1. Carrier Sensing Issues: In wireless networks, traditional carrier sensing (like in CSMA) can fail due
to the hidden terminal problem. In BTMA, carrier sensing is enhanced by the introduction of a
busy tone, which helps address these issues.

2. Busy Tone: When a node starts transmitting data on the data channel, it simultaneously
transmits a busy tone on the busy tone channel. This tone indicates that the medium is
occupied, preventing nearby nodes from attempting to transmit on the data channel. This way,
BTMA reduces the likelihood of packet collisions.

3. Channel Access:

 Idle State: When no node is transmitting data, no busy tone is transmitted. Nodes can
sense this and start transmitting their data.
 Transmission State: When a node transmits data, it also emits the busy tone. All nearby
nodes that detect the tone refrain from transmitting, thus avoiding collisions.
3)Mention the advantages and disadvantages of MAC protocols using directional antennas?
MAC (Medium Access Control) protocols using directional antennas are designed to manage
how devices access the communication channel in wireless networks, specifically when using
directional antennas. Directional antennas focus the transmission and reception of signals in
specific directions, as opposed to omnidirectional antennas that broadcast signals in all
directions.

Advantages of MAC Protocols with Directional Antennas:


1. Increased Spatial Reuse:

 Since directional antennas transmit and receive signals in focused beams, multiple
devices can communicate simultaneously without interfering with each other. This
allows better utilization of the communication medium.
2. Extended Communication Range:

 Directional antennas can transmit signals over longer distances due to the concentration
of signal power in a specific direction. This improves the overall coverage area in the
network.
3. Reduced Interference:

 By focusing the signal in a specific direction, directional antennas reduce interference


from neighboring nodes or networks. This leads to more reliable communication and
lower chances of collisions.
4. Enhanced Security:

 The directional nature of transmissions makes it harder for unauthorized nodes to


intercept communications, thus improving security in the network.
5. Improved Signal Strength:

 The focused beam provides stronger signals in the intended direction, leading to better
reception quality and higher data rates between communicating nodes.

Disadvantages of MAC Protocols with Directional Antennas:


1. Increased Complexity:

 MAC protocols for directional antennas are more complex compared to those for
omnidirectional antennas. They need mechanisms for beamforming, beam alignment,
and synchronization, which require additional overhead and computation.
2. Hidden Terminal Problem:

 Although directional antennas help reduce interference, they can introduce a new type
of hidden terminal problem. A node may not sense a transmission if it is not in the
direction of the beam, leading to potential collisions.
3. Deafness Problem:

 Since nodes are only listening in a particular direction, they may miss transmissions
coming from other directions, leading to packet loss or communication delays. This is
known as the deafness problem.

UNIT -4
1) Explain about classification of routing protocols?
2) Discuss the various issues in designing a routing protocol for ad-hoc wireless networks?
3) Explain the following table driven ad-hoc wireless routing protocols:
a) DSDV b)WR
Table-driven (or proactive) ad-hoc wireless routing protocols maintain up-to-date routing
information from each node to every other node in the network by periodically distributing
routing tables. Below are explanations of the two table-driven ad-hoc routing protocols: DSDV
and WRP.

a) DSDV (Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector Routing)


DSDV is a proactive routing protocol based on the Bellman-Ford algorithm. It was developed for mobile
ad-hoc networks (MANETs) to solve the routing loop problem and ensure loop-free paths between
nodes.
Key Features:
1. Routing Table: Each node maintains a routing table that contains information about all the
destinations in the network, the next hop, and the number of hops to each destination. This
table is regularly updated to reflect changes in the network topology.
2. Sequence Numbers: DSDV uses sequence numbers, which are added to each route entry, to
avoid routing loops and to distinguish stale routes from fresh ones. The sequence number
indicates the freshness of the route: the larger the number, the fresher the route.

3. Periodic Updates: Nodes periodically broadcast their routing tables to their neighbors, even if
there are no changes in the network. This helps maintain updated information about the
network’s topology.

4. Triggered Updates: If there is a significant change in the network (such as a link failure), nodes
also send out triggered updates immediately. This reduces convergence time by quickly
informing other nodes about the change.

b) WRP (Wireless Routing Protocol)


WRP is another proactive routing protocol designed to improve the performance of traditional distance-
vector routing protocols by maintaining more comprehensive information to ensure faster convergence
and reduce routing loops.

Key Features:
1. Routing Table: Similar to DSDV, WRP maintains a routing table at each node. However, WRP also
maintains additional tables:

 Distance Table (DT): Stores the distances from each neighbor to a destination.
 Link-Cost Table (LCT): Keeps track of the cost of reaching each neighbor.
 Message Retransmission List (MRL): Tracks which neighbors need to confirm route
updates.
2. Loop-Free Routing: WRP ensures loop-free routes by maintaining a more comprehensive set of
routing information and using a path-finding algorithm. This algorithm compares multiple routes
to determine the most optimal and loop-free route.
3. Fast Convergence: WRP converges faster than traditional distance-vector protocols because it
uses more detailed tables and sends incremental updates instead of broadcasting the entire
routing table.

4. Acknowledgements: WRP requires that updates be acknowledged by the recipient. If the


acknowledgment is not received, the update is retransmitted, which reduces the chance of lost
updates.

UNIT -5
1) Describe various issues and challenges in providing QOS?
2) Elaborate on the energy scavenging techniques for sensor nodes ?
Energy scavenging (also known as energy harvesting) refers to the process of capturing and
storing small amounts of energy from external sources to power electronic devices, such as
sensor nodes in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Sensor nodes are often deployed in remote
or inaccessible locations where replacing or recharging batteries is challenging. Energy
scavenging techniques help these nodes operate autonomously by utilizing energy from their
environment.
Here are the main energy scavenging techniques for sensor nodes:

1. Solar Energy Harvesting


 Description: Solar energy is one of the most common and effective sources for energy
scavenging in sensor nodes. Photovoltaic cells (solar panels) convert sunlight into electrical
energy, which can be stored in batteries or supercapacitors to power the sensor node.
2. Thermal Energy Harvesting
 Description: Thermal energy harvesting leverages the Seebeck effect to generate electricity from
temperature differences between two materials. Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) convert heat
flow into electrical power.

Vibration/Mechanical Energy Harvesting (Piezoelectric/EMG)


 Description: Mechanical energy, such as vibrations or motion, can be converted into electrical
energy using piezoelectric materials or electromagnetic generators (EMG). Piezoelectric
materials generate electricity when they are mechanically stressed (e.g., from vibrations,
pressure). EMGs generate electricity through electromagnetic induction caused by relative
motion between a magnet and a coil.

RF Energy Harvesting
 Description: RF (Radio Frequency) energy harvesting captures electromagnetic waves from
ambient RF sources, such as TV towers, mobile phone towers, Wi-Fi routers, and converts them
into usable electrical energy through rectifying antennas (rectennas).

Kinetic Energy Harvesting


 Description: Similar to vibration harvesting, kinetic energy harvesting captures energy from
human or environmental motion. This technique typically involves a combination of piezoelectric
or electromagnetic mechanisms to convert movement into electrical energy.

Wind Energy Harvesting


 Description: Wind turbines or micro wind turbines can be used to harvest energy from airflow or
wind in environments where wind speeds are sufficient. Wind energy is captured and converted
into electricity by rotating the blades of a turbine connected to a generator.
Hydraulic Energy Harvesting (Water Flow)
 Description: Similar to wind energy, hydraulic energy uses the flow of water to generate
electricity. Micro-hydraulic turbines can be placed in streams or rivers to convert water flow into
electrical energy for sensor nodes.

Biological Energy Harvesting


 Description: Biological energy harvesting uses biological sources, such as microbial fuel cells
(MFCs), to generate electricity from chemical processes. MFCs can harvest energy from microbial
activity in soil or wastewater.

Energy scavenging techniques are crucial for extending the operational lifespan of sensor nodes in
wireless sensor networks, particularly in remote or inaccessible environments. While these techniques
are highly beneficial for sustainability and autonomy, the low energy output, environmental dependency,
and storage challenges must be addressed through advancements in low-power design and energy
management

3) Mention the most relevant kinds of memory for sensor nodes from energy prospective?
From an energy perspective, the most relevant kinds of memory for sensor nodes in wireless
sensor networks (WSNs) are those that balance low energy consumption with adequate
performance for data storage and processing. Sensor nodes typically operate with limited power
resources (often powered by batteries or energy scavenging), so memory components must be
energy-efficient. Here are the most relevant types of memory for sensor nodes:
1. SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
 Description: SRAM is a type of volatile memory that uses bistable latching circuitry to store each
bit. It is often used for temporary data storage, such as cache or working memory in sensor
nodes.
 Energy Perspective:
 Low Energy Consumption in Access: SRAM is energy-efficient when reading or writing
data, consuming less power compared to other types of memory like DRAM.
 High Idle Power: It requires continuous power to maintain its data, meaning it consumes
energy even when not actively being used.
 Advantages:
 Fast access speeds (good for real-time data processing).
 Lower energy consumption during active operations.
 Disadvantages:
 High leakage current (requires constant power to retain data).
 Limited storage capacity compared to other memory types.
 Use Case: Typically used as cache memory in sensor nodes, storing frequently accessed data for
immediate processing.
2. FRAM (Ferroelectric Random Access Memory)
 Description: FRAM is a type of non-volatile memory that uses a ferroelectric layer to store data.
It combines the speed of SRAM with the non-volatility of flash memory.
 Energy Perspective:
 Ultra-Low Power Consumption: FRAM consumes very little energy when reading or
writing data. It has much lower energy requirements than EEPROM or flash memory.
 No Power Required for Data Retention: Since it is non-volatile, it does not require power
to retain stored data, making it energy-efficient during idle times.
 Advantages:
 Very low energy consumption for both read and write operations.
 Fast read/write speeds similar to SRAM.
 Non-volatile, so data is retained without power.
 Disadvantages:
 Lower storage density compared to flash memory.
 More expensive compared to other memory types.
 Use Case: Ideal for sensor nodes where ultra-low power consumption is critical, and data must
be stored reliably during power-off states (e.g., data logging or intermittent sensor operation).

3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)


 Description: EEPROM is a type of non-volatile memory that stores data electrically and can be
erased and reprogrammed. It is slower than SRAM but retains data without power.
 Energy Perspective:
 Moderate Energy Consumption: EEPROM consumes moderate power for read and write
operations but significantly more energy during write/erase operations compared to
SRAM or FRAM.
 Non-volatile: Since it does not require power to maintain data, it is energy-efficient for
long-term data storage when the node is in a low-power or sleep mode.
 Advantages:
 Non-volatile memory that retains data even during power outages.
 Suitable for storing small amounts of configuration or calibration data.
 Disadvantages:
 Slower write speeds compared to SRAM and FRAM.
 Limited write endurance (finite number of write/erase cycles).
 Use Case: Used for storing configuration data or infrequently changed parameters, such as
sensor calibration or node identification data.

4. Flash Memory
 Description: Flash memory is a non-volatile memory that is widely used in sensor nodes for long-
term data storage. It offers higher storage capacity compared to SRAM, FRAM, or EEPROM.
 Energy Perspective:
 High Energy Consumption for Write/Erase: Flash memory consumes significant power
for write and erase operations, although read operations are relatively energy-efficient.
 Energy Efficiency in Standby: It consumes little or no power when not actively being
accessed, making it suitable for storing large amounts of data over long periods.
 Advantages:
 High storage density, capable of storing large amounts of sensor data.
 Non-volatile, so it retains data when the power is off.
 Disadvantages:
 Slow write and erase speeds.
 High energy consumption during write/erase cycles.
 Use Case: Suitable for data logging in sensor nodes that need to store large volumes of sensed
data before transmission or processing (e.g., environmental monitoring).

5. DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)


 Description: DRAM is a type of volatile memory that stores data in capacitors and requires
regular refreshing to maintain the stored data.
 Energy Perspective:
 High Energy Consumption: DRAM needs to be continuously refreshed to retain data,
which increases its power consumption compared to SRAM.
 Low Energy for Access: Despite the need for refreshing, DRAM can be energy-efficient
for large, sequential data access due to its low energy per bit stored.
 Advantages:
 Higher storage capacity compared to SRAM.
 Suitable for applications requiring large, temporary storage.
 Disadvantages:
 Continuous refreshing leads to higher energy consumption.
 Volatile: Loses data when the power is off.
 Use Case: Less commonly used in sensor nodes due to its high energy demands but may be
useful in high-performance sensor applications that require large temporary data storage.

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