Week-5

( Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis )

It is important for all engineers to be able to analyze steady state conditions, because it is the
steady - state that determines continuous ratings of the equipment. Failure to correctly size
equipment results in either.
●​ Excessive expenditure of capital when the plant is oversized, or
●​ Damage when the plant is undersized. In ac systems the steady-state voltages and
currents are modeled by sinusoidal waveforms.

Sinusoidal Sources

​ An ac voltage is modeled as: ​​ v(t) = Vpcos(ωt + Ө)

The quantities being modeled are :

●​ VP is the peak voltage.

●​ ω is the frequency in radians per second (rad/s), ω = 2πf.
1
●​ f is the frequency in hertz (Hz), which are cycles per second, f = 𝑇
2π
●​ T is the periodic time of the oscillations, T = ω
●​ Ө is the phase angle and allows for the fact that the waveform may not be zero or
maximum when t = 0. The phase angle is shown in figure 4.1 for a waveform modeled by
a cosine wave, since it is measured from the maximum.

Example :

An electrical appliance is a pure resistor and is rated as : 120V, 8A, 60Hz. Determine:
a) Peak voltage and current ​ b) Time between voltage zeros ​ c) Radian Frequency
d) Resistance ​ ​ e) Power dissipated

a)​ The stated voltage and current are rms because this is the default and we are not told
otherwise . Then: VP = ⇃2Vrms = ⇃2 x 120 = 169.7 V.
And: IP = ⇃2Irms = ⇃2 x8 = 11.3 A.
1 1
b)​ The time between voltage zeros is the periodic time, T = 𝑓
= 60
= 16.7m sec.
 c)​ The radian frequency is, ω = 2πf = 2 x π x 60 = 377 rad/s.
120
d)​ Resistance is given by Ohm’s Law as: R = 8
= 15Ω
2
e)​ In ac circuits: P = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠R = 82 x 15 = 960 W.

Impedance of a resistor :

​ We have seen that for an ideal resistor, voltage and current are directly proportional , with
Ohm’s Law stating that resistance is the constant of proportionality.
For time-varying voltages and currents, as shown in figure , we get :
VR(t) = R.iR(t)

If the waveforms are switched on at peak values (Ө = 0, and the peak is √2I,
Where “I” is the rms current) we can say:
iR(t) = √2Icosωt, from which we get : VR(t) = R√2Icosωt.
Converting voltage and current to rms phasors: IR = I/0 and VR = RI/0,
And we can conclude that the impedance of a resistor is :

𝑉𝑅
ZR = 𝐼𝑅
=R

This very simple result tells us that the impedance of a resistor is entirely real and is the
resistance itself.

Impedance of an Inductor

We have seen that for an ideal inductor for time-varying voltages and currents, as shown in
figure 4.5, we get:
𝑑𝑖𝐿
VL (t) = L 𝑑𝑡

Figure 4.5
Once again we say: iL(t) = √2Icosωt, Which leads to: IL = I/0 (rms phasor)
 𝑑𝑖𝐿
Then: 𝑑𝑡
= -ω√2Isinωt = ω√2Icos(ωt + 90)
and: VL(t) = Lω√2Icos(ωt + 90), the corresponding phasor is: VL = ωLI/90 ,
which gives the impedance of an inductor as:

Impedance of a Capacitor :

We have seen that for an ideal capacitor for time - varying voltages and currents, as shown in
figure, we get :
𝑑𝑉𝑐
ic(t) = C 𝑑𝑡
​

This time we say : VC(t) = √2Vcosωt, which leads to : VL = V/0 (rms phasor)

𝑑𝑉𝐶
Then: 𝑑𝑡
= -ω√2Vsinωt = ω√2Vcos(ωt + 90)
And : iC(t) = Cω√2Vcos(ωt + 90), the corresponding phasor is : IC = ωCV/90 ,
Which gives the impedance of a capacitor as :

𝑉𝐶 𝑉∠0 1
ZC = 𝐼𝐶
= ω𝐶𝑉∠90
= 𝑗ω𝐶

1
The quantity ω𝐶
is referred to as the capacitive reactance and is denoted by XC.

A 20 μF Capacitor is connected in parallel with a 100 Ω resistor and the combination is placed
across the same supply as in example , determine :
a)​ Impedance, ​ b) Current drawn.

a) To get capacitive reactance we use ω = 377 rad/s , found in example

1
​ ∴​ XC = −6 = 132.6 Ω, and this is in parallel with R.
377 𝑋 20 𝑋 10
 1 1 1 1 1
​ ∴​ 𝑍
= 𝑅
+ 𝑗𝑋𝐶
= 100
+ 𝑗132.6
gives : Z = 63.8 - j48.1 Ω,
​ Or : ​ Z = 79.8∠-370 Ω, in polar coordinates

𝑉 240∠0
b) I = 𝑍
= 79.8∠−37
= 3∠37 A and is the rms value since rms voltage was used.

Finding the Response of Series RL Circuit

Consider the following series RL circuit diagram.

In the above circuit, the switch was kept open up to t = 0 and it was closed at t = 0. So, the AC
voltage source having a peak voltage of Vm volts is not connected to the series RL circuit up to
this instant. Therefore, there is no i

Lagging and Leading :

A more general form of the sinusoid,

​ v(t) = Vmsin(ωt + θ)​ ​ ​ ​ [1]
Includes a phase angle θ in its argument. Equation [1] is plotted in Fig. as a function of ωt, and
the phase angle appears as the number of radians by which the original sine wave (shown in
green color in the sketch ) is shifted to the left, or earlier in time. Since corresponding points on
the sinusoid Vmsin(ωt + θ) occur θ rad, or θ/ω seconds, earlier, we say that Vmsin(ωt + θ) leads
Vmsinωt by θ rad. Therefore, it is correct to describe
Converting Sines to Cosines

The sine and cosine are essentially the same function, but with a 90o phase difference. Thus, sin
ωt = cos(ωt - 90o ). Multiples of 360o may be added to or subtracted from the argument of any
sinusoidal function without changing the value of the function. Hence, we may say that

ဎ1 = Vm cos(5t + 10o )
= Vm sin(5t + 90o + 10o )
= Vm sin(5t + 100o )

Steady state AC circuits:

➔​ AC circuits completely deals with complex signals .

Complex Signals:

Convert Rectangular to polar form :

1)​ 2 + 2j = 2√2∠45o
2)​ -2 + 2j = 2√2∠135o
3)​ 2 - 2j = 2√2∠-45o
4)​ -2 - 2j = 2√2∠225o (or) 2√2∠-135o

Definitions :

1) Time Period : The time required to complete one cycle

​ Units : sec
2) Cycle : Repetition signal is called cycle.
3) Frequency : DEnoted as ‘f’.
No. of cycles per sec.
1
f= 𝑇
​
1
Units: Hertz or HZ ​ i.e 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Sinusoidal signal graphical representation :

Am = Maximum amplitude = Peak value

Ap-p = Peak to peak value
​ ​ Ap-p = 2Am
T = 2π - 0 = 2π sec
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 2ㅠ
ω= 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 2ㅠ
= 1 rad/sec

Generally f = 50 Hz

Voltage & current relationships of Passive Elements :

1)​ Resistance (or) Resistor:

ง = Vm sinωt
i = Im sinωt
VR = IR = Im sinωt x R
VR = (ImR) sinωt
V m = Im R
 2π
1
Pavg = 2𝑥
∫ [Vmsin(ωt) . Imsin(C)] d(ωt)
0

2π
1
Pavg = 2𝑥
∫ VmIm [sin2(ωt)] d(ωt)
0

𝑉𝑚𝐼𝑚 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠(2ω𝑡 2π
= ⎡ ⎤
2π ⎣ 2 ⎦0

𝑉𝑚𝐼𝑚 2π−0
= ⎡
2π ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎤
𝑉𝑚𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Pavg = 2 = x
2 2
Pavg = VrmsIrms

In AC circuits power frequency in 2 times of V&I

2) Inductance (or) Inductor

​
 v = iz
Z = R+jx
I = Imsinωt
𝑑𝑖 𝑑
vL = L. 𝑑𝑡 = L. 𝑑𝑡 Imsinωt
vL = ωL.Imcosωt
vL = ωL.Imsin(ωt + 90o)

vL = jωL.Imsinωt​ ​ 90o = j
Z = jωL = jXL
XL = ωL = 2πfL
where, XL = inductive reactance

3) Capacitor

i = ImSinwt
1 1
vC = 𝐶
∫idt = 𝐶
∫(ImSinwt)dt
 𝐼𝑚
= 𝐶 ( −𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡
𝑤 )
𝐼𝑚
vC = 𝑤𝐶
(− 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡)
𝐼𝑚
vC = 𝑤𝐶 (𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡 − 900))

1
vC = 𝑤𝐶 . Im Sin(wt - 900)
−𝑗
vC = 𝑤𝐶 . Im Sin(wt)
Comparing with v = iZ
−𝑗 1
Z = 𝑤𝑐 = j𝑥𝐶 (or) Z = 𝑗𝑤𝑐
1 1
xC = 𝑤𝑐 = 2π𝑓𝑐
Where, xC = Capacitive Resistance
Pavg = 0 Watts
Z = R + jx

𝑅
Cos Ø = 𝑍 = Power factor

1) R-L Series Circuit :

Z = ZR + ZL
​ Z = R + jXL
2 2 𝑋𝐿
​ |r| = 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿) & Ø = tan-1( 𝑅
)

0o < Ø < 90o = +ve , Lagging I-quadrant

2 2
ง= 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉 𝐿
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
i = iR = iL
Power : Real (active) power - p -> Watts
​ Reactive power - Q -> VAR
​ Apparent Power - S -> VA

2 2
S= 𝑃 + 𝑄 P = VIcosϕ
Q = VIsinϕ
 S = VI​

2) R-C Series circuit:

Z = Zr + Zc
Z = R - jxc

3) RLC Series circuit:

​
Z = ZR + ZL + ZC ⇒ Z = R + jxL - jxC
Z = R + j(xL - xC)

|r| =
2
𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶)
2
& Ø = tan-1 ( 𝑥𝐿 − 𝑥𝐶
𝑅 )
V = √VR2 + (VL - VC)2
→ pt depends on values of XL & XCC
 Case-1 : XL > XC then VL > VC
Bi < Xc
Ø = +ve → RL Series → 0 < Ø < 90o
Pf = lagging
Case-2 : XL = XC then VL = VC
Ø = 0o → Pure Resistive (or) Resonance circuit
Pf = units

Case-3 : XL < XC then VL < VC

Ø = -ve → RC series → -900 < Ø < 00
Pf = leading

i)

R = 2Ω, L = 1Ω, v = 20V, w = 2 r/s

Z = R + jxL ⇒ XL = wL = 2 x 1 = 2
Z = √4+4 = 2√2 Ω
 Rf = i = 5√2 A
Pf = cos(-450) = 1/√2 = 0.707 lagging
●​ Y = admittance = 1/Z units : ひ
B = Susceptance = 1/x units: ひ
Y = 1/Z = 1/R + jx = (1/R + jx) * (R - jx/R - jx)
Y = (R-jx/R2+x2)
 ZR = R , ZL = jxL
1 1
Y = YR + YL = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑥𝐿

Y = G - jBL

2 2
|Y| = 𝐺 + (𝐵𝐿)

Ø = tan-1 ( ) 𝐵𝐿
𝐺

2 2
i= 𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝐿
Ø = -ve , current lags the voltage

-900 < Ø < 0 → -ve

Z2 = 1 - j , Z1 = 2Ω , Z3 = j2
𝑍2𝑍3 (1−𝑗)(𝑗2)
Z = Z1 + 𝑍2+𝑍3
=2+ 1−𝑗 + 𝑗2

2𝑗 + 2 2𝑗 + 2 1−𝑗
Z=2+ 1+𝑗
=2+ 1+𝑗
x 1− 𝑗
2
2𝑗 + 2 − 2𝑗 −2𝑗 2+2 4
Z=2+ 1+1
=2+ 2
=2+ 2

Z = 4Ω i.e Z = R then Ø = 0
If the pf is 0.707(lag), then find ‘xc’ value

Z = R + j (xL - xC)
cosØ = 0.707

Ø = cos-1 ( ) 1
2
о
Ø = 45
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 10 − 𝑋𝐶
Ø = tan-1 ⎢⎡ 𝑅
⎤ =45 = tan-1 ⎡
⎥ ⎢ 5
⎤
⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
10 − 𝑋𝐶
tan45 = 5
= 5 = 10 - XC
XC = 5Ω

If Pf is leading:
Ø = 45о
10 − 𝑋𝐶 10 − 𝑋𝐶
tanØ = 5
= -tan45о = 5

-5 = 10 - XC = XC = 10 + 5
XC = 15Ω
Determine the Equivalent impedance of the network shown in Fig. 10.18a,
given an operating frequency of 5 rad/s.

Find the current i(t) in the circuit shown in Fig. 10.20a.

Find the time-domain node voltages v1(t) and v2(t) in the circuit shown in
Fig. 10.22

FIGURE 10.22 A frequency-domain circuit for which node voltages V1 and V2 are identified

Two Current sources are given as phasors, and phasor node voltages V1 and V2 are indicated. At
the left node we apply KCL, yielding:
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
5
+ −𝑗10
+ −𝑗5
+ 𝑗10
+ = 1∟00 = 1 + j0
At the right node
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉2
−𝑗5
+ 𝑗10
+ 𝑗5
+ 10
= -(0.5)∟-900 = j0.5
Combining terms, we have
(0.2 + j0.2)V1 - j0.1V2 = 1
and,
-j0.1V1 + (0.1 - j0.1)V2 = j0.5
These equation are easily solved on most scientific calculators, resulting in V1 = 1 - 2j V and
V2 = -2 + 2j V.
The time-domain solution are obtained by expressing V1 and V2 in polar form:
 V1 = 2.27∟-63.40
V2 = 4.47∟116.60
and passing the time domain:

V1 = 2.27cos(wt - 63.40) V
V2 = 4.47cos(wt + 116.60) V