Linear Algebra and Calculus (LAC)

Unit-I
Short Answer Questions & Answers

1. Define the rank of a matrix

Ans: If Ais a non-zero matrix, we say that r' is the rank of Aif
(i) Everty (r+1)" order minor of Ais zero.
(ii) There exists at least one rth order minor of Awhich is not zero.
Rank of Ais denoted by p(A).
2. Define the Echelon form of a matrix
Ans: A matrix is said to be in Echelon form if it has the following properties:

(ü) Zero rows, if any, are below any non-zero row.

(ii) The first non-zero entry in each non-zero row is equal to 1.
(ii) The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in a row is less than the
number of such zeros in the next row.

3. Define the Normalform of a motrix

0
Ans: Every mxn matrix of rank r can be reduced to the forrn I,, [!,, 0],by
Lo o a finite chain of
elementary row or coiumn operations, where I, is the r-rowed unit matrix. The above form is called
"normal form" of a matrix.

4. How the rank of a given matrix is determined from its echelon form?
Ans: The number of non-zero rows in the echelon form is equal to the rank of the given matrix

5. Write Cauchy Binet formula.

Ans: Let A be an mxn matrix and Bbe an nxm matrix.

Then for n >m, det(AB) = L1sj,<jc.<jm sn det(A,ha.jmd-(Ban).

Where A,,.io. .n denotes the matrix formed fron Ausing columns j1Jz, m in Aand B;,bin
denotes the matrix formed from B using rows j;,jz, ... Jm in B.
For n < m, det(AB) = 0
For n = m, then det(AB)= det A. det B.

6. Write the conditions for Consistency and solutions of system uf homogeneous equations.
Ans: If the rank of coefficient matrix is equal to the number of unknowns of the system, then it has
trivial solution and if the rank of coefficient matrix is less than the number of unknowns, then it has
non-trivial solutions.
7. Whot is the necessary and sufficient condition for a homogenous
solution?
system to possess non-trivial

Ans: The determinant of the coefficient matrix is zero.

8. Which method has faster convergence of the two methods Jacobi and
Gauss seidal iterative
methods?

Ans: The Guass Seidal iterative method is faster convergent than

Jacobi method.
9. What is the initial approximation solution in Jacobi and Gauss
seidal iterative methods?
Ans: Assuming all Unkonwns in the system of
equations is equal to zero.
10. When do we say that a given system is diagonally dominant if it 3
has unknowns?
Ans: If in the first equation, the coefficient of the first unknown is
second equation, the coefficient of the second unknown is relatively relatively large than others, in the
large than others and in the
third equation, the coefficient of the third unknown is relatively large
than other. Then the system
is a diagonally dominant.
 UNIT-I|
Short Answer Questions.
1. llustrate the nature of the quadratic form.
Ans: Thec quadratic form X AX in n-variables ,where r rank, s signature, n -no. of. Unknowns
Then the quadratic form is said to be
Positive definite : If r =nand s = nor If all the Eigen values of the symmetric matrix Aare
positive
Negative definite : If r =n and s = 0 or If all the Eigen values of the symmetric matrix A
are negative
Positive semi-definite: If r<n and s =ror If all the Eigen values of the symmetric matrix
Aare positive and at least one Eigen value is zero
Negative semi-definite: If r<nand s =0 or lf all the Eigen values of the symmetric matrix
Aare negative and at least one Eigen value is zero
Indefinite: In allother cases (some Eigen values are positive and other negative)
2. Define Quadratic form of a matrix
Ans: Ahomogeneous expression of the second degree in any number of variables is called
Quadratic form. The quadratic form generally denoted by XAX
Ex: (i)ax+ 2hxy + by² (ü) ax' + by² + cz'+ 2hxy + 2gzx + 2fyz
3. Define canonical form of a quadratic form
Ans: Let XAX be a quadratic form in n-variables, then there exists real non-singular linear
transformation X = PY which transforms X"AX to another quadratic form of type
Y"DY =1,', + 4,y't. .+1 y?,then Y"DY is called canonical form of XAX.
4. Find the index and signature of quadratic form x² +2y² 3 z2
Ans: Index-2
Signature=1

5. Define Diagonalization of a matrix and Similarity transformation

Ans:Diagonalization of a matrix : A matrix 'A' is diagonalizable if there exists an invertible
matrix P such that PAP = D, where 'D' is a diagonal matrix. Also, the matrix Pis then
said to diagonalize Ato diagonal form.
Similaritytransformation: If A and B are squarematrices of order n then B is said to be
similar to A. If there exists a non-singular matrix of Porder n such that D = P-'AP.
The transformation Y= PX called similarity transformation.

|3 1 4
6. Findthe sum and product of the eigen values of 02 6

|0 0 S
4
Ans: Let A-0 2 6|
o 0 s
Given matrix is triangular matrix so diagonal elements are eigen values 3,2,5

Sum of eigen values =3+2+5-10

Product of the eigen values = 3°2*5- 30.
 [2 3 41
7. Find the cigen values of Adj.AWhere 4=0 4 2
|0 0 3|
Ans: The characteristicequation of Ais |JA- AI| = 0

The eigen values are 2,4, 3

|2 3 4|
Now |A|=0 4 2 =24
lo 0 3
The eigen values os Adj. Aare = 12,6,8.

8. If 2 is an eigen value of a non- singular matrix A, Prove that is eigen value of

Adja. A
Ans: Since "2' is an eigen value of a non-singular matrix, corresponding to the eigen vector 'X
We have AX = X
(Adj. A)AX = (AdjA)Ax
(Adj.A A)X = A(AdjA)X
|A\IX = A(AdjA)x
LAx= (Adj. A)X
(AdjA)x = x
is an eigen value of the matrix Adj. A.

9. Find A9, If A=
Ans: The characteristic equation of Ais |A- | =0
2
2 -1-a0
12-5 =0
By Cayley Hamilton theorem 4 -5/= 0
A' = 5/
A = 25I
A6 = 1251
A = 625/ = [b5 0 1
0 625

10 find 4" and 44

Ans: Given that

The characteristic equation of Ais |4-Al= 0

|s- 3 0
i.e
3
(5-1)(3 - A) -3 =0
15-3151+ -3 =0
 2'-81 +12=0
cquations bccome,
A= 2,6 the givcn system of
when A= 2,
Case(i):

equations become,
given system of
when
l=6 the
Case(ii):

We have Model matrix P =X,

We have P

D= P'AP
» D'=(PAPXPAP)
’PA'P

Similarly, D' = P"A"P .....(1)

multiplying by P we get,
Pre multiplying cq(1) by P and post
PD"P' = PPA"PP= 4"
.:.A =P D'P
Put n=4 in the above equation, we get 3904 3840 [976 9601
0
.:.A =P D'P1 4 1280 1344|320 336|
matrix
11. Define the characteristic equation of a
Ans: By definition, let A=la,] be nxn matrix. Let X be an Eigen vector of A
corresponding to the Eigen value A
AX =
AX- AlX =0
(4-Al)X =0
|4- =0 is called the characteristic cquation of A.
12. Write two properties of Eigen values
Ans: (i) The sum of the Eigen values of a matrix is cqual to sum of its principal diagonal
elements.
(ii) The product of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to its determinant.
13. Prove that the sum of Eigenvalues of a matrix Is equal to sum of its diagonal elements.
 i.c, If A is an nxn matrix and 4,,4,,A,,.., are its nEigen values, then
4, +d, t d, t . t , = Tr(A) and 1,4,d...h, = det(A)
Ans: Characteristic cquation of Ais 4-=0

a,, -

expanding this, we get

(a-2Xa, -A)....a, -2)- a,,(apolynomialof deg ree n-2)
+a,s(a polynomial deg ree n-2) +.. =0
(-1)° (4- a,, Xl- a,, ).....- a,)+ a polynomialof deg ree (n-2) =0
(-)°[2" -(a,, ta t.. +a,)+a polynomial of deg ree (n-2) =0
(-1)" 2* +(-1)*"(a,, +az t... t a,,) 2 +a polynomial of deg ree(n-2) in d= 0
(-1)" 2" +(-I)""(Trace) at +a polynomial of degree(n- 2) in A=0
if 4,24,,...a, are the roots of the equation,
Sum of the roots = -b -(-1)** Tr(A) = Tr(A)
-1)"
On expanding the determinant eqn (1) takes the form
(-1)"2" +a, 1 + a,2t..... t a, =0 .......2)
Put 2=0 in eq (2), we get |A = a,

Product of the roots =C_)'a, =|4= det A

(-1)"
14. If 2is the Eigen value of amatrix A, then prove that is an Eigen value of A
Ans: Since Ais non-singular and product of the Eigen values is cqual to det A ,it follows that
none of the Eigen values of A is 0.
If dis the Eigen value of a non -singular matrix Aand Xis the corresponding Eigen
vector,
20 and AX = IX, pre multiplying this with A we get,
A'(AX) = A'(X) (4)X »X =MX
X =M'X >A'X = 1'X(:A0)
Hence, by definition, it follows that is an Eigen value of A and Xis the corresponding
Eigen vector.
15. If Ais the Eigen value of un orthogonal matris A, then prove that is also its Eigen
value

Ans: we know that If dis the Eigen value of a matrix A, then prove that is an Eigen value of
 A.Since A is an orthogonal matrix, we have A =A'
is an Eigen valuc of A'
|4
But the matrices A and 4' have the same Eigen values,since the determinants
and

are same.

1
Hence, is also an Eigen value of A.
Eigen values of
16. Prove that If ,,,....1, are the Eigen values of Athen are the

Ans: Since is an Eigen value of Acorresponding to the Eigen vector X, we have AX=X
......(1)
Pre multiplying eq (1)by A, we get
A(AX)= A(X)’ (AM)X =A(AX) >A'X = hY= X
Hence ' is Eigen value of A withX itself as the corresponding Eigen vector. Thus the
result be true forn=2.
Let the result be true for n=k. Then
AX = 1x
Ak*X=1X
pre multiplying this by A and using AX=X,we get
’ 1*" is Eigen value of A** with X itself as the corresponding Eigen vector. Hence by the
principle of mathematical induction, the theorem is true for all positive integern.
17. The Eigen values of an idempotent matrix are either zero (or) unity.
Ans: Let A be an idempotent matrix i.e., A' = A.
that
If be aEigen value of A, then there exists a non-zero vector X such
AX = X...(1)’ A(AX) =A(Y) > A'X= (AX)’ AX = X...(2)
From eq (1) and eq (2), we get
X= x (or) (2' -2) X=0l-l=0’1=0 (or) 1
[3/2 \/2]
18. Find e and 4,if A= L/2 3/2

The characteristic equation of Ais |4-=0

3

i.e,
2 2 =0 ’a'-31+2 =0 ’h= 1,2
3

Case(i) :- when =1, we have (A-)x, =0 ’(4-)X, =0

Case (i);- when d - 2, we have (4- A)x, = 0>(4-2/)X, =

Therefore the model matrix P

-P" AP
The Diagonal matrix D =P
=\o
f(A) =e* .s(D) =e°=
e = Pf(D)P ete? -e+e']
e+e?

Replacing eby 4, we get 4' =2|1220 a206

12] io 6
10
 3. CALCULUS
1. State Roll 's theorem.

Sol.: Let f) be a function, such that

() f) is continuous in [a, b]
(ii) fx) is differentiable in (a, b)
(iii) fla)= f(b) . then there exits at least one point c in (a, b) such that f'(c)= 0.
2. State Lagrange's mean value
theorem.
Sol.: Let fx) be a function, such that
(i) f) is continuous in [a, b]
(ii) fu) is differentiable in (a, b)
(ii) fa)= fb) , then there exits at least one point c in (a, b) such that fc)=
b-a
3. State Cauchy's mean value
theorem.
Sol.: Let fx), glx) be two functions such that
(i) f), g(x) is continuous in [a, b]
(ii) f), gr) is differentiable in (a, b)
(ii) g'()+ 0, Vxe(a,b) ,then there exits at least one point c in (a, b) such that
6)-sa))
g(b)-gla) g'c)
4. State Second form of Lagrange's meanvalue theorem.
Sol.: Let fx) be a function, such that

() fu) is continuous in [a, b]

(ii) fu) is differentiable in (a, b)

then there is at least one number 0, (0<0 <1)such that f(a+ h)=
fla)+f'la+h)
Rolle's Theorem then find the value of'c'.

Sol: Given f(«)=x+»s'«)=1

Form Rolle 's Theorem, f'c)=0 ’1-=0’ e- =lc=tl. S,
C2
6. f fu)=x-3x+ 2 in (- 2, 3]satisfies Lagrange's mean value theorem then find the value of 'c'.
Sol.: Given fl)=x-3r +2 f'r)= 2x-3
From Lagrange's mean value theorem, 'c)= b)-sla)
b-a
s3)-(2)
3-2
’ 2e-3 = -2

c-zet23)
7.If f)=r and gl)= satisfies Cauchy's mean value theorem in a, b\then find 'c'
Sol.: Given f(r)=x, slx)=
s')-%
2

From Cauchy's mean value theorem, f'e)_ro)-fla)

g'c) sl6)- g¢)
1
2Ve Vo-va
-1e 2 1 1
2

’c=Vab e (a,b)
8. State Taylor's theorem.

Sol.: If f:a,b]’ Ris a function such that

() fla-l) is continuous on a,b]
(ii) fla) is differentiable on (a,b), then for pe Z* there exists a point ce (a,b)such that

sle)= fla)+be)-a
1! 2!
"a)+-- (b-ola-)a)+
(n-1) Ry. where
(b-a)P (b - cP
Rn
(n-1)p
9. State Maclaurin 's theorem.

Sol.: If f:o.x]’ Risa function such that

(i) fla) is continuous on (0,
(i) n-1) is differentiable on (0, x), then there exists a real number e (0,1) such that
 So)= r(0)+ xf'(0)+sl'(0)+
2!
-- x"(|-o)"-p
p(n-1)
10. State another form of Taylor's theorem with
Lagrange's form of remainder.
Sol.: If f:a, a+h]’ Ris a function such that
(i) is continuous on (a, a+h
(ii) fu)is differentiable on (a, a+ h), and peZtthen there exists a real
such that number 0<0<1

fla+h)=fla) +hf'la)+a)+ 2! a-}a)+ R,. where

n!
 UNIT-IV
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION

1. Find the first &second order partial derivatives of ax? +2hxy +by and verify

Sol. Given f(r.y) =ax' +2hxy +by² then

= 2ax + 2hy, = 2by + 2hx,
a'f = 2a, = 2b

2h, = 2h
Cxoy Ôyôx ôy\ßx
Therefore a²f_os
axôy ôyôr
2. Define Homogeneous function.
Sol. A function f(x, y) is said to a homogeneous function of degree n in variables x,y if
f(kr, ky) =k"f(x, y),where n is a real number
3. State Euler's theorem.
ôz
Sol. If z = f(x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n then x+y = nz, x, y in the
domain of the function.
4. Define Jacobians.
Sol. Let u=u(x,y) and v=v(x,y) then these two simultaneous relations constitute a
transformation from (x,y) to (u,v), the determinant is called the Jacobian of u,v w.r.t.

Xand y.
5. Write any two properties of Jacobians.
Sol. i) IfJ= O(u, v) &J Ox, y) then JJ =1
ô(x, y) dlu, v)
ii)if u,v are functions of r,s and r,s functions of x,y then
O(u, v) O(u, v) olr,s)
Olx, y) ô(r, s) o(x, y)
6. Write the Chain rule and functionally dependence of Jacobians.
Sol. Chain Rule: If u,v are functions of r,s and r,s functions of x,y then
O(u, v)ôlu, v) or, s)
O(x, y) dr,s) o(x, y)
 Functionally dependence: If u,u2,ug be the functions of x,X2, Xzthen the necessary and
sufticient condition for the cxistence of a function relationship of the form f(uj, uz,
u3)=0 is
=0

7. State Taylor's theorem.

Sol. If f(x. y) possess continuous partial derivatives of n" order in any
point (x,y) and if (xth.y+k) is any point of this neighborhood, then neighborhood of a
f(r+ h,y+ k) =f(r, y) +|A*a,
Oy y) +---
8. Writethe formula for Taylor's theoren in powers of (x-a) and
Sol. If f(x, y) possess continuous partial derivatives of n"
(y-b).
order in any neighborhood of a
point (a,b) then f(x, y) =f(a,b) + (r-a)f;(a, b) +(y - b)S, (a, b)]+
9. Write the formulafor ---
maclaurin's series.
Sol. If f(x,y) possess continuous partial derivatives of n" order in
any neighborhood of a
point (0,0) then f(x, y) =f(0,0) + (0,0) +yf, (0,0)|+
10. Define maximum & minimun values.
Sol. Let f(x,y) be a function of two variables x & y, at
x=a, y-b then f(x,y) is said to be
maximum or minimum value, if f(a,b)>f(ath,b+k) or f(a,b)<f(ath,b+k)
k are small values. respectively, where h,
11. Define extreme value.
Sol. If f(a,b) is said to be an extreme value of f, if it is
12. Define Stationary value. maximum or minimum value.
Sol. If f(a,b) is said to be a stationary value of f(x,y) if f
(a,b) = 0&fy (a, b) = 0. Thus every
extreme value is a stationary value but the converse may not be true.
13 Discuss the maximum and minimum of x+ y' +6x+12
Sol. Given f(x, )=x +y +6x + 12

ôx
= 2x +6=0, =2,
,2 ax@y
X=-3 & y-0; at the point (-3,0)
In-m =4>0&l=2>0
Hence f(x,y) will be minimum, when x=-3 & y=0
Therefore minimum value is f(-3,0)=9+0-18+12=3
14.Write the fornula for Leibnitz's rule.
Sol. If f(x, a) & J(3,a be continuous functions of x&a then
where a,b are constants.
15. Write the formulafor Leibnitz's for the variable limits of integration .
Sol. If f(x, a) & be continuous functions of x&a then
d
w(a) dý f(a), a), provided v(a) &a)
da da da
oa) dla)
possess continuous first order derivatives w.r.t. a
 UNIT- 5
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
1. Double Integrals
Generally, aDouble Integral may be of the form |= fy)dx dy.
2. Evaluation of Double Integrals in cartesian co-ordinates.
ADouble lntegral f" fa, y) dx dy can beevaluated in one of the following ways.
Case.1: When xlimits are variables and ylimits are constants
Inthis case, x,, x2 are functionsofy and y,, y, are constants i.e., the double integral will
be of the form s (r. y) dx dy.
Here, the order of integration is du dy.
The region of integration willbe bounded by the cross section of horizontal strips
or by sliding a horizontal strip in the given domain (region).
> First, we have to integrate w.r.t. x between the limits x = , (y) and x= ,()
treating y as constant (so that the resultant will be entirely function of y) and then
integrate w.r.t. y between the limits a and b.

Case.2: When ylimits are variables and xlimits are constants

In this case, y1, Y; are functions ofx and x, X, are constants i.e., the double integral will
be of theform sf(a,y) dy dx.
> Here, the order of integration is dy dr.
> The region of integration will be bounded by the cross section of vertical strips or
by sliding a vertical strip.
> First,we have to integrate w.r.t. x treatingy as constant (so that the resultant will
be entirely function ofy) and then integrate w.r.t. y.
Case.3: When both x and y limits are are constants

Inthis case,the double integral will be ofthe form Sf(x, y) dx dy.

> Here, the order of integration is immaterial. i.e., either dx dy (i.e., we can
integrate first w.r.. x between the limits a and b and then w.r.t. y between c and d)
or dy dx (i.e, first w.r.t. y between c and d and then w.r.t. x between a and b).
> The region of integration willbe a rectangle.

NOTE:To evaluate a double Integral, observe the variable linmits carefully as we have to evaluate with
variable limits first,
1. If the variable linits are functions of x, then procecd as in case 2.
2. If the variable limits are functions of x, hen proceed as in case I.
3. If the limits are not given and the region is specificd, then select either casel or case2. If the
 region is a rectangle or square, then follow casc.3

3. Evaluation of Double Integrals in polar co-ordinates.

ADouble Integral in polar co-ordinates will bc ofthe form |= fa,y)rdr de.
Herc, r limits will be variables (i.e. r will be expresscd as function of 0) and limits will be
constants. Hence, r, and r; will be expresscd as functions of 0.
In the case of polar co-ordinates, we have to introduce radial strip in the given region.
and I= r he) la(0) f*y) r dr de.

4. Change of order of integration

Sometimes, evaluation of integrals become quite easier when we change the order of
integration.
Procedure
Step.1 Trace out the region of integration R, from the given limits.
(From the variable limits, we can decide whether the region is bounded by vertical
strip or horizontal strip. Suppose the variable limitsare in terms of x(which represent
y limits), then R will be bounded by vertical strip and vice-versa.
Step.2 Find the boundaries ofR from the constant limits and by finding intersection points of
the two curves, so that R willbe specified completely.
Step.3 Introduce the alternate strip in R, to change the order of integration.
Step.4 Now, find the limits for integration.
(Generally, strip end points give variable limits and sliding of the strip gives constant
Limits).
Step.5 Finally, evaluate the integral with new limits.
5. Area enclosed between two plane curves is given by
A= J, dxdy or JJ, dydx in case of cartesian co-ordinates
or A= JJ, r dr de in case of polar co-ordinates.
Here R is the region enclosed between the two curves.

6. Triple Integrals
Generally, it will be of the form I= S fa,y, z) dx dy dz
If the order of integration is dx dy dz, then xjand xz Will be expressed as functions of y and z,
y, and y, will be expressed as functions of zand Zand z, will be constants.
Here, we integrate first w.rt. x treating yand z as constants, then w.rt. y treatingz as constant
and finally w.rt. z.
NOTE: In a similar manner, depending on the variable limits, the order of Integration will be decided.
7. Change of Variables
This concept is used when one type of co-ordinate system is transferred into another.
 I. Two- dimension
(i) When cartesian co-ordinate system (X, Y) is transformed in to a new
co-ordinate
system (U,V), then the transformations are x = (u, v) ,y=y(u, v) and
SRy f(x. y) dx dy = Sp f(Ø.)J|du dv
Here Rxy is the region in XY-plane.
Råy is the region in UV-planewhich is the image of Rxy.
ôx
IJ|isthe jacobian of the transformation given by |J|= Qu
Oy dy

(iü) Polar Co-ordinates

When cartesian co-ordinate system (X, Y) is transformed in to polar
(r, 0): co-ordinates
Transformations
(xy)’ (r.0) (r.0) ’ (xy)
X=rcos
y=rsin
r=/x+ y²
e = tan-1 ()
The jacobian of the transformation is given by

|J|= |cose -r sin =r

sin r cos

. dx dy = |||dr de =r dr do

Hence, [[, f(x,y) dx dy = , f(rcos0, r sin 0) r dr de

where R is the region of integration.
Three - dimension
(i) When cartesian co-ordinate system (X, Y, Z) is transformed in to a
new co-ordinate
system (U,Y, W),
Transformations: are x = (u, v, w).y= p(u,v, w) and z =((u, v, w)
ôx ôx
Ow

|J|=Jacobian ofthe transformation given by |- ðu

y dy
dz

Let Ryy, be the given region in XYZ-plane and let image of Ryyz, be Ruvw which is the
region in UVW-plane.
Hence, SM.fxy, z) dx dydz = JR f(o.p. F)lJ | dudv dw
 (i) Cylindrical Polar Co-ordinates: p. o,z
The three coordinates (p, , :) at a point P are defined as radial
ordinate andaxial co-ordinate. co-ordinate, azimuthal co
pis the radius vector or radial distance from the z-axis
to the point P.
is the azimuthal co-ordinate which is the angle
by theradius vector p wrt. positive X-axis to get made
the
base of the cylinder or chosen plane.
z is the arialcoordinate or height of the
cylinder
NOTE: Sometimes,cylindrical polar co-ordinates may also be
represented as r,6,z
Transformations
(xy.z) (p.¢.z) (p..z) ’ (xy.z)
x= pcos¢
y= psin
p=x+ y²
Z=Z =tan-()
Z=2

The jacobian of the transformation is given by

cos - psin 01
|p sin pcos p
0 0
lôp àz

: dx dy dz = J|dp do dz = pdp d¢ dz
Hence a triple integral in cylindricalpolar co-ordinates can be evaluated as

||f(,y.2) dx dy dz =| |f(p coso, psin ,2) pdp dp dz

where R is the region of integration.

(ii) Spherical polar co-ordinates (r, 0.)

Signiicance of the c0-ordinates:
r indicates the length of the radius vector
8 is the polar angle, i.e., angle made by the radius
vector r (OP) with positive z-axis
Here O is the origin and P is any point on the sphere.
 is the azimuthal angle which is the rotationalorientation of the plane
the rotation of radius vector) with Z-axis.
(which is formed by

Transformations
(a.y.z) (r.0.4) (r.0.0) (xyz)
x =r sin® coso r= /x? +y² + z2
y=r sin sin
Z =rCos
=cos" (.a)
= tan- E)
The volume element in spherical polar
coordinates can be
determined from the Jacobian:
J= a(r.y,z)
D(r.0,0)

sin cos sin sin cos

r Cos cos r cos sin o -r sin = p' sin .
-r sin sin r sin cos ¢ 0

Hence a triple integral in spherical polar co-ordinates can be

evaluated as
I|| r,y.z) dx dy dz = fr sin® cos¢, rsin sin p, rcos0) r²sin dr de dÙ
R

where R is the region of integration.

HINT for Limits:

Sphere is formed by rotating the semi-circle one revolution.

Semi-circle is formed by rotating the radius vector l180°
:0SrSa, 0 esn, 0ss2r
8. Volume of a solid

1.Volume ofa solid as a double integral =[, z dx dy =[,

f(«.y) dx dy
or f z rdr de
Here S is the projection of the given region onXY- plane.
2. Volume as triple integral = , dxdydz
3. Volume formed by the revolution ofthe plane (of area A)
around X-axis =, 2ry dxdy
-[[, 2nr sin 8 drd0 (in polar co - ordinates)
Volume formed by the revolution of the plane around Y-axis =, 2rx
dxdy
-IJ, 2nr² cos @drde (in polar co - ordinates)