Normalization is a process used in databases to organize data to reduce

redundancy and improve data integrity. It involves structuring a database in a

way that each piece of data is stored only once, and related data is properly
linked through relationships. Normalization typically follows a series of rules
known as "normal forms."
Here are the types of normalization, outlined in points:
### 1. *First Normal Form (1NF)*- Ensures that all data is stored in a tabular
format with no repeating groups or arrays.
- Each column must contain atomic (indivisible) values, meaning no multiple
values in a single field.
- Each row must be unique, identified by a unique key, often a primary key.

### 2. *Second Normal Form (2NF)*- Achieved when a database is in 1NF and
all non-key attributes are fully functionally dependent on the primary key.
- Eliminates partial dependency, where non-key attributes depend on part of a
composite primary key.
- Ensures that each attribute describes the entity associated with the table.

### 3. *Third Normal Form (3NF)*- Achieved when a database is in 2NF and all
non-key attributes are non-transitively dependent on the primary key.
- Eliminates transitive dependency, where non-key attributes depend on other
non-key attributes rather than directly on the primary key.
- Ensures that each non-key attribute is only dependent on the primary key.

### 4. *Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)*- A stronger version of 3NF.

- Every determinant (an attribute on which some other attribute is fully
functionally dependent) must be a candidate key.
- Ensures that the database has no anomalies and redundancy based on
functional dependencies.

### 5. *Fourth Normal Form (4NF)*- Achieved when a database is in BCNF and
there are no multi-valued dependencies.
- Eliminates multi-valued dependency, where one attribute in a table uniquely
determines another attribute or set of attributes.

- Ensures that each table represents one-to-one or many-to-one relationships

only.### 6. *Fifth Normal Form (5NF)*- Achieved when a database is in 4NF
and there are no join dependencies that are not implied by candidate keys.
- Ensures that tables are decomposed to eliminate redundancy without losing
any information.

### 7. *Sixth Normal Form (6NF)*- A lesser-known and rarely used form.
- Focuses on temporal databases where data is stored along with time-based
changes.- Achieved when a database is in 5NF and all temporal dependencies
are also satisfied.
Normalization helps in designing efficient databases by reducing redundancy
and improving data consistency.The main difference between a Database
Management System (DBMS) and a file-oriented system lies in how data is
stored, managed, and accessed. Here's a breakdown of the key differences:
### 1. *Data Storage and Structure*: - *File-Oriented System*: Data is stored in
files, often in a flat or hierarchical format. Each file represents a separate entity,
and there is no inherent relationship between different files.
- *DBMS*: Data is stored in a structured format, usually in tables that are
related to each other. The DBMS provides a systematic way to manage and
query the data.
### 2. *Data Redundancy and Consistency*:- *File-Oriented System*: There is
often a high level of data redundancy because the same data might be stored in
multiple files. This can lead to inconsistencies when data is updated in one file
but not in others.
- *DBMS*: Minimizes redundancy through normalization and enforces
consistency through constraints and relationships. Updates are managed
centrally, reducing the risk of inconsistency.
### 3. *Data Access and Security*: - *File-Oriented System*: Accessing data
often requires reading entire files, which can be slow and inefficient. Security is
generally limited to file-level permissions, which can be less granular.
- *DBMS*: Offers sophisticated data access through query languages like
SQL, allowing for efficient data retrieval and manipulation. Security is more
advanced, with user-specific access controls and permissions at various levels
(tables, columns, rows).
### 4. *Data Integrity*: - *File-Oriented System*: Lacks built-in mechanisms to
enforce data integrity. It is up to the application developer to ensure data is
accurate and reliable.
- *DBMS*: Enforces data integrity through rules, constraints (like primary and
foreign keys), and triggers, ensuring the reliability and accuracy of the data.
### 5. *Concurrency Control*: - *File-Oriented System*: Does not support
multiple users modifying data simultaneously. There is a high risk of conflicts
and data corruption.
- *DBMS*: Supports concurrent access by multiple users through mechanisms
like locking and transaction management, ensuring data integrity and
consistency even with simultaneous operations.
### 6. *Data Recovery and Backup*: - *File-Oriented System*: Recovery from
data loss can be challenging and is usually handled manually or by external
backup utilities. There is no built-in mechanism for data recovery.
- *DBMS*: Includes robust backup and recovery mechanisms to protect
against data loss and corruption. Features like transaction logs allow for
automatic recovery to a consistent state after a crash.
### 7. *Scalability*- *File-Oriented System*: Typically not designed to handle
large amounts of data or many simultaneous users. Scaling requires complex
manual processes.
 - *DBMS*: Designed to scale, both vertically and horizontally, to accommodate
large data sets and multiple users efficiently.
### 8. *Flexibility*:- *File-Oriented System*: Limited flexibility in terms of data
querying and manipulation. Any changes to the data structure often require
significant modifications to the application code.
- *DBMS*: Offers high flexibility through powerful querying capabilities and the
ability to easily modify data structures without affecting application code
significantly.
JDBC (Java Database Connectivity)JDBC is an API for connecting and
executing queries with databases from Java applications. It provides a standard
interface for interacting with relational databases such as MySQL, PostgreSQL,
Oracle, SQL Server, and others. JDBC allows Java programs to execute SQL
statements, retrieve results, and manage database transactions.
Key features of JDBC:Cross-database compatibility: Allows Java applications to
interact with different types of databases.Support for SQL commands: Provides
the ability to execute SQL queries, updates, and other database commands.API
simplicity: Offers a straightforward way to connect to a database using a
standardized API.
Database metadata access: JDBC allows access to database metadata, which
can provide information about the structure of the database.ODMC (If this is a
typo or needs clarification)If you meant ODBC (Open Database Connectivity)
instead of ODMC, here is a quick comparison:ODBC is a standard API for
accessing database management systems (DBMS). The goal of ODBC is to
make it possible to access any data from any application, regardless of which
DBMS is handling the data.Differences between JDBC and ODBC:Language
specificity: JDBC is specific to Java, while ODBC is language-agnostic (can be
used in C, C++, Python, etc.).Platform independence: JDBC is designed to be
platform-independent and is tightly integrated with Java applications. ODBC is
designed to be cross-platform but often requires specific drivers for different
operating systems.Driver management: JDBC uses Java-specific drivers, while
ODBC uses ODBC drivers. The setup and configuration differ slightly depending
on the environment.
Dynamic SQL refers to SQL statements that are constructed and executed at
runtime rather than being hard-coded in the application code. This allows for
more flexibility as the SQL statements can be generated based on user input,
program logic, or other runtime conditions.Key Features of Dynamic
SQL:Flexibility: Dynamic SQL can construct queries that are not known until
runtime. This is useful for applications that need to support a wide variety of
queries.Parameterization: It can include parameters that are passed at runtime,
making it suitable for generating customized queries.Construction at Runtime:
The SQL query is built as a string in the application and is sent to the database
for execution.Performance Considerations: Dynamic SQL can be slower
because the SQL query must be parsed, compiled, and optimized at runtime
each time it is executed. This may also introduce SQL injection risks if not
handled properly.
Embedded SQL refers to SQL statements that are directly written and
embedded within the application code (like C, C++, Java, etc.) using specific
syntax. These statements are parsed and compiled by a preprocessor before
the application is compiled. This approach allows the SQL statements to be
more tightly integrated with the application logic.Key Features of Embedded
SQL:Fixed SQL Statements: The SQL queries are known at compile-time and
are directly embedded in the application code.Better Performance: Since the
SQL queries are parsed and compiled ahead of time, they generally have better
performance than dynamic SQL.Tight Integration: Embedded SQL allows
seamless integration of SQL within the application code, leading to better
readability and maintenance.Compile-Time Checking: Errors in SQL statements
can be caught at compile time, reducing runtime errors.

Key Differences Between Dynamic SQL and Embedded SQLConstruction

Time:Dynamic SQL: The SQL statements are constructed and executed at
runtime.Embedded SQL: The SQL statements are written and compiled into the
application code.Flexibility:Dynamic SQL: Provides flexibility to create complex,
variable queries based on user input or other runtime conditions.Embedded
SQL: Less flexible since SQL queries are predefined in the code and cannot be
changed at runtime.Performance:Dynamic SQL: Generally slower because
queries are compiled at runtime. There is also a potential risk of SQL injection if
input is not sanitized.Embedded SQL: Typically faster as queries are pre-
compiled, and syntax errors are detected at compile time.Error
Handling:Dynamic SQL: Errors related to syntax or logic in SQL statements can
only be caught at runtime.Embedded SQL: Syntax errors in SQL can be caught
at compile time, reducing the chance of runtime errors.Security:Dynamic SQL:
More prone to SQL injection attacks if user inputs are not properly
sanitized.Embedded SQL: Safer from SQL injection attacks since SQL
statements are fixed and cannot be manipulated at runtime.