Peter Gould

NSW Department of Education and

Communities
<[email protected]>

Although children’s first knowledge of

fractions is often associated with sharing
Peter Gould suggests Australia’s food, their formal introduction to fractions
commonly involves shading in parts of
next top fraction model should be shapes. Of the different ways of representing
fractions, the region or area model is clearly
a linear model rather than an area the most popular of the models currently
used in Australian schools. Yet the use of
model. He provides a convincing the area model brings with it a number of
limitations in the fraction concepts students
argument and gives examples of form. In this article I argue for focussing on
the linear aspects of fraction models as the
ways to introduce a linear model primary representation of fractions. With the
introduction of the Australian Curriculum:
in primary classrooms. Mathematics, the time has come to recognise
the need for a new top fraction model.

What do we mean by a fraction?

Understanding the meaning of common
fractions and how to operate with them
is for many people a very difficult aspect
of learning mathematics (Davis, Hunting
& Pearn, 1993; Pearn & Stephens, 2004).
A substantial component of the difficulty
students encounter when studying fractions
is due to the symbol system employed to
represent fractions (Ellerton & Clements,
1994; Mack, 1995). The symbols used to
represent fractions, one whole number
written above another whole number, do
not transparently communicate the meaning
of fractions; that is, students cannot ‘see
through’ the symbols to the underlying
meaning of a fraction.

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 Gould

Over the decades, far more teaching Introducing the models

time has been dedicated to mastering the
procedures necessary to manipulating the Common fractions are frequently introduced
fraction symbol system than to seeking to to students in Australia through contexts such
understand what fractions are (Thompson as sharing food; that is, partitioned fractions
& Saldanha, 2003). This intensive focus on or fractions in context are introduced first.
the symbol system has had some unexpected Shading parts of common shapes then
outcomes. When a Year 3 student was asked, follows discussions of what constitutes ‘half
“Can you see how part of this shape (Figure an apple or a quarter of a sandwich’. Shapes
1) is shaded in? Do you know what we call such as circles or squares are used to model
that part that is shaded in?” he responded in the relationship between the parts and the
terms of the symbol system. whole.
The move from introducing fraction
language in contexts using apples or
sandwiches to shading two-dimensional
shapes often takes place rapidly. However,
when we name half an apple or a quarter of
a sandwich we often do so without explicit
attention to the feature of the object we
use as the basis of our judgement. How
do we know that half an apple is indeed
Figure 1. A square with one-half of the area shaded. half an apple? It is not the number of
pieces but rather the mass or volume of the
Student: Two out of one. pieces that informs our decision that we do
Teacher: It’s two out of one? have one-half of an apple. This can make it
Student: I mean two… two but, but one’s quite difficult for students to follow what we
out, so they write like two then, mean when we introduce fraction models.
then they write a symbol, then a For many students, the perceived feature
one. initially identifying half an apple or half a
Teacher: OK. What would we call this if this strawberry (Figure 2) is the number of pieces.
was a sandwich and I cut this down Consequently, it is not unusual to hear young
here (indicates the diagonal) and students refer to the ‘bigger half’.
I gave you that part (indicates the
shaded part)? How much would
you have?
Student: One.

This student’s response underscores the two

different meanings we give to fractions in
teaching: fractions in context (partitioned
fractions) and fractions as abstract numbers
(quantity fractions) (Gould, 2008; Isoda, Figure 2. A strawberry cut at halfway producing two pieces
Stephens, Ohara, & Miyakawa, 2007; Yoshida, with different volumes.
2004). A half of a sandwich and one-eighth of
a pizza are examples of partitioned fractions, In teaching, models are often used to
fractions in context. In contrast, when we ask, represent mathematical ideas. A fraction
“Which is larger, one half or five-eighths?” we model refers to the instructional materials
are referring to fractions as abstract numbers used to represent the mathematical idea of
without specified units. Although 12 of a family fractions. There are three common fraction
size pizza can be more than 58 of a smaller models typical of school textbooks: the linear
pizza, the 12 number is always smaller than model, the area model and the discrete or set
the number 58 . model (Watanabe, 2002).

6 APMC 18 (3) 2013

 Australia's next top fraction model

However, a student may correctly describe

the shaded area in Figure 4 as representing
(i) linear three-eighths without referring to area. For
example, a student may reason that three
parts (or squares) are shaded out of a total of
eight parts. This is a comparison of two counts
that does not explicitly make any use of area.
Using a fraction model needs to do
more than elicit the language of fractions;
it must also strengthen understanding of the
relationship between the parts and the whole.
Over 30 years ago, Kieren expressed concern
(ii) area
over the ineffective use of fraction models in
teaching.

Because part-whole models of fractions

conveniently help produce fractional
(iii) discrete
language, the school mathematics fraction
Figure 3. Three common fraction models. language of teacher and texts alike tend
to orient a student to a static double count
Of these three models (Figure 3), image and knowledge of fractions. The
Australia’s current most popular fraction
child, while being able to produce “correct”
model is the area model. Textbooks abound
in examples of the area model. However, we answers to questions, develops a mental
should not confuse the way students interpret model which is inappropriately inclusive
a model with the fraction models themselves. (parts of a whole), rather than a powerful
A student may interpret an area model as if measure of inclusion (comparison to a
the components were discrete. The way that a
unit)…
student chooses to interpret a given fraction
model is not determined by the model. (Kieren, 1988, p. 177)

Interpreting models The defining feature of a fraction area model

Is the popularity of the area model justified? is comparison of areas. However, using pre-
The area model readily encourages the use partitioned shapes in models of fractions
of fractional language. In Figure 4 we can removes the necessity for students to engage
describe the area model as showing three- with area, and makes it difficult to know if the
eighths shaded, corresponding to three parts student is relying on area or simple object
out of eight equal parts. counts as the defining feature of the model.
Indeed, when the fraction notation is
linked to pre-partitioned shapes, student
responses are more likely to reflect a double
count of discrete parts than a comparison
of areas. This is because students are usually
taught to count the total number of parts, the
number of parts shaded and then to place
one count over the other, ab . This has led
some students to believe that fractions only
Figure 4. An area model for three-eighths. require knowledge of counting (Figure 5).

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 Gould

YEAR 5 STUDENT YEAR 6 STUDENT

13. Shade one-third of 14. Shade one-sixth of 13. Shade one-third of 14. Shade one-sixth of
this circle this circle this circle this circle

YEAR 7 STUDENT YEAR 8 STUDENT

13. Shade one-third of 14. Shade one-sixth of 13. Shade one-third of 14. Shade one-sixth of
this circle this circle this circle this circle

Figure 5. Discrete interpretations of area models.

A ‘number of pieces’ interpretation elicits third interpretation is to shade in a number

three common variations as responses to the of pieces corresponding to the denominator
questions shown in Figure 5 (Gould, 2008). (Figure 7).
The first ‘number of pieces’ interpretation
creates thirds and sixths as segments of 12. Shade one-half of 13. Shade one-third of
a circle, using parallel partitioning. Parallel this circle this circle
partitioning is the description I apply to the
use of equidistant partitioning of the length
of a diameter as in Figure 6.

13. Shade one-third of 14. Shade one-sixth of

this circle this circle

14. Shade one-sixth of

this circle

Figure 6. Equidistant partitioning of length to produce parallel

partitioning (Year 6 student).

The second interpretation is to construct

a number of pieces corresponding to the
denominator and then, for unit fractions, to Figure 7. Shading the number of pieces indicated by the
shade in one of the pieces as in Figure 5. A denominator (Year 5 student)

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 Australia's next top fraction model

Although students are introduced to comparing units of area and using a discrete
fractions using area models, many students model of fractions relies upon comparing
do not use the feature of area when abstract units composed of other units
interpreting the model. In Figure 8, a Year 6 (abstract composite units). Students typically
student’s response explains why one-quarter develop a capacity to work with units of
is bigger than one-third using an area model length, area and abstract composite units at
interpreted as a number of parts. different times. For example, the Australian
Curriculum: Mathematics locates direct and
indirect comparison of length two years
before a comparable understanding of area.
Consequently, when following the Australian
Curriculum: Mathematics to teach fractions,
linear models of fractions are introduced
Figure 8. Explaining why one-quarter is bigger than one-third before area models of fractions.
with shaded parts. Students learn to compare and order
several shapes based on area using
appropriate uniform, informal units in Year
As this student is the same Year 6 student
2 in the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics.
whose representation of one-third of a circle
At the same time, students are expected
appears in Figure 5, it is clear that for this
to recognise and interpret common uses
student shading parts of shapes need not be
of halves, quarters and eighths of shapes
indicative of a comparison of areas.
and collections. How is this possible if area
Students cannot use area to compare
models of fractions cannot be introduced
two quantities (the area of a part to the
before students have a robust understanding
whole area) before they have developed an
of how to compare areas?
understanding of how to compare areas.
The answer is that students have learnt to
More specifically, using the area model of
measure and compare the lengths of pairs
fractions requires students to:
of objects using uniform, informal units in
• know what area is;
Year 1. Added to this, the Year 2 fraction
• identify the area of the part;
content is based on using repeated halving
• identify the area of the whole; and
to form halves, quarters and eighths. One
• compare the two areas by direct or
common method students use to form halves
indirect measurement.
is to locate halfway. We made use of this in a
Two areas are compared directly by placing
recent lesson study on introducing eighths
one figure over another so that all like parts
as fractions in Year 2. For our model we
coincide. This method of directly comparing
chose a liquorice strap. Repeated halving
areas is sometimes called using superposition
in one direction to compare lengths relies
(Schwartzman, 1994, p. 213). Two areas can
only on the linear aspect of the model and a
be compared indirectly when the shapes
long liquorice strap (Figure 9) provided an
cannot be moved and an informal unit of
opportunity to find halfway.
covering is used to compare the two areas.
For example, cardboard tiles could be used
to indirectly compare the areas of two shapes.

Fractions in the Australian

Curriculum: Mathematics
Students cannot use a fraction model
without an understanding of the essential
property used by the model. Using a linear
model relies upon comparing units of
length, using an area model relies upon Figure 9. Halving a liquorice strap.

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 Gould

In the lesson, the students were asked people. This activity supported students in
to share a liquorice strap fairly between attending to aligning the shapes and focusing
Chris and Elaine and to explain orally why on equal covering.
what is formed is a fair share. Students used
thin paper strips to model the liquorice
strap. The problem then progressed to one
of sharing the liquorice strap fairly among
four people and ultimately halving to form
eighths (Figure 10).
Figure 11. Folding a line of paper people.

Using linear models with discrete

objects
Linear models of fractions are important
for a number of reasons. Perhaps foremost
among these reasons is the link between the
linear model and the number line (Larson,
1980). Young students can begin to make this
link by working with linear arrangements of
quantity. In the next lesson, the students had
an opportunity to link the linear aspect of
repeatedly halving a liquorice strap to using
Figure 10. Repeated halving to create and record halves, a similar process with a line of penguins,
quarters and eighths. played by the students.

Folding has the advantage of forming

equal halves by demonstrating the process
of aligning and matching to create equal
parts. In this lesson, we were particularly
interested in how students would record
the fraction pieces they had formed, as this
was the first time they had encountered
eighths. Understanding the meaning of the
fraction notation is difficult and it has been
Figure 12. Repeated halving of a line of students.
argued that students should use words in
the beginning rather than the symbol, to
The students then used the process of
emphasise the fraction unit (Gunderson &
repeated halving to find one-eighth of a
Gunderson, 1957). Students’ notations often
strip of 16 penguins (Figure 13). Having the
provide insights into what they understand
pictures on the strip of paper appeared to
fractions to be (Brizuela, 2005) and we learnt
help the students to make the link between
by observing and questioning that some
fraction units and quantities.
students believe that you can write ‘eighths’
8
as 8 .
Both the process of repeated halving and
students’ recordings of what was formed
required careful monitoring. Some students
initially used a process of partitioning that
was akin to rolling up the paper strip and
the teacher provided these students with
opportunities to fold a line of cut out paper Figure 13. Repeated halving of a line of 16 penguins.

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 Australia's next top fraction model

Figure 14. Linking repeated halving of 16 close identical penguins to the number line.

Just as students may interpret the measurement units on the number line
components of an area model discretely, (Figure 14).
students can initially use paper strips as With the introduction of the Australian
fraction models by attending only to a single Curriculum, the linear model appears set to
feature such as length. Introducing side-by- replace the area model as Australia’s next top
side identical images to the paper strips helps fraction model. This may bring Australia into
them to link units of quantity to the process line with some top-performing mathematics
of repeated halving. countries. Unlike most Australian and US
Any fraction model used in teaching textbooks, in which area models dominate,
needs to do more than elicit the language linear models are the primary graphical
of fractions; it must also strengthen representation of fractions in Japanese
understanding of the relationship between textbooks (Watanabe, 2007).
the parts and the whole. Moving from a
focus on the length of a liquorice strap
to a ‘line of penguins’ helped the Year 2
students to see how repeated halving could Acknowledgement
be used with both continuous and discrete
quantities. However, not all students came I would like to thank Bronwen Camp, Erin
to this understanding at the same time and McShane and the Year 2 students from
some needed extra opportunities to practise Auburn North PS who engaged in the lesson
the process of linear halving. study on introducing eighths and helped
The transition from a linear fraction me to understand how they thought about
model in context (represented by a liquorice fractions.
strap) to partitioning collections of discrete
elements can be achieved in a Year 2 class.
That is, the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics’
expectation of students recognising and References
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