Special Issue Article

Proc IMechE Part B:

J Engineering Manufacture
2021, Vol. 235(14) 2288–2299
Model-Based Definition and Enterprise: Ó IMechE 2020

State-of-the-art and future trends Article reuse guidelines:

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DOI: 10.1177/0954405420971087
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Kamran Goher1 , Essam Shehab2 and Ahmed Al-Ashaab1

Abstract
Model-Based Definition (MBD) is being adopted by the manufacturing industry as a single source for all product informa-
tion in place of conventional 2D drawings. This paper aims to review the current literature on Model-Based Definition
(MBD) and Model-Based Enterprise (MBE) to recognize the main contributions towards the development and implemen-
tation of MBD and explore its various perspectives. The publications encompassing technology and applications of MBD
are categorized into seven domains. These domains are lifecycle information; design, discrete part manufacturing, and
inspection; assembly; maintenance, repair, and overhaul; process planning; engineering change management; and contem-
porary aspects of digital product definition. The major outcomes of research literature, in these domains, are reviewed
and future research directions are identified and formulated. Additionally, the paper highlights the issues and challenges
associated with the realization of MBE by the manufacturing industry. These issues are categorized into technical, manage-
ment, and certification categories. The prevalent issues in each of these categories are further discussed and analyzed.

Keywords
Model-Based Definition, Model-Based Enterprise, state-of-the-art, manufacturing industry, digital manufacturing,
digital thread

Date received: 6 March 2020; accepted: 11 October 2020

Introduction to drive all the aspects of the product lifecycle and this
data is created only once and then reused for all down-
Model-Based Definition (MBD) is based upon the shift stream activities.3,4
from conventional 2D drawings to 3D CAD models as The journey toward MBE has many obstacles and
a single source of product definition encompassing all challenges, and the industry has to overcome these for
the product information and thus eliminating the need being able to get full advantage of the MBD approach.
for 2D representation.1 The automotive and aerospace To name a few are high investments, technological lim-
are the leading industries in the adoption of MBD. itations, interoperability, authenticity, trustworthiness,
Though this adoption is not to the fullest and 2D draw- and transformational issues. With the development and
ings are still being used. The current advancements in growth in the capabilities of this technology, MBD has
the CAD solutions have allowed embedding functional been attracting attention from both academic and indus-
tolerances & annotations (FT&A) which have elimi- trial communities for the last two decades. However, no
nated the conventional 2D drawings to some extent. comprehensive review has been done, therefore, a review
However, in the future, all the product lifecycle data is of the current developments is needed to provide acade-
aimed to be associated with the 3D model. This data mia and industry with the current state of knowledge
commences with the requirement of a product until its and future research gaps. This paper aims to present an
retirement.2 An MBD is a digital-product model that
defines the requirements and specifications of the prod- 1
Manufacturing Department, School of Aerospace, Transport and
uct. A Model-Based Enterprise (MBE) uses MBD to Manufacturing, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, UK
define the product requirements and specifications 2
School of Engineering, Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
instead of paper-based documents as the data source
for all engineering activities throughout the product Corresponding author:
Kamran Goher, Manufacturing Department, School of Aerospace,
lifecycle. This also involves working with all the internal Transport and Manufacturing, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Building 50,
and external stakeholders that use product data includ- Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, UK.
ing the suppliers. Thus in MBE, models are employed Email: [email protected]
Goher et al. 2289

integrated review of MBD and MBE literature, figure

out the key challenges, and ascertain areas where future
research is needed.

Analysis of literature review

A variety of sources are used for the literature review in
this paper. The keywords ‘‘Model-Based Definition’’
and ‘‘Model-Based Enterprise’’ are used to search the
Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases. The
first two are well known for the technology-oriented
research while the third one is recognized for business
process and management areas of research. The main Figure 1. Peer reviewed journal articles.
focus remained on peer-reviewed journal articles,
though some important conference papers are also con-
sidered. Only the articles in the English language are
considered. Although the conference publications are
larger in number. However, due to the absence of the
peer-review process, a majority of them are not consid-
ered in this review. Similarly, several magazine articles
are elaborating on technology outbreak but these are
also not made part of this review. Though 3D modeling
is being used for more than two decades, academic
work solely on Model-Based Definition first appeared
in 2010. The trend in MBD research is increasing since
then which can be observed from Figure 1.
The two main categories of the articles surround
technology and management. The majority of the
papers are on enabling technology whereas manage-
ment is covered by fewer papers and one paper presents Figure 2. Percentage distribution.
the review of the current status of MBD. However,
some papers lie in both of these categories. A few arti- engineering perspective, the reader can get a quick
cles are found out of context. Those are related to overview of the research in the domain of their interest.
pharmaceutical science, biochemistry, biostatistics, eco- Section 4 has highlighted the issues and challenges
nomics, statistics, hydrology, oceanography, and infor- associated with the development and application of the
mation system architecture, hence, are not part of this model-based definition. Finally, section 5 has ascer-
review. Figure 2 shows the percentage of each of these. tained future research directions.
National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) is running a Model-Based Enterprise Program.
Several projects are undergoing in this program. The Technology and Management
program aims at developing and deploying standards,
test methods, and measurement science that could allow The categorization of management and technology is
manufacturers to integrate the system, service, product, conducted according to the nature of the research work
process, and logistic models across the enterprise.5 The in the respective articles. This is listed in Table 1. A few
institute also conducts the Model-Based Enterprise articles have some overlapping contexts. These are
Summit every year. It provides a key platform for aca- made part of the category to which the major portion
demia and industry to discuss the ongoing challenges in of their work belongs.
the field of MBD/E. The publications from the MBE
Program and the proceedings of the MBE summits pro-
Management
vide useful insight to all the prevailing issues of MBD
and MBE, therefore, we have included some of the key The literature in the category of management has
publications from these sources in this review. assessed the following questions.
The literature, categorized into management and
technology, is explained in the next section. The articles (a) Which elements of product definition from vari-
in the category of technology are classified into seven ous stages of the product lifecycle should be part
domains of application. The contribution of the of the MBD?
researchers is discussed according to these domains. (b) What is the present state of adoption of MBD
This is done so that, from the manufacturing within the industry?
2290 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 235(14)

Table 1. Criteria for categorization.

Management Technology

 Interview and Survey Based Studies  Algorithms

 Need Assessments  Data Modeling
 Implementation  Ontologies
 Evaluation of Adoption Benefits  Frameworks
 Maturity Assessment  Plug-Ins for Existing Applications
 Software Tool Enhancement
 Combinational use of Software Tools

(c) What are the needs of the future for the complete for them. After manufacturing and inspection, the ben-
realization of MBE? efits were measured and process gaps were identified.
In a more recent work on prototype compressor project
This type of research work helps the reader get an over- conducted by General Electric, MBD was used to drive
all view of the penetration of MBD technology in the design, analysis, manufacturing, and assembly of the
manufacturing industry. Additionally, tools and frame- digital engine. The authors measured and reported sig-
works have been found for technology readiness and, nificant benefits of this practice.11 In another research
the assessment of the organizations for their present effort, Zhu et al.12 have described and analyzed
state and to target future state. Such tools are particu- Product Lifecycle Management (PLM), MBD, and
larly very important in the context of new technology Computer-Aided Design (CAD) technologies for
adoption. There are considerable developments in enabling the implementation of integrated design and
building such tools which are discussed in this section. manufacturing systems in the aeronautical industry.
Quintana et al.,1 based on a study in Canadian aero- Fischer et al.13 demonstrated the capabilities and the
space, figured out technical requirements of MBD in value of using a model from CAD-CAM and CAD-
terms of data content, accessibility and visualization, CMM with the use of embedded PMI and the barriers
and data retention. Another industrial study tried to towards this adoption. A framework for MBD value
find out the minimum information a model should stream and evaluation of potential benefits in the adop-
essentially carry and, industry’s perspective on the tion of the MBD in aerospace manufacturing engineer-
capability of the model to carry this information.6,7 ing was presented by Shehab et al.14
Ruemler et al.8 contributed to understanding the way MBE Capability Index is an assessment tool that
models were being used in various workflows in the has provided the industry a framework to evaluate the
industry. The purpose was to develop a common infor- present state and target the future state in the adoption
mation model out of the domain-specific elements. of MBD. This type of index provides organizations
However, the focus of this work was on design, manu- with common criteria to attain a specific level of capa-
facturing, and inspection only; leaving maintenance, bility. Initially developed as US Mantech MBE
sustainment, and decommissioning stages of the prod- Capability Index was later extended by the US Army
uct lifecycle. The capabilities of MBD against the and was adopted afterward by NIST. A few guidelines
requirements have been evaluated by the aerospace and have also been presented by NIST to improve this
defense sector to highlight the deficiencies in product index. The same tool has been extended recently to
definition capabilities offered by the various solution NSE (National Security Enterprise) MBE Maturity
providers.9 These types of industrial insights are useful Index.15,16 However these indices are needed to be
to understand the technology readiness of the MBD. extended further to equip them with technical details
Alemanni et al.2 elaborated three scenarios of adop- and guidelines for each subdomain.
tion of MBD, technology support for them, and their
current status. A method was proposed in support of
MBD implementation. Bijnens and Cheshire10 have
Technology
discussed the advantages and disadvantages of both The literature addressing technological developments
drawing and MBD philosophies. They have technically as described in Table 1 is divided into seven main cate-
evaluated the claimed benefits of MBD adoption. They gories. The literature has been discussed as per this divi-
also have discussed the current state of application of sion. These categories are appended below.
Product and Manufacturing Information (PMI) seman-
tics. Finally, the implications of the use of MBD at the a. Lifecycle Information
manufacturing shop floor and inspection stages were b. Design, Discrete Part Manufacturing, and Inspection
discussed. Hedberg et al.3 have compared drawing and c. Assembly
model-based definitions by selecting and analyzing d. Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO)
three test models that involve machining processes. e. Process Planning
Both drawing and model-based definitions were created f. Engineering Change Management (ECM)
Goher et al. 2291

g. Contemporary Aspects of Digitization of Product various domains that have to be incorporated for get-
Definition ting the actual behavior of the product. A plug-in for
an existing CAD system was presented for it. To cap-
ture and reuse knowledge in designing aircraft struc-
Lifecycle information. It is imperative to study each stage
tural parts Zhou et al.20 have established a feature-
of the product lifecycle to get essential elements of the
based part information model. The model could use
MBD data set as discussed in the previous section. The
previous cases and rules of design from the knowledge
next stage is the incorporation of all the information to
base.
associate with the model. Generally, to associate this
NIST is putting considerable efforts to enable fun-
information with the 3D model, methods of data struc-
damental and applied research to develop technologies
turing, data modeling, and ontologies have been sug-
and standards that could realize the digital thread
gested in the literature.
across the product lifecycle stages. Helu and
In this regard, Alemanni et al.2 asserted the need for
Hedberg.21,22 have introduced the concept of product
a common method for the industry to structure the data
lifecycle test-bed that integrates the present technolo-
in a unified and reusable form within the 3D CAD
gies for design, manufacturing, and inspection to serve
models. To realize it, a methodology was proposed
this objective. This test-bed has used the product model
which employed Quality Function Deployment (QFD).
as the interface for connecting information between
To manage the product information consistently across
design, fabrication, and inspection. Along with other
multiple domains, users, and models, Ball and Runge17
potential impacts, this work aimed to extend the efforts
have presented a method based on product ontology.
of NIST for developing a validation system. The NIST
They proposed a system coupling a model library,
validation system focused on geometric dimensions and
domain ontology, and an information system that can
tolerancing (GD&T) to check the validation and con-
be used with the existing engineering toolset. The poten-
formance of CAD to ASME standards for product and
tial benefit of this method could reduce the product
manufacturing information (PMI).23 In another project,
development time up to ten times. Model-based activi-
NIST collaborated with Manufacturing Technology
ties in design, manufacturing, and system engineering
Center (MTC) to design and implement a specimen fab-
were seen as enablers for the reuse of knowledge, higher
rication process. The process was formulated to inves-
quality, and reduced costs. According to the authors,
tigate the issues and challenges in linking different
the product model with a perspective of information
stages of design and manufacturing processes. By
sciences has the potential to offer a more complete
implementing a small scale model-based enterprise,
approach.
this project aimed at testing the integration ability of
There are different perspectives on how a model
various open standards across the stages of design,
should be defined from various stages of the product
manufacturing, and quality assurance. The dataset
lifecycle. A system for quality analysis of part models is
from this project was added to the SMS (Smart
a prospect to ensure meeting needs of all these stages.
Manufacturing System) test-bed repository and was
Based on this concept, Yang et al.18 have proposed a
made available publicly to facilitate the research in
knowledge-based system for analysis of model quality
smart manufacturing technologies.24
originating from eight stages of the model use. These
A few authors have proposed techniques for knowl-
types of systems would help silo elimination between
edge reuse to increase the efficiency of various functions
the designer and the user.
in the realization of the product. In this regard, Cicconi
et al.25 have proposed a method for reusing the PMI
Design, discrete part manufacturing, and inspection. The annotations from the existing design to a new model
most discussed areas of the lifecycle in the MBD/E lit- with similar features. They have created a plug-in for
erature are design, manufacturing, and inspection. The an existing CAD platform. The proposed approach is
literature mainly encompasses comparative studies implemented in a duct design use case. Huang et al.26
between conventional drawings and 3D models, devel- have found an absence of work on machining feature-
opment of plug-ins, and software enhancement efforts. based part retrieval in 3D modeling. To fill this gap
These are aimed at increasing the capabilities of the they have proposed an approach for sub-part retrieval
existing tools to accommodate design intent, behavioral in the 3D CAD model for manufacturing process re-
information, and reuse of knowledge. use. Huang et al.27 have also presented a multi-level
Digital thread, as defined by Hedberg et al.,3 is a structured MBD which is based on machining features.
combination of MBD, manufacturing, and inspection. This aimed to capture the abstract, detailed feature
They characterized it as the enabler of real-time design interaction, and machining semantics information
and analysis, collaborative process flow development, simultaneously.
automated artifact creation, and seamless coordination. Camba et al.28 have put forth an effort to embed
Miller et al.19 emphasized on embedding behavioral design intent into the 3D model by using annotations.
information in the MBD model. They argued that only They proposed a new annotation structure using the
the dimensional context will not be enough in the prod- SOLIDWORKS application program interface (API)
uct definition for life-cycle. The true definition lies in and integrated it into a PLM system. To improve the
2292 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 235(14)

working efficiency of technicians in working with the stage has its unique requirements. There is a set of
numerical control (NC) program, Zhou et al.29 have assembly and fitting instructions created by manufac-
proposed a Mid-Tolerance model. This was done to turing engineers for assembling each part. Historically,
realize 3D MBD in process design and planning, which these instructions are based upon 2D drawings and are
currently rely on 2D drawings. The authors intended to composed of a huge pile of documents called assembly
meet the requirements of NC tool path generation. instructions (AIs) or assembly process information
Zhao et al.30 considered processing and manufacturing (APIs). Creating and consulting these documents
technology while designing a projectile. They tried to require considerable time, effort, and experience. These
standardize a parametric model with the MBD model documents currently are not getting substantial benefit
and simplified the analytical model. In this way, the from the 3D models. There is a lesser focus found from
consistency between the design, and processing models the researchers on this area and only limited assembly
was ensured. In moving from 2D to 3D model-based requirements are discussed in the literature. The follow-
definition, the technical implementation journey is ing lines highlight the research in this area.
reported by Messier-Dowty.31 for the manufacturing of Assembly jig design relied previously on the designer
Boeing-787 Dreamliner landing gear. In a recent work, experience needing huge manual or interactive decision
Ozbolat et al.32 worked on an interactive and predictive making. Zhang et al.36 have proposed an intelligent
3D environment to test and analyze the virtual perfor- configuration method to drive the jig design automati-
mance of printed circuit boards (PCBs), to support the cally. They have presented an information model that
designers virtually assess their manufacturability before integrates jig design knowledge into the 3D model using
developing physical prototypes. Founding lack of a sys- MBD. The model was comprised of product general
tematic and efficient digital twin modeling method, Liu information and assembly process information (API).
et al.33 proposed a bio-mimicry based method. They Geng et al.37 have worked on lightweight 3D assem-
have developed multiple digital twin sub-models, that bly instructions. They have explained the difference
is, geometric, behavior, and process model which could between design PMI and assembly process-oriented
interact with each other to facilitate integrated repre- PMI. The authors proposed a method to get the advan-
sentation of the actual machining process. tage of 3D annotated instructions at the assembly shop
The part inspection stage is the stage where the con- floor. The method was designed to be used with normal
formity of the parts is checked against the design speci- computers eliminating heavy hardware and software
fications. The conventional process of preparing requirements on the shop floor. Xiao et al.38 have
inspection reports consumes considerable time which found a lack of presence of assembly tools and seman-
normally requires reproduction of plenty of informa- tic elements in the existing APIs. They have designed
tion. The same problem holds in the case of program- an assembly feature recognition algorithm using
ming of the measuring equipment like coordinate MapReduce and investigated a dynamic assembly sim-
measuring machines (CMM). To avoid reproducing the plification method. They proposed an augmented real-
definition for reports and to facilitate measuring equip- ity (AR) based method for 3D API construction and
ment and intelligent inspection tooling, MBD has a transfer by merging information of the assembly scene.
huge potential in the form of application of semantic Presently assembly phase lacks the real-time features
PMI. A considerable volume of work has been found which evolve the need for more structured and com-
in this area. Liu et al.34 have proposed a framework plete data.39 In a recent work, Goher et al.40 have sum-
that specifically integrates the processes within the marized all the key issues in model-based assembly
inspection and generally within the design, manufactur- information. Due to the complexity of assembly opera-
ing, and inspection. Different type of data from the tions and the associated documentation, this area is still
inspection process is attached to the MBD model, and wide open for future research.
a framework of model-based integrated inspection is
presented. Based on it, an inspection system was devel-
oped by defining its architecture, information flow, and Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul. This domain comes
workflow. In another work, NIST.35 reported a soft- under the support and service stage of product lifecycle.
ware for Quality Information Framework (QIF) PMI The documentation for MRO, like assembly, involves
Report (QPR). This software can generate spreadsheets huge drawing and text-based information. These are
from the QIF files. A QIF is an XML based open stan- currently off-line demonstrations with no link with the
dard framework, capable of carrying inspection related part models. The issues of this area are also rarely dis-
PMI to be captured, used and reused throughout the cussed in MBD literature. Therefore, it has not yet
lifecycle in PLM and Product Data Management obtained potential benefits from MBD and consider-
(PDM) domains. able research efforts are needed in this regard. There is
only one research paper in this area in which a method
Assembly. Assembly is the stage where individual parts was proposed for creating 3D lightweight MRO job
are combined to get the final products. The assembly cards for the aerospace industry.41 The method was
Goher et al. 2293

applied in an aerospace right-wing disassembly case was put for automatic acquiring of product data and
and after application, its effectiveness was reported. evaluating design change dissemination proactively in
this research. Quintana et al.48 have evaluated and
quantified the benefits associated with the engineering
Process planning. There is a bias of 3D digital technology change order (ECO) process in the context of MBD by
research work towards the 3D model and an absence of using empirical and experimental data. They have
focus towards process planning.42 To fill this gap, Zhu developed a solution for ECO and reported the gains in
and Li have combined MBD and knowledge engineer- lead time reductions after the adoption of the proposed
ing to propose a process planning method for the digi- solution.
tal environment. A general ontology was established
for the manufacturing process and special ontology for
a shaft. Liu et al.43 have developed a prototype 3D Contemporary aspects of digitization of product definition. A
casting process planning system by proposing a model- model-based enterprise makes use of digital data to
ing method based on MBD. In another work based on enable seamless digital thread across all domains. It
ontology Wan et al.44 created an MBD process model means the data set should have the capability to be used
by getting aid from machining knowledge and tried to across all the applications. The digitization of the data
obtain machining knowledge from the created MBD has several other dimensions for research. These include
process model. In such a way forward and reverse interoperability between various datatypes, systems,
methods for model creation were proposed. languages, products, and processes; data quality; data
In the context of computer-aided process planning authentication, authorization, and traceability.
(CAPP) of machining parts, Zhang et al.45 have put Standards of data structures are needed to be
forth a machining process model. To generate this 3D enhanced to ensure interoperability in the exchange of
process model, all the phases from design and machin- data between various CAD systems and applications
ing such as surface roughness and tolerance were con- within MBE. This will enable semantics, machine read-
sidered. This was done to support MBD use for ability, and support the tools that could write and read
machining instructions. The machining instructions from these standard formats. Moreover, it will avoid
currently rely on drawings that are converted from 3D data loss in the transfer of the data across different for-
models and creating those instructions is an experience mats. Ramnath et al.49 have discussed the elements
and time-intensive function in manufacturing needed for CAD data exchange and the need for trans-
engineering. lators to resolve some of the issues. They have elabo-
rated capabilities of neutral formats like STEP AP 203
and AP 242 for exchange of data, the elements needed
Engineering Change Management. It is a process that to create STEP AP 242, and the process of extraction
involves identification, analysis, modification, update, of this information for various computer-aided engi-
verification, and approval of the design. This is a for-
neering (CAE) applications. The feasibility of model-
mal process and consists of a series of phases. Once
based-data interoperability through standard-based
designed, it is always a challenging task to get the
integration was tested by Trainer et al.50 There are
design changed as per stakeholder’s needs. It has been
many barriers and inhibitors in existing tools, stan-
proved to be a time taking and costly process. MBD is
dards, and processes in the path towards achieving
the technology that could offer huge time savings in the
model-based data interoperability.13,50 Kovalyov51 has
process of ECM. Effective use of MBD in engineering
proposed a mathematical framework to support intero-
change management, however, is studied by only a few
perability across different engineering modeling lan-
researchers. Their research mainly encompassed model-
guages and tools for the realization of MBE, by using
ing for MBD data to simplify the engineering change
category theory. The work presented a method to
process. In this context, Quintana et al.46 have pro-
address assembly problems arising in the construction
posed the use of the MBD dataset composed of a
of a product model for a given configuration. Airbus
model created by CAD application and its associated
Group Innovation (AGI) has put a considerable contri-
distribution file generated by a visualization application
bution by developing the Federated Interoperability
in a lightweight format. This distribution file offered
Framework (FIF) for PLM interoperability. Tchoffa
ease of manipulation, interrogation, and review for
et al.52 however found limitations in the previous
downstream users, thus acting as an interactive draw-
approach of semantic graphs used in the framework of
ing in place of traditional engineering drawing. This
AGI to address the semantics of PLM. To resolve this,
aimed to reengineer the ECM process for a drawing
they extended this work with a new approach for com-
less environment. Like other researches, here again, this
posite modeling based on UML2/SysML.
method is practicable at a part level while the assembly
The present-day solutions make use of file-based
level needs more work. A design change oriented interoperability, while industrial requirements are sup-
model-based definition (DCMBD) as the sole data posed to be addressed better through relationship-based
source for ECM was proposed by Yin et al.47 An effort interoperability.53 Peng et al.54 have worked on sharing
2294 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 235(14)

Figure 3. Issues and challenges of MBD.

Source: Goher et al.58

geometric tolerance specification information of PMI Issues and challenges

across different CAx (CAD, CAE, CAM, etc.) and the
The researchers have raised several issues in the devel-
automatic interpretation of its semantics by computer.
opment and implementation of MBD. Based on these
They categorized tolerance models into presentation,
studies and keeping in view the prevalent digital manu-
interpretation, and representation models. The first one
facturing scenario, Goher et al.58 have identified and
can be read and understood by the industry experts, the
categorized these issues and challenges. This has been
second one can interpret tolerance in mathematical form
illustrated in Figure 3.
without ambiguity still cannot be read by the computer
The main three categories are Technical,
and the third is totally able to be read and understood by
Management, and Certification. The technical category
the computer. Their work pivots around automatic repre-
is further divided into four sub-categories, as numerous
sentation of tolerance specifications.
issues are found in this category. These sub-categories
Current literature and software solutions offer cen-
are Definition, Software, Data, and Shop floor. Each
tral data repositories with no approach towards stan-
of the underlying issues in these categories is shown
dards-based linked data. Hedberg et al.55 proposed a
with the reference to the author who raised the issue.
method based on graph theory to seamlessly link and
trace the data across the product lifecycle. The context
at different stages (e.g. design, manufacturing, and Technical issues. Model definition- It is imperative to
quality) is different and so is the viewpoint to interact know the elements of the product definition that should
with the data. This results in different information mod- be part of the model in MBD. To accomplish it, com-
els to support these domains. The proposed method prehensive knowledge of information flow in the prod-
could provide the digital thread with data, system, and uct lifecycle is needed.6 Many of the part data elements
viewpoint interoperability across all these phases. are still unaddressed by MBD standards and tools.9
The other areas associated with the digital product Additionally, there is a lack of understanding that out
definition include product data quality, authentication, of all elements which information shall be essentially
authorization, and traceability. These characteristics of needed in moving from 2D to 3D model, for each work-
the product data are of utmost importance in model- flow in the product lifecycle.6
based enterprise for the reliability of use as well as certi- To present MBD datasets as an engineering docu-
fication requirements. Hedberg et al.56 have reviewed ment, agreed-upon international standards are needed.
the use of X509 digital certificates in the 3D models and Though standards like ASME14.41 provide guidance,
proposed a solution for embedding them in the models there are some areas to improve. For example, it indi-
for aerospace application. In another work, an over- cates the type and presentation of drawing annotations
view of enabling technologies for this purpose is done for inclusion in the MBD dataset, however, it lacks to
by Hedberg et al.57 Besides, a structure of the trust was mention which MBD data set document format or tem-
proposed for a variety of data transactions followed by plate is to be adopted.1 Another example is the incom-
a case study on configuration management. plete PMI coverage by STEP format. There is also a
Goher et al. 2295

need for recommended practices to ensure consistent inter- capabilities of software for accommodating machining
pretation of the standards and their implementation.9,13 related changes are still questionable, as the neutral for-
Software- The capabilities of software applications mats are incapable of these changes. The operators
to fully define product data are growing. However, only have to make machine-related changes for CNC
manufacturing and inspection related information is machining/CMM inspection programming. There are
supported by these applications. The capabilities are only a few machines that are ready to use semantic
still insufficient for the realization of the MBE in all PMIs which include only inspection equipment. There
aspects. This includes the capabilities to incorporate ele- are two important aspects of the MBD dataset hence.
ments from all the stages of the lifecycle and the allow- First, the development of better organized and user
ance of the semantics of this data. Moreover, to friendly PMIs is important for ease of use at the shop
leverage the digital data, the software capabilities of floor. And the next level is the incorporation of fully
manufacturing and inspection systems (CNC, CMM, semantic PMIs that would enable seamless consump-
and Intelligent Tooling) are also needed to be enhanced. tion of the product definition by the manufacturing
These systems should have features to interpret and shop floor.
consume embedded PMI and other semantic data.
There are considerable benefits to the development of
Management issues. Change of working patterns from
such capabilities.13 Hence, the software capabilities for
the conventional drawing to MBD requires changes in
both the definition as well as the consumption end, are
existing procedures, processes, and working practices.1
needed to be enhanced. Besides, low-cost solutions are
This shall require a change in organizational policies
needed to provide easy access to the MBD data to the
and culture, which is a barrier in MBD adoption.59
suppliers and vendors who are unable to invest in
There is always some resistance from the workforce to
expensive software applications.
adopt the change and so is the case with MBD.
There is a vast range of applications and data for-
Adoption of MBD will result in a change in all the
mats that is in use across different domains of the prod-
business-related operations and contracts with the sup-
uct lifecycle. The integration of these applications is
pliers.60 Just like every new technology adoption, there
necessary for the realization of MBE. A major challenge
is an extra investment involved in the implementation
lies in the interoperability of these applications. This
of MBD.10,60 This includes investment in software,
includes interoperability between various data types,
hardware, and extra training.
systems, languages, products, and processes. Currently,
It is easy to adopt MBD in the case of new product
there is a lack of integration solutions.4,8 Being a critical
introduction (NPI). However, the legacy design data is
issue, the interoperability is the topic of many of the
in older drawing formats in most of the organizations.
current research articles in the field of MBD.
These designs are still used for the manufacturing and
Data- There are a few data-related questions MBD
service of proprietary products. The conversion of this
has to overcome. The challenge is to what extent it is
data to MBD datasets is a big challenge for high-value
capable of addressing them in replacing the role of engi-
manufacturing. It needs a lot of extra effort, time, and
neering drawing.1 Data accessibility and visualization
involvement of extra cost.8 Another major challenge is
implies the need for methods to define the model such
vendor lock-in.10 Choosing one application will lock
that it is easily accessed and understood downstream.
every stakeholder in the ecosystem of the application
The downstream user has to be confident enough about
provider. This will result in uncertainty in the life span
the contents of the MBD data set that it has all the core
of the proprietary designs.
elements which were previously available in the form of
Since MBE is aimed at using a single source of product
engineering drawing. There must be international stan-
definition. There are questions over the capabilities of the
dards for the presentation of data to organize and
suppliers to access and use this data. All suppliers may not
structure the information in MBD datasets just like
be ready for this change. Therefore, in the adoption of the
drawings. An appropriate method of data management
MBD strategy by high-value manufacturing, they have to
is needed to manage and record revisions. Moreover,
access the supplier capability to fit in their MBE structure.
data security and retention capabilities are needed to be
enhanced to accommodate confidentiality, authentica-
tion, integrity, and non-repudiation. Similar require- Certification issues. There are some legal requirements of
ments of data trustworthiness, authentication, and aerospace certification bodies for retention of the
traceability are also reported by Hedberg et al.56,57 to design over a certain period.10 In addition to retention,
enable the product lifecycle of trust (PLOT). the design data must also have the characteristics of
Shop floor- There are a few issues associated with maintaining availability, accessibility, integrity, quality,
the readiness of manufacturing shop floor for the con- and security throughout the product lifecycle.1 It must
sumption of the MBD dataset.6,10 At present the con- also be interpretable by all the versions of applications
ventional drawings are easier to use on the shop floor. that were used to create it and thus must ensure long
For MBD models, the hardware is required at the shop term archival and retrieval.4,6 Equally important is the
floor for visualization, interrogation, and process- trustworthiness of the data which is directly related to
related changes in the model. Moreover, the the model quality. Poor model data quality, obsolete
2296 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 235(14)

Figure 4. Further research directions in MBD and MBE.

data, or incorrect data puts a question mark against data set. Currently, the literature addresses the design,
trustworthiness along with disruptions and waste in manufacturing, and inspection stages. However, other
manufacturing operations. Poor model quality may be downstream uses like process planning, assembly, test-
caused by an error from the operator, the model devel- ing, support, and service are the least explored areas.
opment technique, the CAD system, or a translation The viewpoint and perspective for model definition
error. However, regardless of the reason, a model can- changes with the domain. Therefore, it is essential to
not be certified as a master unless it is free from quality study these stages and workflows comprehensively to
defects.4 This is more important for regulated indus- capture the domain-specific requirements. The sum-
tries like aerospace and medical, which have to comply mary of the recommendations for MBD research is
with government laws. In addition to quality, the trust- shown in Figure 4. The purpose of this diagram is to
worthiness of the data includes security, privacy, safety, systematically show the regions which need further
reliability, and resilience features.57 research and development efforts to address each of the
issue raised in section 4.
For enhancing the capabilities to incorporate life-
Conclusions and future research directions
cycle data there is a need for a common methodology
From the model definition perspective, there is a need for structuring the data in a unified and reusable form
to study domain-specific information from each stage inside the MBD dataset. The model structures have
of the product lifecycle that should be part of the MBD also to be studied for input-output requirements. This
Goher et al. 2297

shall enable creating an authority that would allow the systems, tools, and frameworks are also needed to convey
automation of downstream deliverables. The prospects assembly specific knowledge to the designer. It will mini-
of such automation include automatic first article mize the need of corrections and clarifications for assem-
inspection report (FAIR) creation, CNC and CMM bly related changes in the part definition and the
programs, process planning, job scheduling, API, and resulting downtime.
MRO instructions. It would be more effective if the Another emerging area for MBD research is process
applicability of these models would be discussed with planning. MBD process models based on machining
the users to ensure completeness. This could result in knowledge with reasoning systems are needed to be cre-
diverse proposals on model ontologies in future ated. To benefit process planning it is imperative to
research. Finally, the need for extension in the 3D work on complex ontologies for semantic references.
CAD model shall remain a continuous phenomenon. Interaction of the process planning with the CAD envi-
This shall enhance searching and visualizing capabil- ronment is also an open area for future work.
ities of different data sets and thus improve the down- The previous MBD research work in ECM area is also
stream deliverables. focused on the part level which involve quantifying the
The PMI application methods on the model vary gains at manufacturing and inspection only. It is essential
with the designer, which is opposite to the drawings to evaluate, therefore, each stage of the life cycle to check
where standards are used. This implies the need for the domain-specific requirements of MBD data sets to
PMI application standards. This is equally important facilitate the ECM process. A need to synchronize CAD
for the presentation and representation PMIs. The and visualization applications is also there to facilitate the
development and adoption of such standard practices process of ECM.
shall ensure proper association of PMI to the geometry. It is needed to integrate digital certificates with vari-
Moreover, the designers have limited knowledge of ous workflows to address data-related challenges such
domain-specific requirements especially of the later as security, authority, and integrity. In the authoriza-
stages of the lifecycle. This results in poor design defini- tion context, the gaps in standards are to be pointed
tion, the correction of which takes a lot of productive out. Moreover, a mechanism is to be generated for
time. The designer knowledge can be made synchro- some automatic processing of authentication and trace-
nized with the domain knowledge by the introduction ability in the common workflows of the enterprises.
of tools and mechanisms for the domain-specific feed- There is also a need for a complete metadata schema
back. This shall ensure the correct definition and the supporting the development of the minimum informa-
association of PMI earlier in the product lifecycle. tion model. In this model, the common and domain-
The annotation structures also need improvement to specific information elements would unite to character-
enable readability from any orientation irrespective of ize the complete set of information that is essential for
the position of the CAD model. There should be simpli- effective communication of all functions and roles in
fied methods for the creation and distribution of anno- the product life cycle. To enable automatic traceability,
tations in layers and groups. Annotations supporting some management-oriented work is also needed for
virtual search is also one of the prospects for research. systematic organizational change.
Knowledge-based model quality check technology is It is seen that every organization has its unique per-
another prospect for development and improvisation. spective to set its MBE goals and formulize the strate-
This may include quantitative analysis of model qual-
gies to achieve those goals. Assessment framework and
ity, automatic model quality defect modification, and
guidelines are needed to be established by the research
approaches to generate model quality check schemes
community that could define and set milestones of
automatically. The capabilities of software and hard-
MBE to provide the industry with common criteria of
ware need further improvements thus realizing MBE in
evaluation. In this context, there is a need to work on
full. Moreover, working with the MBD environment
domain-specific maturity assessment frameworks to
needs replacement of old methods and procedures.
formalize the details of what various levels of adoption
The assembly stage in high-value manufacturing is
of MBD meant for different stages. This shall help
the least addressed area of MBD. Though there is the
organizations better assess their preset state and target
adoption of lightweight assembly instructions in the
the future state and thus facilitate their MBE journey.
form of 3D PDF. But these are offline demonstrations
Moreover, this shall help in minimizing the cost of
only with plenty of text still there. A change in design
implementation, as the organizations can set short
needs all the assembly documentation to be recreated.
affordable, and achievable goals. In this way, a gradual
It is important to work, therefore, on the synchroniza-
tion of assembly information with the original design to implementation strategy can be adopted.
decrease the production downtime. The same need
holds for service and support documentation like MRO
Instructions. There is also a need for the introduction Acknowledgement
of iconic notations to replace the text. Then, suitable lay- The authors are thankful to the Higher Education
outs are needed to be defined for MBD based assembly Commission (HEC) Pakistan and Cranfield University,
information to fit various scenarios. Knowledge-based United Kingdom for financial support of this research.
2298 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 235(14)

Declaration of conflicting interests 13. Fischer K, Collins R, Rosche P, et al. Investigating the
impact of standards-based interoperability for design to
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
manufacturing and quality in the supply chain. Reports no.
with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publi-
15-1009. Gaithersburg, MD: NIST. DOI: 10.6028/
cation of this article. NIST.GCR.15-1009.
14. Shehab E, Schuler M, Bamforth P, et al. Model-based
Funding enterprise framework for aerospace manufacturing engi-
neering. In: Jin Y and Price M (eds) Advances in transdis-
The author(s) received no financial support for the ciplinary engineering; Advances in manufacturing
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. technology XXXIII 17th international conference on manu-
facturing research, vol. 9. Belfast: IOS Press, 2019,
ORCID iD pp.207–212.
15. Feeney AB and Hedberg JT. A summary report on the
Kamran Goher https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8848- model-based enterprise capability index and guidebook
4593 workshop. Gaithersburg, MD: NIST, 2016. DOI:
10.6028/NIST.AMS.100-1.
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 Cranfield University
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School of Aerospace, Transport and Manufacturing (SATM) Staff publications (SATM)

Model-based definition and enterprise:

state-of-the-art and future trend

Goher, Kamran
2020-11-17
Attribution 4.0 International

Goher K, Shehab E, Al-Ashaab A. (2020) Model-based definition and enterprise: state-of-the-art

and future trends. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of
Engineering Manufacture, Volume 235, Issue 14, December 2021. pp. 2288–2299
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