INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Dr. Amitosh
• Computer as Commonly Operated Machine
Primarily Used for Technology, Education and
Research.
• Computers do not come up with original ideas
but they are helpful to human beings in
calculating, record keeping, trial and error
experimenting, communicating, information
gathering and other managerial tasks involved
in translating an idea into reality.
 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

• Computer history starts with the development of

a device called the `abacus’ by the Chinese
around 3000 B.C.
• 1642, Blaise Pascal invented the numerical
calculator.
• Jacquard invented an automated loom operated
by a mechanism controlled by punched cards.
• Charles Babbage developed the first mechanical
computer called difference and analytical engine
• Herman Hollerith and James Powers designed a data
processing machine for processing census information.
A significant machine built in the early 1940s
was `Mark I’ which utilised electromagnetic relays.
• The first electronic machine known as ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was
introduced by a team led by Professors Eckert and
Mauchly of USA.
• John Von Neumann and his team developed a high-
speed digital computer using vacuum tubes and the
concept of a stored programme.
• Period Event
• 3000 B.C. The first mathematical device - Abacus
• 17th Century The first four-function calculator – Machine arithmetic
• 1830-50 The first computer-Analytical engine by Charles Babbage
• 1930 Card reader and sorter
• 1946 Stored program concept by Von Neumann
• 1947 ENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) The first electronic
digital computer using vacuum tubes, first generation computers
• 1949 EDSAC The first stored program electronic computer
• 1949 Transistors (Bell Laboratories)
• 1950 Voluminous storage and sequential Magnetic access devices (compound
possible tapes rapid transfer of data)
• 1958 -Computer using transistors in the name
UNIVAC, Second generation computer
• 1959 -IBM 1401 Model Computerised
commercial data processing
• 1959 -Random access devices Discs
• 1964 -Integrated circuits (IC), Vast internal
storage and fast speed
• 1965 -Computers using ICs, Third generation
computers
• 1969 -Large Scale Integrated (LSI circuits)
• 1971 -Computers using LSI circuits, Fourth
generation computers
• 1972 -Microprocessors, enormous processing
speed
• 1976 -First microcomputer - The Apple, user
friendliness, inexpensive computers, low
maintenance cost, portable
• 1980's & 1990’s -Expert system, logic operation,
Fifth generation computer and deduction rearing
 COMPUTER GENERATIONS

• One of the early stored program electronic computers

was UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer I) built
by Remington Rand in 1951 and was used by US Census
Bureau.
• From the early 1950s, computers started appearing in
quick succession each claiming an improvement over
the other in terms of speed memory capacity input-
output devices and programming techniques with a
continuous reduction in size and cost.
• Computers developed after ENIAC have been classified
into the following four generations.
*First generation 1946-1955
*Second generation 1956-1965
*Third generation 1966-1975
*Fourth generation 1976-1985
 First generation computers are those in which
vacuum tubes were used. Magnetic tape drives
and magnetic core memories were developed
during this period.
 First generation computers had the
characteristics of large size and slow operating
speed, restricted computing capacity and limited
programming abilities, besides generating lot of
heat.
 The speed was measured in milliseconds.
• The second-generation computers were marked
by the use of a solid-state device called the
transistor invented by Bell laboratories.
• These computers occupied less space, required
less power and produced much less heat and
were faster than first generation computers.
• Speed of operation was measured in
microseconds.
• The research in the field of electronics led to the innovation of
the integrated circuits now popularly knows as IC chips
(silicon chips). The use of IC chips in the place of transistors
gave birth to the third generation computers.
• These computers were still more compact, faster and less
expensive.. Speed of operation was measured in
nanoseconds.
• Intel Corporation introduced LSI chips called microprocessors for
building computers. The latest child of the computer family that
uses LSI chips has been named the fourth generation computer.
Invention of microprocessor in 1972 has changed the computing
scene dramatically.
• A microprocessor when interfaced with memory and input/output
units becomes a microcomputer.
• The first business microcomputer called APPLE II was released in
USA in 1977.
• In 1980's, very large scale integration (VLSI) squeezed hundreds of
thousands of components onto a chip.
• Ultra-large scale integration (ULSI) increased that number into the
millions. Hence size, price came down and it also increased their
power, efficiency and reliability.
• The generation of computers is termed as fifth generation
computers (thinking computers). However it is not very clear
what direction the fifth generation takes. The Japanese call
their fifth generation machine as Knowledge information
processing systems (KIPS). KIPS will work as amplifier of
human thought and intelligence.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Based on the operating principles, computers

can be classified into following types:
a. Digital computers
b. Analog computers
c. Hybrid computers
• Digital computer is a counting device that operates on
discrete data. It operates by directly counting numbers
(or digits) that represent numerals, letters or other
special symbols.
• The digital computer does only ADDITION and hence
other operations such as multiplication, division, and
subtraction are first changed into addition and then
computed.
• These computers are very useful for evaluating
arithmetic and logical expressions and processing
scientific and business problems.
• Analog computers operate by measuring rather
than by counting. In an analog computer an
electrical signal is produced analogous to the
variable of the physical system.
• The physical system is first converted into
analogous electrical signals and the results
obtained are than converted into digital or
graphical form. It is a powerful tool to solve
differential equations.
 COMPUTER SYSTEMS

• The most popular form of the computer in use

today is probably the PC or the personal
computer. It is a microcomputer having its CPU
on a single microprocessor.
• The PC is small in size but capable enough to
handle large sized applications. The PC is a single
user computer.
• It can perform a diverse range of functions from
keeping track of household accounts to keeping
records of the stores of a large manufacturing
company.
• One type of PC that is rapidly growing in popularity is
the portable computer, which can be easily carried
around. The portable PCs are also called as laptops or
notebook PCs. A Workstation is a powerful, single user
computer. Though it is like a PC, it has a more powerful
microprocessor and a high quality monitor.
• A Network Computer is the computer with minimal
memory, disk storage and processor power, designed
to connect to a network. The network computers do
not need the entire computer power that a typical PC
and instead they rely on the power of network servers.
• Mini computer which is a small, general-purpose and
multi user computer. It can vary in size from a small
desktop model to the size of a small filing cabinet.
• A mini system is more expensive than a PC and
surpasses it in storage capacity and speed. While most
PCs are oriented towards single users, mini systems are
usually designed to simultaneously handle the needs of
multiple users, i.e. more than one person (10 to
hundreds) can work at a time on a mini.
• They are called as multiterminal, time sharing systems.
• Mainframe is another form of computer system,
which is large and offer faster processing speeds
and greater storage than minicomputers. They
are mostly used in large organisations for large-
scale jobs.
• Many hundreds of users can handle this
computer simultaneously. However, there is on
overlap between the expensive minis and small
mainframe models in terms of cost and capability.
• Super computer systems are the largest, fastest
and most expensive computers in the world.
While the speed of traditional computers are
measured in terms of million instruction per
second (MIPS), a super computer is rated in
terms of million operation per second (MOPS)
with an operation consisting of numerous
instructions.
• Cyber, Cray-I are some of the super computers.
PARAM-10000 is the supercomputer produced in
India.
• China has recently developed a supercomputer
named TIANHE (Milkyway). It can perform more
than one quadrillion calculations per second (one
petraflop).
• Tianhe was able to store all 27 million books in
the National library four times over. Combination
of CPUs and GPU is something new, used to make
a petraflop computer.
• A GPU or graphic processing unit plays a role as
an accelerator to make the computer run faster,
but reduces its power consumption and cost.
MAJOR APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
SYSTEMS
Word processing
• Word processing is concerned with creation and
manipulation of text (letters, documents etc.),
replacing all operations normally associated
with a typewriter.
• Word processing allows storage of documents
and retrieval of them later for revision, edition or
printing. Insertion, deletion, moving of words or
even paragraphs from one place to another,
changing the margins and line spacing etc., can
also be performed through this package.
 Spread sheets
• Business executives mostly use this
application.
• It is called as the electronic equivalent of the
accountant's ledger.
• Spreadsheets are suitable for any problem
that can be expressed in row and column
format. Necessary calculations can be made
instantly, accurately and automatically.
 Graphics

• Graphics is an effective way of communicating

statistical information. This application enables
the user to quickly convert tabular data to graph
form without having to rely on a draftsman or
artist.
• Three dimensional pie charts, bar charts, XY
graphs and other forms of sophisticated graphs
can be made available in stunning colours and
within a few minutes with just a few simple key
strokes.
 Database management
Database management is a system that allows for
creation, storage, retrieval and manipulation of
files or databases. This allows us to maintain
records electronically. The records may be
student records in a university, customer records
in a business concern, etc.
• For example, items can be listed alphabetically
or chronologically or in any other order. This
software can display all of the information or only
a selected portion of it.
 Communication

• This application connects the computer to the

outside world. This enables us to talk to our
friend in the next room, to access information
services such as share market data, flight and
hotel information or just about anything else
you can think of.
• We can shop or bank by computer, send and
receive electronic mail etc.
PHYSICAL COMPONENTS (ANATOMY)
OF A PC SYSTEM (THE HARDWARE)
• The major physical (HARDWARE) components of a
computer system are input devices, processing devices
and output devices. The main hardware components of
a computer system are the following:
1. Main memory
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Control unit
3. Secondary memory
4. Input devices
5. Output devices
 Main memory
• Every computer come with a certain amount of physical
memory, usually referred to as the main memory or the
RAM (Random Access Memory). The primary storage (also
called as main memory) is used for the following four
purposes:
 To have input storage area for storing data until processing.
 To provide working storage space for storing data being
processed and intermediate results.
 To provide output storage area for holding finished results.
 To have program storage area for holding processing
instructions.
• Von Neumann introduced the concept of
computer storage in 1947 and the first electronic
computer using stored programme called EDSAC
(Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator)
was announced in 1949.
• The main memory is used to store a variety of
critical information required for processing by the
CPU, which include input data, application
programmes, systems programmes, intermediate
results and final results of computations.
• A digital computer represents information internally in
a digitised nature. Hence the choice of an appropriate
number system is important in the design of a digital
computer, decimal system with digits 0 to 9, or binary
system with digits 0 and 1 and so on.
• When the computers are designed to use decimal
numbers, the computer should be able to distinguish
between 10 levels of voltage.
• However, it will be more effective and reliable to
design a computer using only 2 signals, the presence
and absence of an electrical pulse.
• With 2 binary digits, we can represent 4 (22) different
characters namely 00, 10, 01 and 11.
• With 3 digits, we can represent 23 = 8 different characters,
namely, 000, 001, 010, 100, 011, 101, 110 and 111.
• With 6 digits, we can represent upto 64 different
characters, which would be enough to represent all
characters noted above. However, an extra digit is needed if
we want to include the lower case alphabets such as a to z
also. Keeping in mind the need to include more characters
in future, 8 binary digits (Bits) are used to represent a
character inside a modern computer system.
• This collection of 8 binary digits is called a byte. There are
two widely used 8-bit codes in use today.
• These are 1. EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code and 2. ASCII American Standard Code for
Information Interchange Code.
 Characteristics of main memory
17.12.202
• Each memory location is designed to hold information of a
fixed size, for e.g. 8 bits. This is referred to as the word length
(word size) of the memory. Each location is sequentially
numbered to provide a unique reference to locate the
information stored in it. This reference is known as location
address.
• The main memory of computer system is measured in terms
of two other characteristics namely, capacity and speed.
• The capacity is measured in terms of kilo bytes (KB) or
mega bytes (MB) and is computed by multiplying
number of addressable memory locations by the word
length (in bytes) of each location.
• The speed of the main memory refers to the time
required to access information stored in any memory
location and it is known as memory access time.
• Main memory is random (or direct) access storage
whereas auxiliary devices may be random or sequential
(serial) access storage.
i) Random Access Memory (RAM) is a part of primary storage where
data and program instructions are held temporarily while being
manipulated or executed. It is called Random Access Memory
because any locations on a chip can be randomly selected and used
to directly store and retrieve data and instructions.
• RAM chips may be classified as dynamic or static:
• Dynamic RAM chip: The storage cell circuits in dynamic RAM chips
contain
• a) a transistor that acts like a mechanical on-off light switch,
• b) a capacitor that is capable of storing an electric charge.
Depending on the switching action of the transistor, capacitor
either contains no charge (0 bit) or holds a charge (1 bit). The
charge on the capacitor tends to leak "off", therefore, provision is
made to "regenerate' the storage charge.
• Static RAM chip: It also provides volatile storage, but
as long as it is supplied with power, it needs no special
regenerator circuits to retain the stored data.
• Static RAM chips are more complicated because they
require more transistors and other devices to store a
bit of data. Therefore, static RAMs are used in special
applications while dynamic RAMs are used in primary
storage section.
• The technologies known as magnetic core technology
and semi-conductor technology have been used to
make the main memory of a computer system.
• Semi conductor memory is known as Random Access
Memory (RAM). A memory is said to be RAM, if any part of
the memory can be accessed directly (randomly) for
reading/writing information.
• There is another type of memory called Read Only Memory
(ROM) which allows information in it to be only read and it
would not permit any writing or modification.
ROM can be classified into -
• PROM Programmable ROM. This is used to store
programs. Once programmed, PROM is essentially ROM.
• EPROM Erasable PROM. This is used to store programmes,
erase them subsequently and reprogram.
 Sequential Access Memories (SAM):
• Sequential Access Memories (SAM): The access time (the time
elapsed between the call and delivery of data) varies depending on
its address information is read one after another in linear sequence.
• Eg. Magnetic tape memory, magnetic drum etc.
• One element used during processing operations is a high speed
buffer memory (cache memory) which is both fast and expensive
per character stored as compared to primary storage.
• This high speed circuitry serves as a "scratch pad" to temporarily
store data and instructions that are likely to be retrieved many
times during processing, thereby improving the processing speed.
Data may be transferred automatically between the buffer and
primary storage. Cache memory is used in large as well as small
computers.
 Memory controllers
• Memory units are interfaced with CPU through
memory controllers which are two high-speed
storage areas called Memory Address Register
(MAR) and Memory Buffer Register (MBR).
• These controllers establish communication
between CPU and main memory if any. Similarly,
to fetch a word from the main memory, the CPU
puts the location address of the word in the MAR
and sends a read signal.
• Then the requested word is made available to the
CPU in the MBR.
 Central Processing Unit

• The CPU is the most important hardware of a computer

system which has 2 major components viz. ALU and control
unit.
• ALU is responsible for all the arithmetical and logical
operations like manipulations of numerical data,
comparison of relative magnitudes of numericals. The
control section maintains order and directs the operation of
the entire system by selecting, interpreting and seeing to
the executions of program instructions.
• A CPU's processing power is measured in million
instructions per second (MIPS). The speed of the CPU was
measured in milli seconds (One 1000th of a second) on first
generation computers.
• All arithmetical and logical operations are performed in special
storage areas in the CPU called registers.
• A register is characterised by its size, i.e. the number of bits it can
hold. Since processing is done in the registers, the size of the
registers plays a very important role in the speed of processing and
broadly defines the internal architecture of a CPU. Following are a
few important registers:
• Instruction register -This register holds the instruction being
executed currently.
• Programme counter -This points to the next instruction to be
executed.
• Accumulator - This holds the accumulated results of computation.
• Working register -This holds the intermediate results of
computation.
• The computing power of a CPU is largely depend on
the power of its ALU. The speed of a CPU is usually
measured in cycle time, i.e. the time required to
execute one basic instruction, which is measured in
MIPS.
• Another important characteristic that determines the
processing speed is the data path width, which
provides the communication link between a memory
location and the CPU. The word size of a processor is a
measure of the amount of information that can be
processed simultaneously by the CPU, which is the
same as the size of a register.
 Secondary (auxiliary) storage devices

• For permanent storage of data, external storage media can be used

with a PC. Secondary memory provides economical storage of large
volumes of data on magnetic media, thereby offering
permanent (non-volatile storage).
• There are 2 types of secondary memory viz
1. serial access memory which allows only a serial access of data and
2. Random access memory which allows random access of data. E.g.
for serial access memory is magnetic tape.
• Example for RAM are magnetic disk, floppy disks etc.
• There are 3 kinds of external storage media commonly used.
1. Floppy disk, 2. Hard disk and 3. Compact disc. Another
important medium used for external storage is the cartridge tape,
suitable for large volumes of data.
• Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a magnetically coated strip of plastic on
which data can be encoded. Tapes are sequential access
media and hence are slow.
• DAT cartridge
DAT (Digital Audio Tape) cartridge is a type of magnetic
tape that can hold 2 to 24 GB of data. It is a also a
sequential access medium.
• Winchester disk
This is one of the earliest type of disk developed by IBM
that could store 30 MB data. Although modern disks are
faster and hold more data, the basic technology is same
 Hard disk
• Hard disk is a magnetic disk on which we can store data.
Hard disks hold more data and are faster than floppy disks.
Unlike a floppy disk which is flexible and removable, the hard
disk used in personal computer is permanently fixed.
A hard disk can store a maximum capacity of 40 GB.
The transfer rate between the CPU and hard disk is much
quicker as compared to that of between CPU and the
floppy disk.
The CPU can use the hard disk to load programs and data as
well as to store data. The hard disk is important
input/output device.
• Floppy disk
 Floppy disk is a soft magnetic disk. It is called floppy. Floppy
disks are portable.
 It is a circular disk of diameter 3.5 inches made of plastic,
coated with a magnetic material.
 This is covered in a square plastic jacket. Each floppy can
store approximately one million characters (1.44 MB).
• Zip disk
These are high capacity floppy disks and slightly larger than
the conventional floppy disks. They can hold 100 MB of
data.
• Optical disk
Optical disks are a storage medium from which data are read
and to which they are written by lasers. CD-ROM is one
type of optical disk capable of storing large amounts of data
(usually about 700 MB).
• Disk drives
A disk drive works in the same way as cassette player like
reading and writing whenever required. The disk drive is
contained within the system unit.
The drive for a floppy disk is called a floppy disk drive, while
the drive for a hard disk is called the hard disk drive and the
one for CD ROM is CD drive. It is important to differentiate
between the storage media and storage devices.
• Input devices
Input devices are the machines designed for data entry
purposes and for human-machine communication.
Examples for input devices are keyboard, mouse, input
pen, microphone etc.
• Keyboard
Computer keyboard is essentially the same as a
typewriter keyboard. Additional keys like number pad,
several command keys, function keys, shift keys
however provide access to functions that are available
on a computer.
• Mouse
A mouse is a palm-sized device. Mouse is so widely used
in graphics applications.
 Optical character Reader (OCR)
• Optical character readers are input devices used to read
any printed text. They can interpret handmade marks and
characters and special symbols and codes.
 Optical Mark Reading and Recognition (OMR)
• Special pre-printed forms are designed with boxes, which
can be marked with a dark pencil or ink. Such a document
is read by OMR. These are applicable in the areas where
responses are one out of a small number of alternatives
and the volume of data to be processed is large.
 Magnetic Ink Character Recogniser
(MICR):
• A MICR can identify characters printed with
special ink that contain particulars of magnetic
material.
• MICR is used mainly in the banking industry to
read cheque. This eliminates the need to
manually enter data from cheques into a floppy.
• Since the MICR system can recognise only certain
character styles, the characters have to be
accurately formed.
• Bar Coding:
Small bars of varying thickness and spacing are printed on packages,
books and tags etc., which are read by optical readers and
converted to electrical pulses.
• Speech Input Unit:
A unit which takes spoken words as its input, and converts them to
a form that can be understood by a computer is called a speech
input unit. By understanding we mean that the unit can uniquely
code (as a sequence of bits) each spoken word, interpret the word
and initiate action based on the word.
• Track ball
Track ball is the improvement over the mouse. It looks like a mouse,
but it lies on its back. Track balls are really popular with users of
portable computers.
• Joystick
A joystick is lever that moves in all directions and controls
the movement of a pointer or some other display symbols.
Joysticks are used mostly for computer games.
• Scanner
Scanner is an input device that can read text or illustrations
printed on paper and translate the data into a form that the
computer can use. It works by digitizing an image.
• Light pen
It is a pen like device with a light on one end and a wire
connected to the computer on the other end. One can
touch the screen with the pen and the system recognises
the light pen's location.
• Output devices
Output devices are those that take machine coded output results
from the processor and convert them into a form that can be used
by people concerned (e.g. printed or displayed reports).
• Visual Display Unit (Screen/monitor):
When a program is keyed in, the screen (similar to TV Screen) displays
the characters. The user can read program line by line and make
correction before it is stored or printed on a printer.
It is also possible to bring to the screen a portion of the program
stored in the external storage for editing. The use of cursor
facilitates quick and easy editing.
Screen sizes differ from system to system. The standard size is 24 lines
by 80 characters. Most systems have provision for scrolling.
• Initially there were only monochrome monitors. Gradually, we
began having monitors that display color. Colour monitors can
display 16 – 1 million colours. Colour monitors are sometimes called
as RGB (Red, Green and Blue) monitors. Monitors are of different
types and have different display capabilities
 Colour Graphics Adapter (CGA)
 Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA)
 Vector Graphics Adapter (VGA)
 Super Vector Graphics Adapter (SVGA)
• The smallest dot that can be displayed is called a pixel. The number
of pixels that can be displayed vertically or horizontally give the
maximum resolution of the monitor. The resolution of the monitor
determines the quality of the display.
• Printers
The final output can be obtained from printers. The paper
copy obtained from a printer is often referred to as the
print out or hard copy.
There are many types of printers, but they fall into one of the
two categories - impact and non-impact printers.
In the case of an impact printer, an inked ribbon exists
between the print head and paper and the head striking
the ribbon prints characters.
Non-impact printers use techniques other than mechanical
method of head striking the ribbon. Thermal printers,
electrostatic printers and laser printers are examples of
non-impact printers.
• Line Printer
 Printing speed varies from 150 lines to 2500 lines per minute with
96 to 160 characters on a 15-inch line. Six to eight lines per vertical
inch are printed. Usually 64 and 96 character sets are used with
English letters. Two types of line printers are.
• Chain printers: It has a steel band on which the character sets are
embossed.
• Dot Matrix Printer
 It prints one character at a time, with the print head moving across
a line. They are normally slow (30 to 300 Characters per second). A
character to be printed is made up of a finite number of dots and
so, the print head consists of an array of pins. Character to be
printed is sent one character at a time from the memory to the
printer.
 Letter quality printer (Inkjet Printer)
• The characters are represented by sharp continuous lines and so
the output is good looking. This printer consists of print head with a
number of small holes or nozzles. An integrated circuit resistor can
heat individual holes very rapidly.
Laser Printer
• An electronically controlled laser beam traces out the desired
character to be printed on a photoconductive drum. The drum
attracts an ink toner on to the exposed areas. This image is
transferred to the paper, which comes in contact with the drum.
Low speed laser printer can print 4 to 16 pages per minute.
• Very fast printers can print 10,000 lines per minute.
• Graphic Plotters
• Plotters are used to produce output containing graph or diagrams. They
use either pen or inkjet approach. Pen plotters are available in two forms,
drum type or flatbed type. In the drum plotters, both pen and paper
move, while in the flatbed plotter, the paper is fixed and the pen moves.
• Apart from the above printers, other output devices are as follows

1. Flat Bed Plotter

2. Microfilm and microfiche
3. Drum Plotter
4. Graphic display device (Digitising tablet)
5. Speech output unit.
• Input devices, output devices and secondary storage devices are
sometimes collectively called as peripheral devices or simply peripherals.
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
• A computer needs both hardware and software for its
proper functioning. Computer software consists of sets of
programmed instructions which enable the hardware to
perform functions. Computer software can be broadly
classified into two categories:
• application software and system software.
 Applications software is a set of programming instructions
for specific applications such as pay roll accounting.
 System software comprises of those programmes designed
to co-ordinate the operations of a computer system.. The
following figure gives an overview of the software
classification and different types:
• COMPUTER LANGUAGES
• Application software are written in programming
languages.
• A program is a set of instructions used to communicate
with a computer. Each language has a unique set of
keywords (words that it understands) and a special
syntax for organizing program instructions.
• The programming language should be understood,
both by the programmer (who is writing the program)
and the computer. Programming languages are
classified as below:
• Machine language
Machine language is the machine understandable
language. Hence this is not user friendly, because
coding is done using binary system, instead of
commands.
• Assembly language
Abbreviations are used for programming in this
language instead of giving codes. A program written in
assembly language uses symbolic representation of
machine codes needed to program a particular
processor (CPU) or processor family.
 High-level language
• The four commonest high-level languages are probably
FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation), ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language), BASIC
(Beginner's All purpose Symbolic Instruction Codes) and Pascal (named
after Blaise Pascal who invented the first mechanical calculator).
• A language processor translates application programmes written in a
language such as COBOL, FORTRAN or BASIC into a computer
understandable language. These processors are called compilers and
interpreters.
• A programme written using only binary digits is called a machine language
programme.
• Assembler also translates programmes into machine language codes. Both
machine and assembly language programmes is machine
dependent. High-level languages, which are closer to English language,
overcame the drawback of machine dependence. E.g. FORTRAN, COBOL
(Common Business Oriented Language), BASIC, PASCAL etc.
• Translator Software
Translator software is used to convert a program written in high-level
language and assembly language to a form that the computer can
understand. Translator software converts a program written in assembly
language, and high-level language to a machine-level language program.
The translated program is called the object code. There are three different
kind of translator software:
• Assembler,
• Compiler, and
• Interpreter.
• Assembler
• Assembly language is also referred to as a symbolic representation of the
machine code. Assembler is software that converts a program written in
assembly language into machine code there is usually a one-to-one
correspondence between simple assembly statements and machine
language instructions.
• Compiler
A program written in a high-level language has to be converted to a
language that the computer can understand, i.e. binary form.
Compiler is the software that translates the program written in a
high-level language to machine language. The program written in
high-level language is referred to as the source code and compiled
program is referred as the object code. The object code is the
executable code, which can run as a stand-alone code. It does not
require the compiler to be present during execution.
• Interpreter
The purpose of interpreter is similar to that of a compiler. The
interpreter is used to convert the high-level language program into
computer-understandable form. However, the interpreter functions
in a different way than a compiler.. Some languages that use an
interpreter are BASIC and Python.
• COMPUTER NETWORK
A computer network is an interconnection of two or more
computers that are able to exchange information. The computers
may be connected via any data communication link, like copper
wires, optical fibers, communication satellites, or radio links. The
computers connected to the network may be personal computers
or large main frames. The computers in a network may be located
in a room, building, city, country, or anywhere in the world.
• Network Types
• Computer network is broadly classified into three types
• Local Area Network (LAN),
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), and
• Wide Area Network (WAN).
• The different network types are distinguished
from each other based on the following
characteristics:
 Size of the network
 Transmission Technology
 Networking Topology
The size of the network refers to the area over
which the network is spread. Transmission
Technology refers to the transmission media used
to connect computers on the network and the
transmission protocols used for connecting.
 Local Area Network
• LAN is a computer network widely used for local
communication. LAN connects computers in a small area
like a room, building, office or a campus spread up to a few
kilometers.
• The computers in a LAN are generally connected using
cables. LAN is different from other types of network since
they share the network. The different computers connected
to a LAN take turns to send data packets over the cables
connecting them.
• LAN runs at a speed of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps and has low
delays. A LAN based on WiFi wireless network technology is
called Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN).
 Metropolitan Area Network
• MAN is a computer network spread over a
city. Cable television network is an example of
MAN.
• The computers in a MAN are connected using
coaxial cables or fiber optic cables. MAN also
connects several LAN spread over a city.
 Wide Area Network

• WAN is a network that connects computers

over long distances like cities, countries,
continents, or worldwide.
• WAN uses public, leased, or private
communication links to spread over long
distances.
• WAN network must be able to grow itself.
Internet is a common example of WAN.
• LAN Topologies
• There are different types of network topologies that are
used in a network. The network topologies in the structure
or the layout of the different devices and computers
connected to the network. The topologies commonly used
in LAN are—Bus topology, Star topology, and Ring
topology.
• Bus Topology
• All devices on the network are connected through a central
cable called a Bus. The data signal is available to all
computers connected to the bus .
• The data signal carries the address of the destination
computer.
• It is good for connecting 15–20 computers.
• A single coaxial cable is generally used in bus topology, to which the
computers or devices are connected.
• Ethernet is a commonly used protocol in networks connected by
bus topology.
 Ring Topology
• All devices in the network are connected in the form of a ring.
• Each device has a receiver and transmitter to receive the data
signals and to send them to the next computer, respectively.
• Ring network does not have terminated ends, thus data signals
travel in a circle.
• Ring topology uses token passing method to provide access to the
devices in the network.
Star Topology
• All devices are connected through a central
link forming a star-like structure.
• The central link is a hub or switch. The
computers are connected to the hub or switch
using twisted pair cables, coaxial cables or
optic fibers.
• Star topology is the most popular topology to
connect computer and devices in network.
• DATA BASE
• Database is a repository or collection of logically
related and similar data. Database stores similar kind of
data that is organized in a manner that the information
can be derived from it, modified, data added, or
deleted to it, and used when needed.
File-Oriented Approach and Database Approach
Data redundancy means storing the same data at
multiple locations. In an application, a file may have
fields that are common to more than one file. The data
for these common fields is thus replicated in all the
files having these fields.
• Data inconsistency means having different data values
for the common fields in different files. During the
updating process, the common fields may not get
updated in all the files. This may result in different data
values for the common fields in different files. For
example,
• Database approach provides solutions for handling the
problems of the file system approach. The emergence
of database approach has resulted in a paradigm shift,
from each application defining and maintaining its own
data (file-oriented approach) - to the data being
defined and administered centrally (database
approach).
• Relational Database Model
The Relational Database Model was proposed in 1970 by E. F. Codd.
The first commercial system based on the relational model became
available in early eighties. Relational database model is the most
common type of database model. Table, record, field, key, and data
values are the terms associated with a relational model. The data
elements are stored in different tables made up of rows and
columns. The data in different tables are related through the use of
common data elements. We briefly define the terms as follows
 Data Values
 Field or Column Data values
 Record or Row
• Table A collection of logically related records
form a table. A table for an object has rows and
columns. The table is organized as a set of
columns, and can have any number of rows
• Key A key is an identifier in a table that uniquely
identifies a row in a table. The key identifier can
be the value of a single column or of multiple
columns. A key is generally also referred to as the
primary key of the table. The primary key is a
unique identifier for the table.
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

• The interrelated set of data that forms the database needs to be

stored and managed, so that the database can be accessed for the
retrieval of data, and for insertion, deletion, or updating of data.
• DBMS is a software system for creating, organizing and managing
the database. DBMS handles all access to the database and
manages the database.
• Managing the database implies that it provides a convenient
environment to the user to perform operations on the database for
creation, insertion, deletion, updating, and retrieval of data. DBMS
defines the scope of the use of database. This keeps data secure
from unauthorized access.
• The functionality of DBMS includes—
(1) the database that contains interrelated data, and
(2) a set of programs to access the data.
• DATABASE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURES
The computers have evolved from big mainframe
computers to small desktop personal computers.
The advances in computer and its architecture
have also resulted in the advances in databases
and its architecture.—
 Centralized DBMS Architecture,
 Client-Server Architecture, and
 Distributed Databases
 DATABASE APPLICATIONS

• Databases range from those designed for a single user with a

desktop computer to those on mainframe computers with
thousands of users. The database applications can be for different
purposes like—
 (1) personal databases that support one user with a stand-alone
personal computer,
 (2) workgroup databases for a small team of people (less than 25)
who work in collaboration on a project,
 (3) departmental databases designed to support the various
functions and activities of a department (a functional unit of an
organization), and
 (4) enterprise databases to support organization-wide operations
and decision making. Data warehouse is an enterprise database.
WORD PROCESSING USING MS-WORD
• A word processor is a program that enables us to perform word
processing functions.
• Word processing functions are creating, editing and printing
documents.
• The greatest advantage of word processing over using a typewriter
is that you can make changes without retyping the entire
document.
• Microsoft Word is a Windows based word processing program. It
can be used to produce documents ranging from a short letter to a
big report.
• These documents can be produced and printed out in any style that
is required. It is also possible to add graphics, tables, and diagrams
to the document. These can either be generated by Word itself or
else imported from another Windows program such as Excel.
 STARTING WORD
• The first step is to start the Word program. To start
Word, locate the Word icon on the Desktop and double
click on the Word icon with the mouse.
FEATURES OF THE WORD SCREEN
• The picture below shows some of the main features of
the Word window. Notice that the Word window
consist of a program parent window enclosing a
maximized document or child window. It is therefore
possible to see parent and child control boxes. In the
picture you can also see the parent maximize and
minimize buttons and the child close button.
 CREATING A DOCUMENT

• Starting a new document is very simple. In the

text window you will initially see a simple
black flashing cursor bar at the insertion point
in the top left hand corner. Any text you type
on the keyboard will appear at this point
 SAVING YOUR DOCUMENT
• One great advantage of using a computer is
that it can store your documents – but you
have to instruct it to do so first.
• Everybody who has used a computer can tell
you stories of how they have lost valuable
documents – and it will happen to you too
unless you are very careful.
 PRINTING DOCUMENT
Printing a document is as simple as clicking on the print
button on the toolbar. Within a short space of time the
printer would start printing and your print out will appear.
Check it for any errors and if need be make necessary
corrections to your document and reprint. Occasionally
you may find that the printer fails to print your document.
If so, check the following:
 The printer is turned on and the green on line button is
illuminated.
 The printer has not run out of paper
 The print cable connecting your computer to the printer
has not become detached.
• EXITING WORD
You have now successfully produced a
document, edited it, printed it and saved it. It
only remains to exit the Word program. There
is more than one way of doing this. One
method is to open the file menu and select
the Exit option at the bottom of the drop
down list
Thank You