~ i

1
RICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENG i
BASIC [L[CT

1.52

•
,, • 0
., - JI , - - I
,., - SI, •
0
l
-
51, • 2
~==0.4A
I, • 5

,. OYGFD
Fcr l.:'tC? 51 + 4 = 0
- Jll - l

- 81.z == - 4
812 = 4
4
l2 = 8 == 0.5 A

X and y = Vxc +Yeo+ Vov

Potential between 12V
Vxc= 31, (rise) = 3 x 0.4 = .
Vco= 4 V (rise)

Vor== 312 (drop) =3 x 0.5 = 1.5 V

Therefore, Vxr = 1.2 + 4 - 1. 5 (since Vov is a drop)

I Vxr = 3.7 V (rise from X to Y) I

1.4 STEADY STATE SOLUTION OF DC CIRCUITS

Leaming Objective (LO 4) . ._,,;,

~ Students will be able to determine the unknown parameter .m the electric c1n.u•
using mesh anaf)'Sis and nodal analysis.

1.4.1 llesh Analysis ,.

In me•h method, Kirchhoff• Voltage Law (KVLJ is •Pr 1nlfl4
f
netu,ork. For this network, we have to write mesh equations interrnsto
• mesh currents instead of branch curren 9•
currents. Here, we are using
Here, each mesh is assigned a separate mesh current. Assume t]i,I
mesh curr~nt direct_ion i~ clockwise. Then, KVL is applied te the net\f
order to wnte equations interms of unknown mesh currenita
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 1.53

R,
R

0 ~J ~ V2 a~

s
Fi.g un 1.18
alge bra ic .-um of
The bra nch curr ent can be fou nd out by talcf ng the
ch.
the mes h cur ren ts whi ch are com mon to tha t bran
the mes h curr ents
The Joll owin g step s shou ld be imp leme nted to find out
and bran ch curr ents .
.
Con side r a s imp le netw ork as show n in figu re 1.18
mes h curr enL Ass ume all
Step 1: Firs t, each mes h is assi gned a sepa rate
sists of two mes hes
mes h curr ents dire ctio ns are cloc kwis e. It con
(PQ SP and QRS Q) and two mes h curr ents (1 1 and
l:J.

Step 2: If two mes h curr ents (1 1 and 12) are flow

ing thro ugh a netw ork clem ents ,
brai c sum of the two
the actu al curr ent in the circ uit elem ent is the alge
mes h curr ents (1 1 and 12 ). In this netw or~ mes h
curr ents , 11 and 12 are
n i.e., Q to s. curr ent is
flow ing thro ugh 1¼- Firs t we cons ider one dire ctio
11 - 12 and in for anot her dire ction . i.e., S to Q,
curr ent is 12 - 11•
s of mes h curr ents by appl ying
Step 3: Wri te equ atio n for each mes h in term
rise in pote ntia l as
KVL. Whe n writ ing mes h equ atio ns, we assi gn
(-) sign .
posi tive (+) sign and fall in pote ntia l as nega tive
mes nega tive in the solu tion ,
Step 4 : Sup pos e any valu e of mes h curr ent beco
the actu al or true dire ctio n of the mes h curr ent
is anti cloc kwi se, Le.,
opp osit e to the cloc kwis e dire ctio n.
equa tion s.
By· app lyin g KVL to the figu re 1.18 , we get two
Mes h PQS P
- l 1R 1 - (1 1 - I2)R2 + V1 = 0
••. ( 1)
(or) 11(R 1 + R 2) - l2R2 = V1
Mes h QRS Q
-l2R3 -V2 -(l2 -l1) R2 = O
l2)
(or) +l 1R2 - l 2 (R2 + R3) = V2
by solv ing equ atio ns \ l \
The mes h curr ents I 1 and 12 can be foun d out
and (2).
by usin g the mes h cur ren ts
Ste p 5: The bran ch curr ents can be easi ly foun d out
11 and 12 •
 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGi.,
&ASIC ~
1.54

IEXAMPLE 42 ] 1 cult ■hown In figure and ■olve 1

Write the meah ~quat10111 for the c r l'""".."""."":'::-:::".~~~-''11.
current Ill 12 0
red
■tor. I(AU/CfvU • • •- -
■:1,j(j ~
.. . ..
120

40 4!l

70 600V
480V

Solution:
First assign mesh currents Ii, I2 and I3 • It is shown in figure.

12 n 1 ••

4n ,,) - 4!2

480V 600V

By applying KVL, we can get three mesh equations.

•uh equ,ztion l

- 4 (I I - I2) - 7 (I I - l3) + 480 = 0

- 411 + 412 - 711 + 713 - - 480

- 111. + 412 + 713 = - 480
1111 - 412 - 713 - 480

b
-
. ,. 1.55

-
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

l4••h equation 2
- 1212 - 4 (1 2 -1 3) :-- 4(1 2 - 11) • 0
-1212 - 412 + 413 - 412 + 411 - 0
411 - 2012 + 413 - 0 ... (2)

J,fesh equation 3
- 4 (13 - 12) - 600 - 7(13:-11} - 0
- 413 + 412 - 713 + 711 - 600
711 + 412- 1113 - 600 ••. (3)

Matrix representation of (1), (2) and (3) is

11 -4 -7]
4 -20 4
( ·7
I:z (II] • l480]
0
4 -11 13 600

Here, we have to solve the current through 12 n by applying Cramer's

rule.

= 11(221 - li) + 4(- 44 - 21) - 7 (li + 14e)

= 2244 - . 218 - 1092 • 864

612 •
li
4
480
0 4
-7l 1~0
\ 7 600 -11 140
• 11 (- 2400) - 480 (- 44 - 28) - 7 (2400}
• - 26400 + 34560- 16800
= . - 8640

. I2 • A~ = -8640 = - 10 A
•• A. 864

The current through 12 n resistor . (1 2) is 10 A. The minus sign

indicates that the current through the 12 n resistor (1 1) is reversed.
 • r • 1cAL ANU t.L.C.\,, 11\UNICS £NG . I

• BA5IC ELfCTll. . . . • . '~.,

1.56
· · · nt 111 each branch 1111
~--~~
~ 43] . tb• ~~
fllld , ~~I
-,
L.:-=-----
[ Ill nprt, ..
In the circuit tho"° 60 n R.
analJII•• ,o o ,..,,._,,_
p
---bO~
'20, +
.:::=-65 V

V
♦

120v::::-

5
. . U/lfech .-:
(A • •• • • •• • . , , .- ·_· ·-• ... f

Solution: · ..-· ' nd I · to meshes PQ

__SP and Q»~ft
. h currents 1i a 2 •._,
First assign mes . . . . . . .-. .
respccti.vcly· It"is shown m figure.
__
Mesh PQSP
~ \. - 4011 - 20(11 - IJ + 120 = 0
I
.:. {l)
.:,,661-.v
I
.

5011..: 20li = ' 120

' .
_.I • I
)
.
. ,• '
. .. Mesh QRSQ ·
__:.. .6012 - 50 - 20(12 - l1)= O
. ,•,. , . · - 201 1 + YOI~= ~~ ~5 . ••• (2)
' The two equations are · ~ ' •\
(; -·~ ~ 501; - 2012 = 120·' ... (1)

-iOij + 7012= ..- 65' ... (2)

t- • . '
Equation (1) x 2⇒ 109 11 - 40 12 = 240
Equation (2) x 5 ~ - 100_11 +350 12 = - 325

31012 = - 85
Sol~ng µt~se f:Wo equa~ons, '!C can get
• .. ., • ' . • ! •• ...

. _ :. l2 • - 0.2742 ~ -· . . n • ••,

Ne~tive si~ indicates that th~ dir~tion of1 is anticlockwise. Substi

l2 value m equation (1), we get, , . 2
• ' • ! ~ '. • • i
I• ' \:·' ... I ·.•, • (' 'S : -.., • •
50 l 1 - 20(- 0.2742)• - 120 ..
' _, ..
:. l1 • 2.29 A
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
~ .... ' ' -
The actual clire~tl~n of no~- ~f ~ · .
1.57 lI
eah currenta ls ahown ln figure .:-
400

. .'
...

current in branch SPQ, 11 • 2.29 A

current in branch SRQ, 12 - 0.2742 A .. .
Current in b~anch QS -
. ' '
•
• 2.29 +0.2742
I, + 12 • 2.5642 A I,

Mesh currents 11 = 2 .29 A; 12 • 0.2742 A I • •

[ EXAMPLE 44 I
Use mesh analyaia to determine the three mesh currents la the clrcult of
figure shown in below. ·

IH•ili , .'

20

1/- ~ 6
.. .
10

Solution :
The three required mesh currents ~e assi~ed as shown in figure. Applying
KVL, we can get three mesh equations . ·
Jfeah •tuatfon I · · : -~:... •, ·, ·' · · · -. I

t
' •

. '.
••• ..
- 1 (I 1 - IJ - 6 - 2(I l - l3} + 7 - 0
311 _; 12 - ~13 ·.';. 1
1.58

Jfesh equation lI 0
- 1(12 - Il ) -
_ 21l - 3(f2 - IS )
- I1 + 612 - 31s • 0

Jfe•h ..-aa tfon m

1., + 2(1., - I~) + 6 - 3(1s - l2) • 0
- 21, - 311 + 6I., • 6 ••• (3)
3
Matrix repre senta tion of (1), (2) & ( ).

[jl1][i]m .m
Cr&Jn
Here, we have to solve the mesh curre nts I., 12 and Ia, by appl ying
rule. Let us define three deter mina nts,

A, A1, A1 and A3 as show n below.

3 -1 -2
A =
-1 6 -3
-2 -3 6

1 -1 . -2 3 -1 -2
A,= 0 6 -3 -1 0 -3
; A2 =
6 -3 6 -2 6 6

3 -1 · 1
.A3 = -1 6 0
-2 -3 6

3 -1 -2
.A = -1 6 -3
-2 -3 6

• 3(36 - 9 ·
) - (- 1) (- 6 - 6) - 2(3 + 12)
,. 81 I
- 2- 30 - 39
►

. ,.

A,•\~ 1=~
• l(36 - 9) - (-1) (0 + 18) - 2(0 - 36)
• 27 + 18 + 72 • 117 .

... .
117
= - =3A
39

...
'.

= 3(0 + 18) - 1(- 6 - 6) - 2(- 6)

= 54 + 12 + 12 = 78

fl'J 78
I'J = - = - = 2 A
fl 39

3 -1 1 \
-1 6 0
\ -'.i' -3 6

= 3(36) - (- 1) (- 6) + (3 + 12)

= 108 - 6 + 15 = 117

fl;
I3 -- ' -fl

= ~ =3A
,. 39

The three mesh currents are ·

I I
Q,
= 3A; I,= 2A; I,= 3A]
i

t
i
 TRICAL ANII a;.._.,...,• n.,.., U'-,1 C.l'i"(i~
BASIC ELEC ~ i
1.60

I EXAMPLE 45
Determine •
J II th• bran ch DC
th ....,.. of carre at t1aroll~ throu 1h the bran ch DD la er0,
Jaell tll• curre
or the 11
:t"'"
aJaowa below la npre , •
8

.I
IC.. .-..m v--- -,~- ----c r
50 2V

IH·lli
Solution.:
We have marked in AB as 11 and AD as 12 • Since there is no curre nt
in BD
- ,
I, flows ~ug h BC and 12 throu gh DC.
. ForADCA
- 612 - 1212 + 2 - 5(1 1 + 12) = 0
- 612 - 1212 - 511 - 512 = -2
- s1. - 2312 = -2
511 + 2312 =2 ... ( 1)
B

2V 1,+12 C
ForABCDA

- 21. - 411 + 1212 + 612 -- 0

- 611 + 1812 = 0
611
l1
=
=
1812 \
31
--
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Th e ab ov e eq ua tio n is au
bs tit ut d i .
e n eq ua n (1), we get
tio
1.6 1

151, + 23 1, . 2
38 1, • 2

[12 = 0.0 52 6 A)

(!'XAMPLE 46 I cu ne nt nd po we r de liv er
ed
1;_ th e ci rc ui t gi ve
n in fig ur e, ob ta in th e oa d
.J .. -- -- -- "i j
to th e lo ad . \'2., t1 ,:- .
\ ."f ' _..f
- -- 30 - - - .\ - f'1 J.. \ -t 1·
\
+
120

-----·
ih·iEJ I(A~J&U ·· Dee 2010J. 1 4 u ~ ...- ....... .

So lu tio n:
4n

Load
15 0
12 0V + )
l1

KVL, we ca n ge t t . h eq ua tio ns .
h re~ mes
A pp ly in g
Loop 1
12 0 = 0
- 41 - 12(11 - I~) +
- 411 - 1211 + 1212 = - 12 0

- 1611 + 1212= - 12 0 •.. ( 1)

1611 - 1212 = 120

Loop 2 = 0
. - l1)
- 612 - 9(12 - l3 ) - 12(12
11 = 0
- 612 - 911 + 913 - 1212 + 12 ••• (2)
1211 - 2712 + 913 - 0
 LoOP 3 - 31, - t Sis - 9(h - 1,l • o
- 31, - is1, - 91, + 91, • o ... (3)
912 -271 ,. 0
3
MatriX rrpiesentation of (ll, (2) & ( ),

)ll·] l1200
16 -12 o
12 · -27 9 12 •
[ 0 9 -27 13 0
1
By appJying CraJDer's rule, we can find out curr ent
thro ugh 10 d
Mesh current 1, n= through 15 a resistor .. 1 a (l511.

. \16 -12 0 \
A = 12 -27 9
0 9 -27

= 16(729 - 81) + 12(- 324 ) = 6480

16 -12 120
Al3= 12 -27 0
0 9 o
.
I
= 120(~08) ,
= 12960

\
I
!•

J = 12960
6 -2A

I Current th
~
480 -
roug h load resis tor (15 Cl:-):-.--: --- -- ~
a2A
wer deliv ered to the 1oad = 12R

= 22 X 15 =, 60 W
 ~PLE47 \ 1. 63
p et er m ln e th e cu n .
. n gu re u al n g m ea en t aupplle4 b
h analyala. 1 ea ch
battery ln th e ch cu
lt ahown il l

E1
20 V
Es
30 V

-
s ol u ti on :
T he th re e lo op cu rr
en ts ar e· shown in fig
ure.
LOOP 1
- 511 - 3(11 - 12) - 5. +
20 = 0
- 511 - 311 + 312 + 15
= 0
-:- 811 + 312 + 15 =
0
811 - 312 = 15 ... l 1l
L oo p 2
- 41 + s ·- 2l12 + 13) -
5 + 5 .- 3l I2 - l1) = _
2
o
- 412 + 5 - 212 - 213
- 312 + 311= 0
311 - 9 h - 213 + 5_=
o
-311 + 91 + 213 = -
2 5 lor)
311 - 912 - 213 = 5 .•. \2)
Loop 3
30 - 813 - 2(13 + 12) - 5 0
\
I
=
25 - 813 - 213 - 212=
\' 0
I
- 212 - 1013 + 25 = 0
\ 212 + 1013 = 25 ... l3)
\ M at ri x re pr es en ta ti· f ll ) l2) & l3),
on ° '

.i
l
I.

'
~l ; ~~~l~= ~i~
1.M BASIC ELECTR ~
I
ICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGl~tt

· I,, I, and 13 by applying Cra.""

Here we have to -fim d the mesh currents
·••tt'1
l ,

rule.
. -

~ -
1
1
0
~ -~2
1 10

- 8(- 90 + 4) + .3(30) = _ 688 + 90 = -598

. \

.ll1 -
I~~ -~1
25 2 10
• 15(- 90 + 4) + 3 (SO + 50)
,. - 1290 + 300 = - 990

Ml _ - 990 = 1.655 A
l1 = ~ - -598

8 15 0
3 5 -2
2
Al =
10 25 10

= 8(50 + SO) - 15(30)

= 800 - 450 = 350

J2 = ~
L\
=
350
-598
= - 0.5852 A

· 8 -3 · ·15
3 -9 5
0 2 25

= 8( - .225 - 10) + 3(75) + 15(6)

= - 1880 + 225 + 90 = - 1565

L\l3 -1565
7= ,_
I• e
. 598
=2:617
. ,
A

·Current supplied by battery Eiis 1 ~ I.655 A · A

1
., . .
Current supplied by battery E2 iS 1,·- 12 "'l.655 - (- 0.5852)~ 2 ·
2402 .
.

I
. '

Current supplied by l>attery E 3 is I:i .. - 0.5852 A

~ent au · lied.hv...h... .,..___ _ : · ·
 - .; .- - - - - - - _ .. ; --11-~65
LECTRICAL CIRCUITS - - - - ~ - - - = - - - -
;E - - - - ~ : .: ,: .: .. ~
Inspection Method
1. t M es h A na ly si s b y
1_4 • h eq u at io n in m a tr ix fo rm ca n b; ,
ri ti ng th e m ea
~ :e dp ro c: dl u l re fo r W
s.
slmPliJ .e a s Jo ow •va le nt vo lt ag e so ur ce b y so ur ce
en t so u · ui
1 · C on ve rt th e. cu rr rc e in to eq
st ep · tr an sf or m at io n.
m m ed
w hi ch th e lo op cu rr en t 11 fl ow s ar e su
sistan ce th ro ug h op 1.
st ep 2 : A ll th e re R u. It is ca ll ed se lf re si st an ce of lo
u p an d de no te d by
cu rr en ts 1 in th e fi rs t lo op , an d
hi ch lo op
si st an ce th i: ou gh w
1
ep 3 : A ll th e re ed up . T hi s is de no te d b y R 12• T he
st lo op flow ar e su m m h
12 in th e se co nd e tw o cu rr en ts 11 an d 12 th ro ug
th
R is ne ga ti ve , if
si gn o f th e te rm 12 ns ; ot he rw is e th e si gn is po si ti ve .
te di re ct io
R 12 ar e in op po si th ro ug h w hi ch th e lo
op
e on th e fi rs t lo op
th e ef fe ct iv e vo lt ag re ct io n of V 1 is sa
me
st ep 4 : L et V1 be he si gn of V 1 is po si ti ve if th e di
is
cu rr en t 11 fl ow s. T rr en t 1 , ot he rw is e th e si gn o f V1
ai di ng th e cu 1
on .
as th at o f 11 (i.e. th e ri gh t ha nd si de of th e eq ua ti
ri tt en on
ne ga ti ve ). V1 is w er e is no so ur ce in
th e
ha nd si de if th
en on th e ri gh t
N ow , ze ro is w ri tt
w hi ch 11 flows.
fi rs t lo op th ro u g h
ation is
ge ne ra l m at ri x fo rm of m es h eq_u
T he

E xa m p le 1

op s
co ns is ts of tw o lo t
H er e th e ci rc ui t • lo op )
'

l re si _
stan
_
...

ce in th e 1
th e al
(S~m of
'

_o.
R 11 = R 1 + R 2
ce sh ar ed b y ih e,lo op s o nde aI n d tw
ta l re si st an I
(T he to ~ t~ e cu rr en ~~ 1_-~ :z ar e m
R21 = R1 2 = -R 2 i~ di c~ t~
N eg at iv e si gn , -· . . • l
op po si te di re ct io.n) .

..~ ~ '-~ _2:nd l~ o~ ).

.

(S~m of th ~_al l ~ e r
' ~ si ~ t~ c~
R22 = R2 + ~R3 ~-
@-1.S _'l _, •
 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINE:
1.6 6 - E:1t1•
~
(The min us sign indicates the loop curren t J2 nows from the vol tag e te
rrn1 ~
+to -)

Ru R,2] [;•] • [~:]

[R21 R21 2

1
R1 + R2 -R:2 ] ( •] • [~ ,]
[ -R2 R2 +R3 ~
.
By usi ng Cramer,s ru1e, we ~ find me sh or loo p cur ren ts 11 and
. . 12•
En mp le2

R3 Rs

.,) R,,:) R4)

+
v, V3
13· +

Here, the circ uit con sist s of thre e loops. So

we hav e to for m 3 x 3 matrix.
R11 = R1+~ (Su m of the all res ista nce s in the 1 st
loop)
R12 = ~. = -R2 (The tota l res ista nce sha
red by the loo ps one and two.
The negative sign, ind ica tes the cur ren
ts 11 . and 12
are in opposite direction)
R13 = Rn = 0 (The tota l res ista nce sha red . by the loo
ps one and
thre e. Here, no res ista nce .)
~ = ~+R3+R,. (Sum of the all the res ista nce
s in the 2 nd loo p)
R 23 = R32 = -R. (The tota l res ista nce sha red by the loo
ps 2 a nd 3·
Tbe negative sign , ind ica tes the cur ren
ts 12 and 1.3
,./ are in opp osit e direction) ..
R33 = ~+D
&~ (Sum of the all the res ista nce s in the 3 rd
loo p)
Voltage sou rce in the 1at loo . .
the loo p cur ren t 1 flows from P
18 1
V • (~e re·V1 is of pos itiv e
use
1
1
_vo tag e tern una l _ to +). sig n, bec a
Voltage source in the 2nd loo .
V3 • (He re, V3 is of positive sign : 18 zero (V2 · is
=O). Voltage sou rce in the 3 rd lo<>Pge
ter min al - to+ ). ' eca use the loop cur ren t 1 flow s fro m
3
vol ta
 __ _ _ _!: ~·-!!. ~ -~S;:J
T_s_ _ _ _ _ _ :·._--- ... :_ :__ _ _ _
.. ~
_ 1 67
~!!R~IC::,A,;,;;.L_C_IR_C_U_I
.
No w, th e m at rix fro m is

find me sh cu rre nt s 11, ~ an 3

d1•
By us in g Cr am er 's ru le,
we ca n

[e xM 'P LE 48 I .
h th e 8 n re sis to r as sh ow n in fl pr e.
Fi nd th e cu rr en t th ro ug
50 10 0
_-S T 1
- r ..
.:.. \ 0 _, 8 { ,, -:r2 .,_
15 V

10

50 10 0

•:t·ilJ
,,.u,,..~-~ 20091 I
So lu tio n:
n m eth od ,
By us in g m es h in sp ec tio
] [11 ] 15 - 15 ]
5 + 8 + 5 + 10 - . - 8 [ 25 + 15
[ - 8 10 + 10 + 8 '2 =

ca n fin d ou t cu rr en t th ro ug h 8 n re si st or .
le , we
By ap pl yi ng Cr am er 's ru
28 -8
~ = -8 28
= 78 4 - 64 .=.72 0
• ·1 : . •
. .
~l1-=
0
40 28
-81
=- - (- 32 0) ,.. 32 0
 IASfC El,ECfRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGi NEER1..Q
~ -
1.70 .

ItheEXAMPLE
Uae
■bown
50 ]
mesh metbod
circuit ID n&m-• All tJ,e DC volta&• ■ource• have 12 V •tor IQ
of .,..irt• to ftDd _the current through 4 n real O Utput
•

60 70 - 11 +

40

--
. f (AU/EEE .-Ja
IU·ili
Solution:

sn .
•II
,. , , 'I

12 ~
11
) 12n)
12_ .'

By applying mesh inspection method

,, ..' .
...

[:~ \~ !][~]
0 -4 9 =
[12]
0

By applying Cramer's . , I, 12
rule, we flmd out the
-
.
current th. rough 4 .
n resistor.
A 18 -12 0
= -12 23
0 -4
18(207 . ..
== ·
Current through 4
n resistor =- l3 - 12•. - 16) + 12(- 108) = 2142

ta
 · ..:..__ _ _ _
· _:·.:_
:_ _ _ _ _ _ _!:! !
!!:-~E::,CT.:.,:R~I_CA_L_C_I_R_CU_I_T_S--- -... ._. .:._ _.. 1.71

O ~9
18 12
-12
0 12 - 18(48) ~ 12( - 108). - 216 0

---
Al:z
A
216 0
214 2 • 1.0 08 A

18
. ~1 3 = -12 6
• 1~(276) + 12 (- 144) + 12( 48) .. 381
0 '· \

Al3 381 6 . ..
l3 = T = 2142 - 1. 78 A . -
8 - 1.0 08 . 0.7 72 A
Cu rre nt thr oug h 4 !l res isto r= 13 - 12 = 1.7

1.4 .2 No da l Analysis ·_
our ce circ uits . In thi s me tho d,
Th e nod al me tho d is use d to analyze mu ltis
Kirchhoffs cur ren t law (KCL) app lied
we sol ve the sim ulta neo us equ atio ns usi ng
e fa dej lne d cza aju ru: tfo n orJofn.fng
at var iou s nod es in an elec tric circ uit. Nod
zls.
po_int of two or_mo re com pon ent termfnc
refe ren ce nod e, wit h res pec t to
In nod al me tho d, we sele ct one nod e as a
red . Thu s, the refe ren ce nod e act s as
the vol tag es at all oth er nod es are me asu
a gro und or com mo n for the circ uit.
ver t all vol tag e sou rce s to
Th e fir st ste p in nod al me tho d ts to con
t cur ren t sou rce s. The sec ond ste p fa to ide nti fy all the _princfpal
equ iva len
ere nce nod e. The cho ice is arb itra ry,
no des in the cir cui t an d to cho ose cz ref
it is usu all y con ven ien t to sele ct the refe ren ce nod e as the one hav ing the
but
the com pon ent s con nec ted to it. All the nod es exc ept the ref ere nce nod e
mo st of
ing vol tag es are des ign ate d as V 1, V2 •••
are the n num ber ed and the ir cor resp ond
. Th e ref ere nce nod e and oth er nod es are ind ica ted as sho wn in fig ure 1.1 9.
etc
V1 R1

G) @

Rs

©
Ref. node
Figure 1.1 9
 •:_!,!__:___::__~_:.,_-_..:.--,!BA~S~IC:.,:E~L::EC,:.T:..:.R~IC_A_L_A_N_D_E_LE_C_T_R
_O_N;.:,:IC:.:S~ENGI
l -
!:72
~
Step s d d
aior node as the refe renc e no e an assi·gn e
1. Sele ct one ~ ~ od ach
'th its own unk now n pote ntia l (Wit
(n - 1) rema inin g n es w1 h of th
res~
to the reference node).
2 . Assi gn bran ch curr ent to all bran ches ._

1 R
V' ~ V2
w
Th e arro is dral\'11 from V1 towo rds V2 bec
. l
ause cur ren t alwa y
from high er pote ntial to the lower pote ntia s no'9i
. s
3 . Exp ress the branch curr ents in term s of the nod e pote ntia ls.

V. -V,.
I= --=-
' -~4

R
4 . Write the curr ent equa tion at each of the (n -
1) unk now n nodes.
s. Sub stitu te the curr ent expr essi ons (Step-3) into the curr ent equations
(Ste p-4) , whic h then beco me a set of sim ulta
neo us equa tion s of
unk now n node voltages.
6 . Solv e for the unkn own voltages and the bran ch
curr ents .
We shal l cons ider the circu it show n in figu re 1.20 for
nod al anal ysis.
1, V, IR3 R3 V2 l2
G)
IR1 ®. IR2
1, t R, R2
t 12

• Ref. node
Figure 1.20 ,
In man y circu its the referen .
com mon term inal or th d as
ce node is mos t con ven ient ly sele cte . t a
e grou
of thre e node s. It is possible t nd tenr u al T ns1s s
. n ; he abov e circ uit diag ram co_ 'Il'
nod es. Applying KCL at nod 0 w~t e (n - 1) equ atio ns
. e 1 gives
for the circ uit having

11 = IRl + IR3

l1 - IRl - fR3= 0
whe re,
ECT,!.;R~l;;.CA_L_C_I_RC_U_IT_s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _...l!!!
~ 1.73

V1 -V2
IRJ -
Rl

Hence, l1 - --
v, v.-v2 •O
R, Rl
11 - V1G1 - V 1G 3 + V2 0 3 • O
11 - V,(G1 + 03) + V 2 0 3 = ·O
Vi(G 1 + G 3) - V 2 0 3 = J1 •.• ( 1)

1 . 1
where, 01 = R;
I
03 ... -R
3

Next consider node 2,

We get 12 + IR3 - IR2 =0 .
which in terms of node voltages and resistances

I2 + v1 - v2 - V2 = o
R3 R2
12 + V 1G 3 - V 20 3 - V 20 2 = 0
12 + V 1 G 3 - V 2 (02 + 0 3 ) = 0
... (2)
V~(G 2 + G 3) - V 10 3 = _12

Matrix r~presentation of (1) & (2),

[G'_;~, G,~ GJ [~:] _[::] 3

By applying Cramer's 1:1Ie, we can find the node voltages V 1 and V 2 •

l1 -03
6V
1 12 G2 + G3
V1 = -=
6 A
I
I

G, + G 3 1. t
!
6V2 -G3 12 i
V2 = = 6 ·
i
6
l
where, A .. G1 + G3
-G3
-G3
G2 + G3
 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS EN ...,
1.7◄ Gl..tt~
.
The generalis~d node equations
cnn be written a s ~
(GI [V]• (I) ... (3
· G · alkd the node conductanc )
where the squar{" matrL'< is c . e rnatrbc
the column matri.~ of the node \'Oltagcs with respect to the reference nod' V~
I is the column matrix of input currents_. . e~

1.4.2.1 Nodal Analysis by lnsp,ction Method

n.. follolllbtg st.pl are used fn writing the node equations ·in
form. . ~ .
I
Step 1: First convert all the voltage sources to equivalent current sou
, rces. !
l
Step 2: The conductances of all branches connected to node 1 are added
denoted by Gu. Gu is called the self conductance of node 1. aJld t
Step 3: All the conductances connected to nodes 1 and 2 are added and denot t
by G 12• Gil is called mutual conductance of nodes 1 and 2. This G ~ ~
.
wntten wi"th negative
. sign.
. If no cond uct.ance 1s 1211 I
· connected between t
nodes 1 and 2 then G12 = 0, G12_= G21· . 11

Step 4: 11 denotes the value of the current source to node 1 and is written O t
the right hand side of the equation. The sign of I 1 is positive if it i~ f
flowing towards node I., otherwise it is negative. If no current source •
is connected to node 1, then 11 = 0.
For example, consider the circuit given below,
First convert voltage sources into equivalent current sources.
~ V1 ~ V2 R3

,.
v, R. . Rs :

Ref. node .

11 =
v1
R'
I
l2 .- v2

R3
v, V2
© ~ @

1, t R, R. Rs R3 t l2

@
Ref. node
I
--
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 1.75

f f) ode .
The circ uit cons ists of two nodes 1 a n d 2 an d common re n
At nod e 1,
1
1 1
Conduc tanc e, G u • - +- +- G,2•
R, R4 R2 '

At nod e 2,
· 1 -1 1
Con duct ance , -+-+-
R2 R3 R5
Mat rix repr esen tatio n is given by,
[GJ [VJ= (IJ

1 1. i 1
-+-+-
R1 . R2 R4 R2
1 1 1 1
-+-+-
R2 . R2 R3 Rs

By solv ing th~s mat rix, we can .find ~ut nod al

vol~ agu V 1 and V:r

j EXAMPLE 51 I ugh the 20 n resi stor .

Usin g nod al ana lysis , dete rmin e the curr ent thro

•!· Ill
100 100

+
20V
200

Solu tion :
curr ent sour ces.
Con vert all the volta ge sour ces into thei r equi vale nt
10 ... 1 A· v,
10 '

2
12 = 0" =2 A
10
t 10 n 200 100 f 2A
The n, appl y KCL' t_o node V1 1A
v v1 v1
2 +1 - ; -
1
+-+-
10 _; 20 10
 ~ GI
TRICAL AND ELECTRONICS E
BASIC ELEC ~~
1.78 . ection method is given bet ~
. t ...... ronn by insP o'II, f
·nsm~•-
Node equat10 ~
l

r¼ [V,] . [~] l
1 1 ..!.. V2 f
10 +-+
10 1
5
~

. [ 0 .2 16 -0.06
-0.066 0.266
6
](v'] . [:s]
V2
erainer's rule.
Solve V1 and Va by
I0.216-0.06~ _ o.os14 - 0.0043 = o .os31
A • ~.066 0.266 I
Is --0.06~ = 1.33 _ o.s28 = 0.802
Av, • (-8 0.266 I
flV, • 0.802 = 15.1 V
v. - fl 0.0531 ·

Io.216 s = -1.128 + o.33 = -1.398

i-o.066 -8

V, = flV2 = -1.398 = - 26.327 V

fl 0.0531
Current through 15 n resistor is

v, - v 2 15.1 - (-26.327)
I, 5 = 15 '"' 15

!1 15 = 2. 76 A j

IEXAMPLE54 I
Ualng Rodal method flad cuneat through 8 Cl resistor.
sn 10n 12n

+
+
4V 15 an 6V

•U·lli
 crrtlCAL CIRCUITS ..,;,.---~...:·~·.:..,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __!;1.:!!79
~~:;::;..-----..
.,tton:
so 1 convert all the voltage 10 · ·· · -
urcea into its equivalent current sources.
4
l l - 5 - 0.8 A' 6
I2 • -•OSA
12 .
N0 w, the circuit becomes

V1 © 10n \!)
'2'v2

0.8A
50 15 Cl an 12n

At node 1, the current is 0.8 A.

At node 2 , the current is 0.5 A.
Node equations in matrix form by inspection method is given below.

ro.81
Lo.sj

f 0 .366
L-
-o.11[v11 - ro.81
0 .1 0 .308 V2 l 0.5
Solve V 1 and V 2 by Cramer's rule.

0 ·366 -O.l \ • 0 . 112 - 0 .01

= 0.102
\ -0.1 0 .308

AV •
l
1°•8
0.5
- O.l
0.308
\= 0 .2464 + 0.05 • 0.2964
. . -
fl v 1 _ o .2964 .. _
2 905
v
Vl • fl 0 .102

0.366 0.81
aV2 • -0.l 0.S • 0.183 + 0.08 • 0.263
\
flV2 • 0.263 • 2.578 V
V2 • fl 0.102

Current through 80 resistor • ~ •

2 578
· 8 • 0.322 A
8