Classification of Composites and Nanocomposites

Composites are classified by…

Classified by Matrix Phase

• Ceramic-matrix Composite (CMC)
• Metal-matrix Composite (MMC)
• Polymer-matrix Composite (PMC)

Ceramics have high strength and stiffness but are brittle.

Metals have intermediate strength and stiffness but high ductility.
Polymers have low strength and stiffness.

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Ceramic-matrix Composite (CMC)

• Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are one promising materials. By combining

different ceramic matrix materials with special suitable fibers, new properties can be
created and tailored for interesting technical fields.

• are non-brittle refractory materials designed for applications in severe environments

(often combining high temperatures, high stress levels and corrosive atmospheres).

• The high strength potential of CMCs is directly related to the use of high strength,
high modulus ceramic fiber reinforcements of small diameter (typically of the order of
10 μm).

• Improving the oxidation resistance of non-oxide CMCs is another important issue,

particularly with a view to long duration exposures at high temperatures.

• CMCs are expected to have a serious impact on the development of new

technologies, as suggested by a few successful current applications.
- C/SiC or SiC/SiC composites in aerojet or rocket engines
- CMC braking systems (C/C for aircraft and C/C – SiC for cars)
- The use of SiC/SiC composites in high temperature nuclear reactors (fission and fusion) for
power generation

Fibers for Ceramic Matrix Composites

 Possible candidates for the reinforcement of ceramic materials are polycrystalline or

amorphous inorganic fibers or carbon fibers.

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Applications of Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

 CMCs for Space and Aeronautical Applications

 During the 1980s, Ceramic Matrix Composites were developed to meet the
relatively long durations of thermal protection system ( TPS ) for future reusable
launch vehicles.
- the weight saving
- the increase in gas temperature
 The intrinsic properties of CMCs (low density, high melting point, high mechanical
properties, chemical stability)

 The ceramic low fracture toughness being deleted due to the fiber reinforcement
and tailored fiber/matrix bonding.

SEPCARBINOX material (carbon-SiC material with

an enhanced finishing surface treatment) was
pronounced for the Rafale M88-2 engine outer flaps
in 1996, and it has very long lifetime.
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 CMCs for Friction Applications

- C/SiC Pads for Advanced Friction Systems

The development of carbon fiber reinforced SiC-composites (C/SiC, C/C-SiC)for

their use in friction systems started in the early 1990ies and represents a successful
spin-off from space technologies to terrestrial applications

Brake Pads for Car Brake Systems

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Metal-matrix Composite (MMC)

• Metal matrix composites (MMCs), consist of at least two chemically and physically
distinct phases, suitably distributed to provide properties not obtainable with either of
the individual phases.

• Generally, there are two phases, e.g., a fibrous or particulate phase, distributed in a
metallic matrix.

• Examples
• Nb-Ti filaments in a copper matrix for superconducting magnets
• tungsten carbide (WC)/cobalt (Co) particulate composites used as cutting tool
and oil drilling inserts
• SiC particle reinforced Al matrix composites used in aerospace, automotive, and
thermal management applications

• Types of metal matrix composites

• particle reinforced MMCs
• short fiber or whisker reinforced MMCs
• continuous fiber or sheet reinforced MMCs

Why metal matrix composites?

With respect to metals, MMCs offer the following advantages:

• Major weight savings due to higher strength-to-weight ratio
• Exceptional dimensional stability
• Higher elevated temperature stability, i.e., creep resistance
• Significantly improved cyclic fatigue characteristics

With respect to PMCs, MMCs offer these distinct advantages:

• Higher strength and stiffness
• Higher service temperatures
• Higher electrical conductivity
• Higher thermal conductivity
• Better transverse properties
• Improved joining characteristics
• Radiation survivability (laser, UV, nuclear, etc.)
• Little or no contamination (no out-gassing or moisture absorption problems)

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 Applications of metal matrix composites

Metal matrix composites are used in a myriad of applications. The high strength-to-
weight ratio, enhanced mechanical and thermal properties over conventional materials,
and tailorability of properties make them very attractive in a variety of applications.

Application fields:
• Aerospace
• Transportation
(automotive and
railway)
• Electronics and
thermal
management
• Filamentary
superconducting
magnets
• Power conduction
• Recretational
Products and
Sporting Goods
• Wear-resistant
materials

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Polymer-matrix Composite (PMC)
Polymer composites are plastics that are reinforced with fibers or particles such as carbon
or glass. The matrix material used for polymer composites is either a thermosetting polymer
resin or a thermoplastic material.
• A polymer primary phase in which a secondary phase is imbedded as fibers, particles, or
flakes

• Commercially, PMCs are more important than MMCs or CMCs

• Examples: most plastic molding compounds, rubber reinforced with carbon black, and
fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs)

Common matrix materials

• Different types of thermosets and thermoplastic resins commonly in use

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“A PMC consisting of a polymer matrix imbedded with high-strength fibers” called Fiber
reinforced polymer (FRP) composites

Polymer matrix materials:

• Usually a thermosetting (TS) plastic such as unsaturated polyester or epoxy
• Can also be thermoplastic (TP), such as nylons (polyamides), polycarbonate,
polystyrene, and polyvinylchloride
• Fiber reinforcement is widely used in rubber products such as tires and conveyor belts

Fibers in PMCs:
• Various forms: discontinuous (chopped), continuous, or woven as a fabric
• Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass, carbon, and Kevlar 49
• Less common fibers include boron, SiC, and Al2O3, and steel Glass (in particular E-
glass) is the most common fiber material in today's FRPs; its use to reinforce plastics
dates from around 1920

Common FRP Structure:

• Most widely used form of FRP is a laminar structure, made by stacking and bonding
thin layers of fiber and polymer until desired thickness is obtained
• By varying fiber orientation among layers, a specified level of anisotropy in properties
can be achieved in the laminate
• Applications: parts of thin cross-section, such as aircraft wing and fuselage sections,
automobile and truck body panels, and boat hulls

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FRP Properties:
• High strength-to-weight and modulus-to-weight ratios.
• Low specific gravity - a typical FRP weighs only about 1/5 as much as steel; yet,
strength and modulus are comparable in fiber direction.
• Good fatigue strength.
• Good corrosion resistance, although polymers are soluble in various chemicals.
• Low thermal expansion - for many FRPs, leading to good dimensional stability.
• Significant anisotropy in properties.

Other Polymer Matrix Composites

In addition to FRPs, other PMCs contain particles, flakes, and short fibers as the
secondary phase.
 Called fillers when used in molding compounds

Two categories:
- Reinforcing fillers – used to strengthen or otherwise improve mechanical
properties
Examples: wood flour in phenolic and amino resins;
and carbon black in rubber

- Extenders – used to increase bulk and reduce cost per unit weight, but
little or no effect on mechanical properties

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Applications of PMCs:

The use of polymer matrix composites is diverse and far reaching touching all
industry sectors with applications ranging from commercial aircraft to bath tubs.

• Boat decking - boat hulls, submersibles pressure hull, propeller shafts,

masts, bulkheads, rudders.
• Transport – car & rail body panels, bumper fascia, radiator grills, instrument
panels, engine components, fuel lines.
• Civil engineering – bridges, column wraps, cladding, repair of concrete.
• General engineering – pipe systems, air ductwork, power transmission drive
shafts, storage tanks, pressure vessels.
• Aerospace – General & military aviation fuselage, bulkhead & floor, cargo
liner, wings, landing gear, doors, rotor blades & hubs, satellite structure.
• Sport – bike frames, canoes, fishing rods, archery bows, golf clubs, ski
poles & skis, surf boards, racquets.
• Domestic consumer – sanitary ware – baths & shower units, furniture.

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Which PMCs are used in airplanes?

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Classified by Dispersed phase

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Particle-reinforced composite

• Particles usually reinforce a composite equally in all

directions (called isotropic) i.e. Plastics, cermets and
metals.

• Particles used to strengthen a matrix do not do so in

the same way as fibers. For one thing, particles are not
directional like fibers. Spread at random through out a
matrix, particles tend to reinforce in all directions
equally.

Examples:
- Spheroidite steel particles:
matrix:
ferrite () cementite
(ductile) (Fe3C)
(brittle)
60 m

- Automobile tires matrix: particles:

rubber C
(compliant) (stiffer)
nano-composite
0.75 m
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Particle-reinforced composite
Divided into two categories depending on the size of the particles and strengthening
mechanism:

• Large-particle composites, which act by restraining the movement of the matrix, if well
bonded.
- LARGE indicate that particle-matrix interaction cannot be treated on the atomic or molecular.
- Involves large particles that are harder or stiffer than matrix.
- The reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase in the vicinity of each
particle.
- The matrix transfer some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a friction at the load.
- Bonding at the interface is necessarily important.

• Dispersion-strengthened composites, containing 10-100 nm particles, similar to what was

discussed under precipitation hardening.
- matrix bears the major portion of the applied load.
- the small particles hinder dislocation motion
- limiting plastic deformation.
- Improves yield and tensile strength.
- Most of MMCs fall in this category.
- Metal, metallic compound, ceramic particle, whisker or etc., is uniformly dispersed in matrix
medium.

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Large Particle Composites
Examples:
 Some polymers with added fillers are really large particle composites
 Concrete (cement with sand or gravel)
◦ cement is matrix, sand is particulate

Desired Characteristics:
• Particles should be approximately equiaxed
• Particles should be small and evenly distributed
• Volume fraction dependent on desired properties

Elastic modulus is dependent on

the volume fraction
“Rule of mixtures” equation
Actual Upper bound
-upper bound E c  E m Vm  E p V p Values
*

E - particulate
*

E- matrix
* * *
-lower bound *
*
Em Ep
Ec  Lower bound
EpVm  EmVp
conc. of particulates 19

Dispersion Strengthened Composites

Use of very hard, small particles to strengthen metals and metal alloys. The
effect is like precipitation hardening but not so strong. Particles like oxides do
not react so the strengthening action is retained at high temperatures.

• Metals and metal alloys

- hardened by uniform dispersion of fine particles of a very hard material
(usually ceramic)

• Strengthening occurs through the interactions of dislocations and the

particulates

• Examples
- Thoria in Ni
- Al/Al2O3 sintered aluminum powder SAP
- GP zones in Al

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 Large-Particle vs. Dispersion-Strengthened Composites

Shear 

Large-Particle

Strong Particle Dislocation shears through

>500 nm the dispersion

Dispersion Strengthened Stress field of

dispersion

Strong Particle
<100 nm Dislocation stopped

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Fiber-reinforced composite

In fiber composites, the fibers reinforce along the line of their length.
Reinforcement may be mainly 1-D, 2-D or 3-D. Figure shows the three basic types
of fiber orientation.
• 1-D gives maximum strength in one direction.
• 2-D gives strength in two directions.
• Isotropic gives strength equally in all directions.

Strength depends on
 Inherent fiber strength, Fiber length,
Number of flaws
 Fiber shape
 The bonding of the fiber (equally
stress distribution)
 Voids
 Moisture (coupling agents)

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• Fibers very strong
– Provide significant strength improvement to material
– Ex: fiber-glass
• Continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix
• Strength due to fibers
• Polymer simply holds them in place
– Fibers have very high SPECIFIC STRENGTH

• Fiber Materials
– Whiskers - Thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratio
• graphite, SiN, SiC
• high crystal perfection – extremely strong, strongest known
• very expensive

– Fibers
• polycrystalline or amorphous
• generally polymers or ceramics
• Ex: Carbon, Al2O3 , Aramid, E-glass, Boron, UHMWPE
– Wires
• Metal – steel, Mo, W

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Fiber Alignment

aligned aligned random

continuous discontinuous

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Aligned Continuous fibers

• Examples:
-- Metal: '(Ni3Al)-(Mo) -- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers
by eutectic solidification. formed by glass slurry
matrix: (Mo) (ductile) Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.

(a) fracture
surface

From F.L. Matthews and R.L.

2 m Rawlings, Composite Materials;
Engineering and Science, Reprint
fibers:  ’ (Ni3Al) (brittle) (b)
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo by
J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20, p. 349
From W. Funk and E. Blank, “Creep
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S.
deformation of Ni3Al-Mo in-situ
Rodgers, and R.D. Rawlings). Used
composites", Metall. Trans. A Vol. 19(4), pp.
with permission of CRC
987-998, 1988. Used with permission.
Press, Boca Raton, FL.

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Discontinuous, random 2D fibers

• Example: Carbon-Carbon C fibers:

-- process: fiber/pitch, then very stiff
burn out at up to 2500ºC. very strong
-- uses: disk brakes, gas (b)
C matrix:
turbine exhaust flaps, nose less stiff
cones. view onto plane less strong
fibers lie
• Other variations: (a) in plane
-- Discontinuous, random 3D
-- Discontinuous, 1D
Adapted from F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings,
Composite Materials; Engineering and Science,
Reprint ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000.
(a) Fig. 4.24(a), p. 151; (b) Fig. 4.24(b) p. 151.
(Courtesy I.J. Davies) Reproduced with
permission of CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

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 Stress-Strain Behavior of Composites ?

How much load is being transferred to the fiber ?

depends on the bonding between fiber and matrix !
at the end of the fiber load is solely carried by matrix !

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Structural composite
Example: Flake

• Flakes, because of their shape, usually reinforce in 2-D. Two common flake
materials are glass and mica. (Also aluminum is used as metal flakes)

• A flake composite consists of thin, flat flakes held together by a binder or

placed in a matrix. Almost all flake composite matrixes are plastic resins.

• Basically, flakes will provide:

- Uniform mechanical properties
in the plane of the flakes
- Higher strength
- Higher flexural modulus
- Higher dielectric strength and heat
resistance
- Better resistance to penetration by
liquids and vapor
- Lower cost

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Structural composites
 Definition
◦ composed of both homogeneous and composite materials
◦ properties depend on constituent materials and on geometrical design of
the elements

 Types
◦ Laminar composites
Two dimensional sheets or panels with a
preferred high-strength direction

◦ Sandwich panels
- Two strong outer sheets (called faces) separated by
a layer of less dense material
or core (which has lower E
and lower strength)
- Core: separates faces,
resists deformation
perpendicular to the faces,
often honeycomb structures
- Used in roofs, walls, wings

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• Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets

-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0º/90º or 0/45/90
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness

• Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core
-- benefit: light weight, large bending stiffness
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

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Classification of Nanocomposites
• By classes or functions

Type of Nanocomposite Example

1. Low temperature sol-gel derived Mullite/SiO2, Al2O3/SiO2 , SiO2/MgO,
nanocomposite Al2O3 /TiO2, Mullite/ZrO2, Mullite/TiO2
2. Structural ceramics nanocomposites Al2O3/SiC, Mullite/SiC, Si3N4/SiC, MgO/SiC
3. Glass ceramics, glass/metal Photosensitive glasses
nanocomposite
4. Electroceramic nanocomposites Co/Cr
5. Nanocomposite films Lead zirconate titanate/nickel
6. Entrapment type nanocomposite Zeolite/organic complexes
7. Layered nanocomposite Pillared clays
(montmorilloniteloxide sol particles)
8. Organo ceramic nanocomposite Polymeric matrix/PbTiO3
9. Metal/ceramic nanocomposite Fe-Cr/Al2O3, Ni/Al2O3

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• By the reinforcement forms present

(1) Particulate reinforcement composite: A reinforcement is considered to be a particle and all of

its dimensions are roughly equal. This include those reinforced by spheres, rods, flakes and many
other shapes of roughly equal axes. The particles either metallic or non-metallic do not chemically
combine with the matrix material . The size, shape, spacing of particles, their volume fraction and
their distribution all contribute to the properties of the material.

(2) Fiber reinforcement composite: Fiber reinforced composites contain reinforcements having
lengths much greater than their cross sectional dimensions. Fiber reinforcement composites are
further divided into discontinuous fiber composite. Discontinuous fiber composites are those in
which the properties of composite vary with fiber length. The composite is considered to be a
continuous fiber reinforced composite if the change in length of fiber does not affect the properties.

(3) Laminar composite: Laminar composites are those composed of two or more layers with two of
their dimensions being much larger than their third dimension. In this type of composite layers two
different solid materials are bonded together.

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 • By the position of the nanophase
Niihara’s model

In the intra and inter granular nanocomposites, the nanosize particles are dispersed mainly within the
matrix grains or the grain boundaries of the matrix respectively. The high temperature mechanical
properties such as hardness, strength and creep and fatigue fracture resistance are very much
improved in these nanocomposites. In nano/nano composites the dispersoids and the matrix gains are
in the nanometer size. The development of such nanocomposite added the functions such as
machinability and superplasticity like metals to ceramics
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Kuntz’s model

(a) nano-nano (b) nano-micro

(c) nano-fiber (d) nano-nanolayer

- Nano-nano composite: both the matrix and second phase have equiaxed grains of less than 100 nm;
- Nano-micro composite: nanocrystalline matrix and a microcrystalline second phase;
- Nano-fiber composite: whiskers or fibers incorporated into a nanocrystalline metrix; and
- Nano-nanolayer composite: nanocrystalline matrix and a grain boundary layer of a second phase.
This classification is specifically designed for applications requiring improved fracture toughness.

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