SQL : Comprehensive Course
Notes
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to SQL
2. Basic SQL Commands
3. Data Types
4. Creating and Modifying Tables
5. Querying Data
6. Filtering and Sorting Data
7. Joins
8. Aggregation and Grouping
9. Subqueries
10. Views
11. Indexes
12. Transactions
13. Stored Procedures and Functions
14. Triggers
15. Database Design and Normalization
16. Performance Tuning
17. Security and Access Control
18. Advanced SQL Concepts
1. Introduction to SQL <a name="introduction-to-
sql"></a>
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standardized language used for
managing and manipulating relational databases. It allows you to create,
retrieve, update, and delete data in a structured manner.
SQL : Comprehensive Course Notes 1
Key points:
SQL is used with relational database management systems (RDBMS) like
MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, SQL Server, etc.
It's declarative, meaning you specify what you want, not how to get it.
SQL is divided into several sub-languages: DDL, DML, DCL, and TCL.
2. Basic SQL Commands <a name="basic-sql-
commands"></a>
The most fundamental SQL commands include:
SELECT: Retrieve data from one or more tables
INSERT: Add new data into a table
UPDATE: Modify existing data in a table
DELETE: Remove data from a table
CREATE: Create new database objects (tables, views, etc.)
ALTER: Modify the structure of database objects
DROP: Delete database objects
Example:
SELECT * FROM employees;
INSERT INTO employees (name, position) VALUES ('John Doe',
'Manager');
UPDATE employees SET salary = 50000 WHERE id = 1;
DELETE FROM employees WHERE id = 2;
3. Data Types <a name="data-types"></a>
SQL supports various data types to store different kinds of information:
Numeric types: INT, BIGINT, FLOAT, DECIMAL
String types: CHAR, VARCHAR, TEXT
Date and time types: DATE, TIME, DATETIME, TIMESTAMP
Boolean type: BOOLEAN
SQL : Comprehensive Course Notes 2
Binary types: BLOB, BINARY
Example:
CREATE TABLE products (
id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(100),
price DECIMAL(10, 2),
description TEXT,
created_at TIMESTAMP
);
4. Creating and Modifying Tables <a
name="creating-and-modifying-tables"></a>
Use DDL (Data Definition Language) commands to create and modify database
structures:
CREATE TABLE: Create a new table
ALTER TABLE: Modify an existing table's structure
DROP TABLE: Delete a table
Example:
CREATE TABLE customers (
id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT,
name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE
);
ALTER TABLE customers ADD COLUMN phone VARCHAR(20);
DROP TABLE old_customers;
5. Querying Data <a name="querying-data"></a>
The SELECT statement is used to query data from tables:
SQL : Comprehensive Course Notes 3
SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Key clauses:
FROM: Specifies the table(s) to query
WHERE: Filters rows based on a condition
ORDER BY: Sorts the result set
LIMIT: Restricts the number of rows returned
Example:
SELECT name, email FROM customers WHERE city = 'New York' O
RDER BY name LIMIT 10;
6. Filtering and Sorting Data <a name="filtering-and-
sorting-data"></a>
Use various operators and clauses to filter and sort data:
Comparison operators: =, <>, <, >, <=, >=
Logical operators: AND, OR, NOT
LIKE: Pattern matching with wildcards (% and _)
IN: Check if a value matches any value in a list
BETWEEN: Check if a value is within a range
IS NULL / IS NOT NULL: Check for null values
Example:
SELECT * FROM products
WHERE category = 'Electronics'
AND price BETWEEN 100 AND 500
AND name LIKE '%phone%'
ORDER BY price DESC;
7. Joins <a name="joins"></a>
SQL : Comprehensive Course Notes 4
Joins are used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related
column between them:
INNER JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
LEFT JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the matched records
from the right table
RIGHT JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and the matched
records from the left table
FULL OUTER JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in either left
or right table
Example:
SELECT orders.id, customers.name, orders.order_date
FROM orders
INNER JOIN customers ON orders.customer_id = customers.id;
8. Aggregation and Grouping <a
name="aggregation-and-grouping"></a>
Aggregate functions perform calculations on a set of values and return a single
result:
COUNT(): Counts the number of rows
SUM(): Calculates the sum of a set of values
AVG(): Calculates the average of a set of values
MAX(): Returns the maximum value
MIN(): Returns the minimum value
The GROUP BY clause is used with aggregate functions to group the result-set
by one or more columns.
Example:
SELECT category, COUNT(*) as product_count, AVG(price) as a
vg_price
FROM products
SQL : Comprehensive Course Notes 5
GROUP BY category
HAVING COUNT(*) > 10;
9. Subqueries <a name="subqueries"></a>
A subquery is a query nested inside another query. It can be used in various
parts of an SQL statement:
In the WHERE clause
In the FROM clause (derived tables)
In the SELECT clause (scalar subqueries)
Example:
SELECT name, price
FROM products
WHERE price > (SELECT AVG(price) FROM products);
10. Views <a name="views"></a>
A view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement:
CREATE VIEW high_value_customers AS
SELECT id, name, email
FROM customers
WHERE lifetime_value > 10000;
Views can simplify complex queries and provide an additional layer of security.
11. Indexes <a name="indexes"></a>
Indexes are used to speed up data retrieval operations on database tables:
CREATE INDEX idx_last_name ON employees(last_name);
Types of indexes:
Single-column indexes
Multi-column indexes
SQL : Comprehensive Course Notes 6
Unique indexes
Full-text indexes
12. Transactions <a name="transactions"></a>
Transactions ensure the integrity of data in a database. They have four key
properties (ACID):
Atomicity: All operations in a transaction succeed or they all fail
Consistency: The database remains in a consistent state before and after
the transaction
Isolation: Concurrent transactions do not interfere with each other
Durability: Once a transaction is committed, it remains so
Example:
BEGIN TRANSACTION;
UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - 100 WHERE id = 1;
UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + 100 WHERE id = 2;
COMMIT;
13. Stored Procedures and Functions <a
name="stored-procedures-and-functions"></a>
Stored procedures and functions are SQL code that can be saved and reused:
DELIMITER //
CREATE PROCEDURE get_employee_by_id(IN emp_id INT)
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE id = emp_id;
END //
DELIMITER ;
CALL get_employee_by_id(123);
14. Triggers <a name="triggers"></a>
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Triggers are SQL procedures that are automatically executed in response to
certain events on a particular table:
CREATE TRIGGER update_modified_date
BEFORE UPDATE ON products
FOR EACH ROW
SET NEW.modified_date = CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;
15. Database Design and Normalization <a
name="database-design-and-normalization"></a>
Database design principles:
Identify entities and relationships
Define primary and foreign keys
Apply normalization rules (1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF)
Normalization reduces data redundancy and improves data integrity.
16. Performance Tuning <a name="performance-
tuning"></a>
Techniques to improve SQL performance:
Proper indexing
Query optimization
Avoiding correlated subqueries
Using EXPLAIN to analyze query execution plans
Partitioning large tables
Caching frequently accessed data
17. Security and Access Control <a name="security-
and-access-control"></a>
SQL provides commands to manage database security:
CREATE USER: Create a new database user
GRANT: Give specific privileges to a user
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REVOKE: Remove specific privileges from a user
Example:
CREATE USER 'john'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password123';
GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON database_name.* TO 'john'@'localhos
t';
18. Advanced SQL Concepts <a name="advanced-
sql-concepts"></a>
Some advanced SQL topics include:
Window functions (ROW_NUMBER, RANK, etc.)
Common Table Expressions (CTEs)
Pivot and unpivot operations
Full-text search
JSON and XML data handling
Recursive queries
Example of a window function:
SELECT
name,
department,
salary,
ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION BY department ORDER BY sal
ary DESC) as salary_rank
FROM employees;
This comprehensive guide covers the main aspects of SQL from basic to
advanced concepts. Remember that practice and hands-on experience are
crucial for mastering SQL. Good luck with your SQL course!
SQL : Comprehensive Course Notes 9
