BCSE308L

Computer Networks

Dr.V.SIVAKUMAR
SCOPE, VIT-Vellore
 BCSE308L
Computer Networks

Book: Data Communication and

Networking
By: Behrouz A Forouzan

Module-1
What is a Network?
What is a Network?
What is a Network?
What is a Network?
What is a Network?

◼ A system of lines/channels that are

interconnected with each other.

◼ What is a Computer Network?

What is a Computer Network?
 What is a Computer Network?

◼ A set of computers which

are connected together.
◼ This can mean two
computers cabled together
on the same desk, or
thousands of computers
across the world.
◼ The connections can be
cables or wireless.
Advantages of Computer Networks

◼ Enables users to share hardware like

scanners and printers. This reduces
costs by reducing the number of
hardware items bought.
◼ Allows users access to data stored on
others' computers. This keeps everyone
up-to-date on the latest data
◼ Can share access to the Internet.
Advantages of Computer Networks

◼ Can even let users run programs that

are not installed on their own computers
but are installed elsewhere in the
network.
➢ reduces the effort for networks
administrators to keep programs configured
correctly and saves a lot of storage space.
1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
Figure 1.1 Components of a data communication system
Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
Characteristics of a Data Communication System

❖ Delivery : System must deliver data to correct

destination. Data must be received by only
intended device or user.

❖ Accuracy: The system must deliver data

accurately

❖ Timeliness: the system must deliver data in a

timely manner. Data delivered later are useless.

❖ Jitter: Variation in the packet arrival time. It is

the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video
packets.
Network Criteria

◼ Performance
◼ Depends on Network Elements
◼ Measured in terms of Delay, Jitter and Throughput
◼ Reliability
◼ Failure rate of network components
◼ Measured in terms of availability/robustness
◼ Security
◼ Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
◼ Errors
◼ Malicious users
 Throughput
◼ Throughput is an important network metric
which is also known as bandwidth.
◼ The bandwidth of a network is given by
the number of bits that can be transmitted
over the network in a certain period of
time.
◼ Depends on the network technology
(hardware capabilities) and therefore is
constant.
Throughput Example

◼ A network might have a bandwidth of 10

million bits/second (Mbps), meaning that
it is able to deliver 10 million bits every
second.
Delay
◼ Also known as latency.
◼ corresponds to how long it takes a
message to travel from one end of a
network to the other.
◼ Latency is measured strictly in terms of
time.
◼ Effected by number of users and hence
may change from time to time.
Factors Affecting Performance

➢ Type of transmission media,

➢ Capabilities of connected H.W and the

efficiency of software.
➢ Number of user
Reliability

◼ Accuracy of delivery.
◼ Measured by:
◼ Frequency of failures
◼ Time it takes to recover from a failure
◼ The network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
Security

◼ Many issues at the different layers!

◼ Examples:
◼ Protecting data from unauthorized

access.
◼ Protecting data from damage.

◼ Implementing policies and procedures

for recovery from breaches and data

losses.
Physical Structures

◼ Type of Connection
◼ Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
◼ Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
◼ Physical Topology
◼ Connection of devices
◼ Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast
Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
Figure 1.4 Categories of topology
Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
Advantages of a Mesh topology
◼ Privacy or security (every message travels
along a dedicated line, only the intended
recipient sees it. Physical boundaries
prevents other user from gaining access
the message
◼ eliminating the traffic problems The use of
dedicated links guarantees that each
connection can carry its own data load;
that can occur when links must be shared
by multiple devices.
Advantages of a Mesh topology

◼ A mesh is robust. If one link becomes

unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system.
◼ Fault identification and fault isolation easy.
This enables the network manager to
discover the precise location of fault and
aids in finding its cause and solution.
 Disadvantages of a Mesh topology

Related to the amount of cabling devices

and the amount of I/O ports required:
◼ Every device must be connected to every other
device, installation and reconnection are
difficult
◼ The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than
the available space can accommodate.
◼ The H.W required to connect each link (I/O ports
and cable) expensive.
Disadvantages of a Mesh topology

So a mesh topology is usually implemented in a

limited fashion as a backbone connecting the main
computers of a hybrid network that can include
several other topologies
Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations
Advantages of a Star topology

1.Easy to install and reconfigure and

less expensive
◼ each device need only one link and

I/O port to connect it to any other

devices.)
2.Robustness:
◼ if one link fails, only that link affected

and other links remain active.

3.identification and fault isolation
Disadvantages of a Star topology

◼ The dependency of the whole topology on

one single point, the hub. If the hub
goes down, the whole system is
dead.
Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations
 Advantages of a Bus topology

Ease of instulation, use less cabling than

mesh or star.
-
 Disadvantages of a Bus topology

1. A fault in bus cable (break) stops all

transmissions even between devices on the
same side of the problem. The damaged area
reflects signals back the direction of origin,
creating noise in both directions
2. Reconnection
It can difficult to add new devices (adding
more require modification or replacement of
the backbone).
Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations
 Advantages of a Ring Topology
◼ Easy to install and reconfigure.
Each device is linked only to its immediate
neighbors. To add or delete a device
requires hanging only 2 connections
◼ Fault isolation is simplified :

A signal is circulating at all times (token) if

one device does not receive a signal within
specified period, it can issue an alarm. The
alarm alerts the network operator to the
problem and its location
Disadvantages of a Ring Topology

◼ Unidirectional traffic.
A break in the ring (such as disabled
station) can disable the entire network.
This can be solved by use dual ring
Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks
 Categories of Networks

◼ Local Area Networks (LANs)

◼ Short distances
◼ Designed to provide local interconnectivity
◼ Wide Area Networks (WANs)
◼ Long distances
◼ Provide connectivity over large areas
◼ Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
◼ Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
1-4 PROTOCOLS

A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of

rules that govern data communications. It determines
what is communicated, how it is communicated and when
it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics and timing
Elements of a Protocol

◼ Syntax
◼ Structure or format of the data
◼ Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
◼ Semantics
◼ Interprets the meaning of the bits
◼ Knows which fields define what action
◼ Timing
◼ When data should be sent and what
◼ Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being
received.
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter
2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
OSI Reference Model

◼ Provides basis for connecting open systems for

distributed applications processing
◼ “Open” means that any two systems that conform to reference
model and related standards can be connected, regardless of
vendor
◼ Similar functions collected together into seven logical
clusters (layers)
◼ Possible to redesign a layer without affecting the adjacent
layers
◼ Handles data transmission from one terminal or
application program to another
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
OSI Reference Model (continued)

OSI Reference Model

◼ At every layer of the sending unit, a new header
is attached to the previous packet before it’s
passed on to the next lower layer
◼ At the data link layer, a link trailer (LT) is added,
completing the frame, which is passed to the
physical layer for transmission
◼ Receiving unit removes each header or trailer
until it delivers the data to the application
program at Layer 7
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/ope
n-systems-interconnection-model-
osi/

https://www.javatpoint.com/osi-
model
Figure 2.5 Physical layer
Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
Figure 2.6 Data link layer
Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
Figure 2.8 Network layer
Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
Figure 2.10 Transport layer
Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Figure 2.12 Session layer
Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
Figure 2.13 Presentation layer
Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
Figure 2.14 Application layer
Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.

Physical and Data Link Layers

Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model
 2-5 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet
employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical,
port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.
Figure 2.19 Physical addresses
 Example 2.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
Figure 2.20 IP addresses
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.
Figure 2.21 Port addresses
Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
 Example 2.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.