04-Feb-24

EEE 322
Electromechanical Energy Conversion – II
By
Prof. Dr. A. Mete VURAL
[email protected]

CHAPTER 2

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

1
 04-Feb-24

Synchronous Generators
Synchronous generators (alternators) are synchronous machines used to convert mechanical power to AC electric
power.

The rotor is being replaced inside the stator of a large synchronous generator in a hydro power plant
3

Synchronous Generators

The rotor is being replaced inside the stator of a large

synchronous generator in a hydro power plant
4

2
 04-Feb-24

Operation principle of synchronous generator

• A DC current is applied to the rotor winding which produces a rotor magnetic field.
• The rotor of the generator is then turned by a prime mover, producing a rotating magnetic field within the
machine.
• This rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase set of voltages at the stator windings of the generator.

Reference: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tiKH48EMgKE

Field winding vs armature winding

• Two terms commonly used to describe the windings on a
synchronous machine: field windings and armature windings

• The "field windings" is the winding that produces the main

magnetic field in the synchronous machine

• For synchronous machines, the field windings are on the rotor

• The "armature windings" is the winding where the three-phase

set of voltages are induced

• For synchronous machines, the armature windings are on the

stator

Reference: http://www.studyelectrical.com

3
 04-Feb-24

Rotor types of synchronous generator

• There two types of rotors in synchronous generators and motors
✓ Cylindrical rotor (non-salient rotor)
✓ Salient-pole rotor
• Cylindrical rotors are generally designed for high
speed rotation, such as in steam turbines
• Because of high rotor speed, the pole number can be
kept small
• Pole number is generally 2 or 4

120𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑚 =
𝑃
higher
If 𝑓𝑒 =50 Hz;

120𝑥50 = 6000 = 𝑛𝑚 𝑃

lower
Cylindrical rotor 7

Rotor types of synchronous generator

• There two types of rotors in synchronous generators and motors
✓ Cylindrical rotor (non-salient rotor)
✓ Salient-pole rotor

• Salient-pole rotors are generally designed for low

speed rotation, such as in hydro turbines
• Because of low rotor speed, the pole number should
be increased
• Pole number is generally 4 or more

120𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑚 =
𝑃
higher
If 𝑓𝑒 =50 Hz;

120𝑥50 = 6000 = 𝑛𝑚 𝑃

Salient-pole rotor lower 8

4
 04-Feb-24

How DC current is supplied to rotor ?

• There are two common approaches to supplying DC current to the rotor (field winding)
First method: Supply the DC current from an external DC source to the rotor by means of slip rings and brushes
(suitable for smaller generators)

slip rings

brushes

Regular
maintenance
is required

Reference: http://users.ece.utexas.edu/~kwasinski/EE394J10DGFa12.html 9
Reference: https://www.quora.com

How DC current is supplied to rotor ?

• There are two common approaches to supplying DC current to the rotor (field winding)
Second method: Supply the DC current from a special DC power source mounted directly on the shaft of the
synchronous generator (Brushless exciter for larger generators )

By adjusting rheostat, it is possible to

adjust field current

We need an external small three-phase current

10
Option 1

5
 04-Feb-24

How DC current is supplied to rotor ?

No external current is needed !

By adjusting rheostat, it is possible to

adjust field current

11
Option 2

Speed of rotation of a synchronous generator

• Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning that the electrical frequency produced in the
stator is locked or synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of the generator.
• In another words, the speed of rotating magnetic field and mechanical rate of rotation are equal
• However, asynchronous generators are by definition asynchronous, meaning that there is always a difference
between the speed of rotating magnetic field and mechanical rate of rotation of the generator.

𝑛𝑚 𝑃
𝑓𝑒 =
120

𝑓𝑒 is the electrical frequency in the stator (Hz)

𝑛𝑚 is the mechanical speed of magnetic field rotation (rev/min or rpm)

𝑛𝑚 is also equals to the rotor speed of synchronous machines (also called “synchronous speed”)

𝑃 is number of poles (always even number)

12

6
 04-Feb-24

Internal generated voltage of a syn. generator

• In Chapter 1, we have seen that the magnitude of the induced voltage in a given stator phase is equal to:

𝐸𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑁𝐶 ∅𝑓

• Let’s write this equation in more simpler form:

𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾∅w

2
𝐾= 𝑁 (a constant related with the machine)
2 𝐶

𝑁𝐶 is the number of conductors per phase

• The induced voltage 𝐸𝐴 depends on;

➢ Flux in the machine
➢ Angular speed of rotor
➢ A constant related with the machine 13

Internal generated voltage of a syn. generator

• The field circuit current 𝐼𝐹 is related to the flux ∅
• 𝐸𝐴 is directly proportional to the flux ∅ (if w is constant)
• So 𝐸𝐴 must be related to the field current 𝐼𝐹

Magnetization curve (open-circuit characteristic) of the

synchronous machine

14

7
 04-Feb-24

Derivation of equivalent circuit of sync. gen.

• The figure shows a two-pole rotor rotating inside a three-phase stator
• Now assume that there is no load connected to the stator
• The rotor magnetic field BR produces an internal generated voltage (EA)
• The peak value of EA (EAmax) coincides with the direction of BR.
• With no load on the generator, there is no armature current flow
• EA will be taken directly from the terminals of the generator
• In this case, phase voltage (VΦ) is equal to EA

15

Derivation of equivalent circuit of sync. gen.

• Now suppose that the generator is connected to a lagging load
• Since the load is lagging, the peak current will occur at an angle behind the peak voltage

16

8
 04-Feb-24

Derivation of equivalent circuit of sync. gen.

• The current flowing in the stator windings produces a magnetic field of its own
• This stator magnetic field is called (BS)
• The direction of BS is found by the right hand rule
• The stator magnetic field (BS) induces a voltage on the stator, called “armature reaction voltage” (ESTAT)

17

Derivation of equivalent circuit of sync. gen.

• With two voltages present in the stator windings, the phase voltage of the generator becomes the sum of the internal
generated voltage (EA) and the armature reaction voltage (ESTAT)

𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇

• On the other hand, the net magnetic field in the generator becomes the sum of the rotor and stator magnetic fields

𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐵𝑅 + 𝐵𝑆

• Since the angles of BR and EA are the same

• and the angles of BS and ESTAT are the same
• The angles of 𝑽∅ and Bnet will be the same

18

9
 04-Feb-24

Definition of armature reaction

• When a synchronous generator's rotor is spun (rotated), a voltage EA is
induced in stator windings

• If a load (three phase) is attached to the terminals of the generator, a

three-phase current flows in stator windings

• This three-phase stator current produce a magnetic field (BS) of its own
in the machine.

• The stator magnetic field (BS) distorts the original rotor magnetic field
(BR)

• This distortion effect is called “armature reaction”

𝐵𝑆 = 0
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐵𝑅 (without load) 𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 ≠ 𝐵𝑅 (with load) (armature reaction)
𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐵𝑅 + 𝐵𝑆 𝐵𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐵𝑅 + 𝐵𝑆
19

Modeling of armature reaction

• How can the effects of armature reaction on the phase voltage be modeled ?

• First; the voltage ESTAT lies at an angle of 90° behind the armature current IA
• Second; the voltage ESTAT is directly proportional to the armature current IA

𝐼𝐴 𝐵𝑆 𝐸𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇

• If X is a constant of proportionality (reactor), then the armature reaction

voltage ESTAT can be expressed as:

𝐸𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇 = −𝑗𝑋𝐼𝐴 (-j means that ESTAT lags IA by 90°)

• Since;
𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇

𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝐼𝐴
20

10
 04-Feb-24

Modeling of armature reaction

(armature current)

𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝐼𝐴 (phase voltage)

(internal generated voltage)

• In addition to armature reaction, the stator coils have a self-inductance (LA) and a resistance (RA)
• These parameters can also be used in the mathematical model for more accurate calculations:
• If;

𝑋𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝐴 (armature self-reactance)

𝑅𝐴 (armature resistance)

𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝐼𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝐴 𝐼𝐴 − 𝑅𝐴 𝐼𝐴

21

Modeling of armature reaction

𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝐼𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝐴 𝐼𝐴 − 𝑅𝐴 𝐼𝐴

• If we join these two reactances in the last equation:

𝑋𝑆 = 𝑋 + 𝑋𝐴 (synchronous reactance)

• The final form of the voltage equation for the stator is obtained as:

𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝑗𝑋𝑆 𝐼𝐴 − 𝑅𝐴 𝐼𝐴

Per-phase equivalent circuit of stator

22

11
 04-Feb-24

Full equivalent circuit of synchronous generator

Phase-A

Field circuit Phase-B Three-phase output

Phase-C

23
Rotor side Stator side (armature windings)

Full equivalent circuit of synchronous generator

𝐼𝐿3
• The stator windings of the generator can be
connected as wye (Y): 𝐼𝐿1
A 𝑉𝐴𝐵
𝐼𝐴3 B
𝐸𝐴1 = 𝐸𝐴2 = 𝐸𝐴3 = 𝐸𝐴
𝐼𝐴1
𝑉∅1 = 𝑉∅2 = 𝑉∅3 = 𝑉∅
𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 3. 𝑉∅ 𝑉∅3
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑉∅1
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐴 n
𝑉𝐵𝐶

𝐼𝐴1 = 𝐼𝐴2 = 𝐼𝐴3 = 𝐼𝐴

𝑉𝐶𝐴

𝐼𝐿1 = 𝐼𝐿2 = 𝐼𝐿3 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑉∅2

𝐼𝐴2
𝐼𝐿2
Line-to-line voltage (VLL) = line voltage = terminal voltage (VT) C
Equivalent circuit of stator connected in Y
24

12
 04-Feb-24

Full equivalent circuit of synchronous generator

• The stator windings of the synchronous generator 𝐼𝐿1
can be connected as delta (∆): A
𝐸𝐴1 = 𝐸𝐴2 = 𝐸𝐴3 = 𝐸𝐴
𝑉∅3
𝑉∅1 = 𝑉∅2 = 𝑉∅3 = 𝑉∅

𝑉𝐴𝐵
𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉∅ 𝑉∅1 𝐼𝐴1
𝐼𝐴3

𝑉𝐶𝐴
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝐼𝐿 = 3. 𝐼𝐴
𝐼𝐴2 𝐼𝐿2
𝐼𝐴1 = 𝐼𝐴2 = 𝐼𝐴3 = 𝐼𝐴
B

𝑉𝐵𝐶
𝐼𝐿1 = 𝐼𝐿2 = 𝐼𝐿3 = 𝐼𝐿
𝑉∅2
𝐼𝐿3 C
Equivalent circuit of stator connected in ∆
Line-to-line voltage (VLL) = line voltage = terminal voltage (VT)

25

Per-phase equivalent circuit of sync. gen.

Field current (DC) Armature current (AC)

DC voltage source internal generated voltage (AC) Phase voltage (AC)

for field circuit (armature voltage)

Rotor side Stator side (armature windings)

Field circuit
NOTE: By changing RF, we can control the magnitude of EA

𝑅𝐹 𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝐹 𝐼𝐹 𝐸𝐴
𝐸𝐴
26

13
 04-Feb-24

Phasor diagram of a synchronous generator

Syn. generator is supplying a lagging power factor load
(inductive load)
(the most common case)

Syn. generator is supplying a leading power factor load

(capacitive load)

Syn. generator is supplying a unity power factor load

(purely resistive load)
27

Power and torque in synchronous generators

• A synchronous generator is a synchronous machine used as a generator
• Synchronous generator converts mechanical power into three-phase electrical power
• The prime mover is the source of mechanical power
• The prime mover can be a “diesel engine”, “steam turbine”, “water turbine”, or any suitable system
• The rule is that: The prime mover speed must be kept constant in order to generate a constant frequency of electrical
power

𝑛𝑚 𝑃
𝑓𝑒 =
120

Different types of prime mover 28

14
 04-Feb-24

Power-flow diagram of a synchronous generator

Y-connected stator
𝑉𝑇 = 3. 𝑉∅ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 3. 𝑉∅ . 𝐼𝐴 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐴 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 𝑉∅ . 𝐼𝐴 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

∆-connected stator
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉∅
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 𝑉∅ . 3. 𝐼𝐴 . cosθ
𝐼𝐿 = 3. 𝐼𝐴 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 𝑉∅ . 𝐼𝐴 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

29

Power-flow diagram of a synchronous generator

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 𝑉∅ . 3. 𝐼𝐴
Three-phase output active (real) power of the synchronous generator
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 𝑉∅ . 𝐼𝐴 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
The unit is: W or kW or MW Y or ∆
connected
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3𝑉𝑇 . 𝐼𝐿 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 stator
Three-phase output reactive power of the synchronous generator
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 𝑉∅ . 𝐼𝐴 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
The unit is: VAR or kVAR or MVAR

𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑗𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 Three-phase output complex power of the synchronous generator

𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 2 + 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 2 Three-phase output apparent power of the synchronous generator
The unit is: VA or kVA or MVA

30

15
 04-Feb-24

Power-flow diagram of a synchronous generator

• Generally synchronous reactance is much greater than armature resistance (𝑋𝑆 ≫ 𝑅𝐴 )
• Hence 𝑅𝐴 can be ignored in most of the calculations (but this is not always a rule !)
• By geometric properties the following two equations can be written if RA is ignored:

𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 𝑋𝑆 𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑉∅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾

Phasor diagram of sync. gen if RA is ignored 31

Power-flow diagram of a synchronous generator

• Three practical equations for the synchronous generator can be obtained by the following derivations:
• At first;

𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 𝑋𝑆 𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑋𝑆

• And since;

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 𝑉∅ . 𝐼𝐴 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3𝑉∅ (if RA is ignored)
𝑋𝑆

32

16
 04-Feb-24

Power-flow diagram of a synchronous generator

➢ Torque (power) angle  is increased by increasing driving torque
➢ Maximum real power output from a synchronous generator is attained when  = 90o
➢ If  > 90o, real power output suddenly drops to zero and the machine losses synchronism
➢ Pout(max) is called “steady-state stability limit” of the synchronous generator
➢ Generally, synchronous generators are operated with a small torque angle  (15°≤ 𝜹 ≤ 𝟐𝟎°)

static stability limit

𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3𝑉∅ (if RA is ignored)
𝑋𝑆

3𝑉∅ 𝐸𝐴
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = (when 𝛿 = 90°)
𝑋𝑆

Real power output and output electrical

frequency are controlled by generator
governor that controls input mechanical power 𝛿
33

Power-flow diagram of a synchronous generator

• Secondly;
• When RA is ignored, this means that converted power becomes equal to output real power

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 ≅ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

• Since;

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 𝑉∅ . 𝐼𝐴 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 𝐼𝐴 . 𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
𝑉∅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾

𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑚 ≅ 3. 𝐼𝐴 . 𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 ≅ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 ≅ 3. 𝐼𝐴 . (If RA is ignored)
𝑤𝑚
34

17
 04-Feb-24

Power-flow diagram of a synchronous generator

• Thirdly;

• Since;

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 ≅ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3𝑉∅
𝑋𝑆

𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑚 ≅ 3𝑉∅
𝑋𝑆

𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 3𝑉∅ (if RA is ignored)
𝑤𝑚 𝑋𝑆

35

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

• The equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator that has been derived contains three quantities that must
be determined in order to completely describe the behavior of a real synchronous generator:

1) The relationship between field current IF and flux ∅ (or between IF and armature voltage EA)
2) Synchronous reactance, XS
3) Armature resistance, RA

• Different tests are applied to determine these quantities

36

18
 04-Feb-24

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

• The first test is «open-circuit test» on the synchronous generator
• The steps of this test can be listed as:
➢ The terminals of the stator are open circuited
➢ A voltmeter is connected through the terminals of the stator
➢ The field current is set to zero
➢ The generator is turned at the rated speed with the prime mover (for example an AC/DC motor)
➢ The field current is gradually increased in steps and the terminal voltage is measured at each step
➢ Since the stator is open-circuited, armature voltage EA can be measured from stator terminals:

❑ İf stator is Y-connected:
𝑉𝑇(𝑂𝐶)
𝑉𝑇(𝑂𝐶) = 3. 𝐸𝐴 → 𝐸𝐴 =
3
❑ İf stator is Δ-connected:
𝑉𝑇(𝑂𝐶) = 𝐸𝐴
V
➢ The measured points are plotted to obtain open-circuit characteristics

37

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

• With OCC, we can find the magnitude of EA for any given
field current IF

• Initially, the curve is almost perfectly linear, until some

saturation is observed at high field currents

Saturation begins • When the iron finally saturates, the reluctance of the iron
increases dramatically, and the flux increases much more
slowly with an increase in magnetomotive force

• The linear portion of OCC is called «air-gap line»

The open-circuit characteristic (OCC) of

a three-phase synchronous generator
38

19
 04-Feb-24

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

• The second test is «short-circuit test» on the synchronous generator
• The steps of this test can be listed as:

➢ The terminals of the stator are short-circuited using an ammeter

➢ The field current is set to zero
➢ The generator is turned at the rated speed with the prime mover (for example an AC/DC motor)
➢ The field current is gradually increased in steps and the short-circuit armature current (or line current)
(ammeter reading) is mesaured
➢ The measured points are plotted to obtain short-circuit characteristics

39

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

SCC is a straight line

The short-circuit characteristic (SCC) of

a three-phase synchronous generator

40

20
 04-Feb-24

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

• An important question: Why is SCC a straight line?
• Since;

𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇 = 0 (Short-circuit)

𝐸𝐴 = −𝐸𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇

• Since BR is related with EA and,

• BS is related with ESTAT
• BR and Bs will cancel each other
• So there will be no magnetic field in the machine and hence no saturation is observed
• Because of this reason, SCC of a synchronous generator is a straight line

41

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

• Let’s join the results of these two tests (open-circuit and short-circuit tests) to find 𝑋𝑆 :

Short-circuit

𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴 = (The magnitude of armature current)
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗𝑋𝑆 2 2
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑋𝑆

𝑍𝑆 (synchronous impedance)

42

21
 04-Feb-24

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

• Since;
• Therefore, an approximate method for determining the
synchronous reactance Xs at a given field current is
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑅𝐴 2 + 𝑋𝑆 2
1) Get the internal generated voltage EA from OCC at that field current
• And generally; 2) Get the short-circuit current IA,SC from SCC at that field current
3) Find Xs by applying the below equation.
𝑋𝑆 ≫ 𝑅𝐴

𝑍𝑆 ≅ 𝑋𝑆

𝐸𝐴 𝑉∅(𝑂𝐶)
𝑋𝑆 ≅ =
𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐴

43

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

• But with this method we can only find the approximated value of Xs in unsaturated region
• We have to use low field current values to find the value of Xs in unsaturated region

𝑋𝑆(𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑)

44
Low values of IF

22
 04-Feb-24

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

• The third test is «armature resistance measurement test» on the synchronous generator
• The steps of this test can be listed as:

➢ Stop the rotation of the rotor of the synchronous generator

➢ Set the field current to zero
➢ Measure the armature resistance by an ohmmeter (ohmmeter uses DC voltage)
➢ or apply a DC voltage to the armature windings and meausure the armature current
➢ The reason of using DC voltage is to set all reactances to be zero (frequency will be zero)
➢ This technique is not perfectly accurate, since the AC resistance will be larger than DC resistance because
of the skin effect

45

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2𝑅𝐴
𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑅𝐴 =
2

0 0
ohmmeter

Applying armature resistance measurement test

to Y-connected stator 46

23
 04-Feb-24

Measuring sync. gen. model parameters

𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = (𝑅𝐴 +𝑅𝐴 ) 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝐴 )

2
𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑅𝐴
3
𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
ohmmeter 𝑅𝐴 =
2/3
0 0

0
Applying armature resistance measurement test
to Δ-connected stator

47

Short-circuit ratio
• The short-circuit ratio (SCR) of a synchronous generator is defined as the ratio of the field current required
for the rated voltage at open circuit to the field current required for the rated armature current at short
circuit

• SCR is also the reciprocal of the per-unit value of the approximate saturated synchronous reactance

48

24
 04-Feb-24

Short-circuit ratio
Example: A 200-kVA, 480-V, 50-Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator with a rated field current of 5 A was
tested, and the following data were taken:
1. VT,OC at the rated field current was measured to be 540 V
2. IL,SC at the rated field curretn was measured to be 300 A
3. When a DC voltage of 10 V was applied to the two of the terminals of the stator, a current of 25 A
was measured.

Find the values of the armature resistance and the approximate synchronous reactance in
ohms that would be used in the generator model at the rated conditions.

49

Short-circuit ratio
Solution:

From armature resistance measurement test :

Since stator is Y-connected:

𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑅𝐴 =
2

10𝑉/25𝐴
𝑅𝐴 = = 0.2 𝑜ℎ𝑚
2

50

25
 04-Feb-24

Short-circuit ratio
Solution:

• The internal generated voltage at the rated field current is equal to:

𝑉𝑇 540𝑉
𝐸𝐴 = 𝑉∅(𝑂𝐶) = = = 311.8 𝑉
3 3

• The short-circuit current is equal to the line current, since the generator is Y-connected:

𝐼𝐴(𝑆𝐶) = 𝐼𝐿(𝑆𝐶) = 300 𝐴

Alternative way:
2 2 𝐸𝐴 311.8 𝐸𝐴 𝑉∅ 𝑂𝐶 311.8
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑋𝑆 = = = 1.039 𝑜ℎ𝑚 𝑋𝑆 ≅ = = = 1.039
𝐼𝐴 300 𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐴 300
• Since;
𝑅𝐴 = 0.2 𝑜ℎ𝑚 (0.2)2 +𝑋𝑆 2 = 1.039 𝑋𝑆 = 1.02 𝑜ℎ𝑚
51

Short-circuit ratio
Solution:

• The resulting per-phase equivalent circuit of the synchronous generator is shown below:

52

26
 04-Feb-24

Synchronous generator operating alone

• A sync. generator is rarely operated alone for emergency purposes or a few specialized applications
• We assume that RA (armature resistance) is generally ignored in our analysis
• We assume that shaft speed is constant (generator output frequency is constant, 50 or 60 Hz)
• If otherwise not stated we can assume that IF and hence the flux (φ) is constant in the machine
• The field current on the rotor (IF) can be controlled if desired

Synchronous generator operating alone (connected to load)

53

Synchronous generator operating alone

ILOAD
• Now assume that the load of the generator is increased !
• What happens now ?

➢ An increase in the load means that the load’s real and/or reactive power taken from the generator is increased
➢ Such a load increase increases the load current drawn from the generator

PLOAD ILOAD

➢ The magnitude of the internal generated voltage EA does not change when the load increases, because;
✓ we do not change field current IF, hence the flux in the machine (φ) is constant
✓ the speed of the prime mover is constant (w)
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾∅𝑤

constant
constant 54

27
 04-Feb-24

Synchronous generator operating alone

Lagging power factor case: 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾∅𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Green distance is constant

The results:
1) Phase voltage of the generator decreases
2) Torque angle increases

The effect of an increase in the load at lagging power factor

55

Synchronous generator operating alone

Unity power factor case: 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾∅𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Green distance is constant

The results:
1) Phase voltage of the generator decreases
2) Torque angle increases

The effect of an increase in the load at unity power factor

56

28
 04-Feb-24

Synchronous generator operating alone

Leading power factor case: 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾∅𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Green distance is constant

The results:
1) Phase voltage of the generator increases
2) Torque angle increases

The effect of an increase in the load at leading power factor

57

Synchronous generator operating alone

• In summary:
If we increase the load connected to the sychronous generator;
o Phase voltage (and also terminal voltage) decreases if the load has a lagging power factor
o Phase voltage (and also terminal voltage) decreases if the load has a unity power factor
o Phase voltage (and also terminal voltage) increases if the load has a leading power factor

o And torque angle increases for all cases

58

29
 04-Feb-24

Synchronous generator operating alone

Voltage Regulation and Load type:
𝑉𝑛𝑙 − 𝑉𝑓𝑙
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑥100%
𝑉𝑓𝑙

1) If load is lagging power factor load:

𝑉𝑓𝑙 < 𝑉𝑛𝑙 → 𝑉𝑅 > 0

2) If load is unity power factor load:

𝑉𝑓𝑙 < 𝑉𝑛𝑙 → 𝑉𝑅 > 0

3) If load is leading power factor load:

𝑉𝑓𝑙 > 𝑉𝑛𝑙 → 𝑉𝑅 < 0

59

Synchronous generator operating alone

• We see that in previous section, terminal voltage of generator changes when load changes.
• So what can we do to restore the voltage to its previous value ?
• The solution: Adjust field current
• Our purpose: 𝑉𝑅 ≈ 0

𝑅𝐹 𝐼𝐹 ∅ 𝐸𝐴 = K∅𝑤 𝑉∅ 𝑉𝑇
60

30
 04-Feb-24

Synchronous generator operating alone

Example 1: A 480-V, 60-Hz, delta-connected, four-pole synchronous generator has the OCC shown in the figure.
This generator has a synchronous reactance of j0.1 ohm and armature resistance of 0.0125 ohm. At full-load , the
machine supplies 1200A at 0.8 PF lagging. Under full-load conditions. the friction and windage losses are 40 kW
and the core losses are 30 kW. Ignore any field circuit losses.

(a) What is the speed of rotation of this generator?

(b) How much field current must be supplied to the generator to make the terminal voltage 480 V at no load?

(c) If the generator is now connected to a load and the load draws 1200 A at 0.8 PF lagging, how much field
current will be required to keep the terminal voltage equal to 480 V?

(d) How much power is the generator now supplying? How much power is supplied to the generator by the prime
mover? What is this machine's overall efficiency?

(e) If the generator's load were suddenly disconnected from the line, what would happen to its terminal voltage?
(j) Finally, suppose that the generator is connected to a load drawing 1200 A at 0.8 PF leading. How much field
current would be required to keep VT at 480 V? 61

Synchronous generator operating alone

62
OCC characteristics of the synchronous generator

31
 04-Feb-24

Synchronous generator operating alone

Example 2: A 480-V, 50-Hz, Y-connected, six-pole synchronous generator has a per-phase synchronous
reactance of 1.0 ohm. Its full-load armature current is 60 A at 0.8 PF lagging. This generator has friction
and windage losses of 1.5 kW and core losses of 1.0 kW at 60 Hz at full load. Since the armature
resistance is being ignored, assume that the copper losses are negligible. The field current has been
adjusted so that the terminal voltage (VT) is 480 V at no load.
(a) What is the speed of rotation of this generator?
(b) What is the terminal voltage of this generator if the following are true?

1. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PF lagging.

2. It is loaded with the rated current at 1.0 PF.
3. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PF leading.

(c) What is the efficiency of this generator (ignoring electrical losses) when it is operating at the rated
current and 0.8 PF lagging?
(d) How much shaft torque must be applied by the prime mover at full load? How large is the induced
torque ?
(e) What is the voltage regulation of this generator at 0.8 PF lagging? At 1.0 PF? At 0.8 PF leading?
63

Parallel operation of AC generators

Why do we need parallel operation of AC generators?

• Several generators can supply a bigger load than one machine

by itself.

• Having many generators increases the reliability of the power

system, since the failure of anyone of them does not cause a
total power loss to the load.

• Having many generators operating in parallel allows one or

more of them to be removed for shutdown and preventive
maintenance.

• If only one generator is used and it is not operating at near full

load, then it will be relatively inefficient. With several smaller
machines in parallel, it is possible to operate only a fraction of
them. The ones that do operate are operating near full load
and thus more efficiently.
64

32
 04-Feb-24

Conditions required for paralleling Running system

• Before paralleling (closing switch S1) some conditions should

be satisfied:

1) The rms line voltages of the two generators must be equal

A
B
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺1 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺2 C

𝑉𝐵𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺1 = 𝑉𝐵𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺2

𝑉𝐶𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺1 = 𝑉𝐶𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺2 Oncoming generator

• Adjusting the line voltage of the oncoming generator is done by adjusting its field current.
• By using voltmeter, the field current of the oncoming generator should be adjusted until its
terminal voltage becomes equal to the line voltage of the running system.

65

Conditions required for paralleling

2) The two generators must have the same phase sequence

Gen1 Positive phase sequence Gen2 Gen1 Negative phase sequence Gen2
66

33
 04-Feb-24

Conditions required for paralleling

• To check phase sequences we have three options:

Option 2: use a
small three-phase
induction motor
and observe its
rotation direction
Option 1: use phase
sequence indicator

67

Conditions required for paralleling

• To check phase sequences we have three options:

• If all three bulbs get bright and dark together, this

means that both generators have the same phase
sequence
• If the bulbs brighten in succession, this means that the
generators have the opposite phase sequence, and two
phases of the Gen 2 must be exchanged

Option 3: Use three-bulbs connected as shown

68

34
 04-Feb-24

Conditions required for paralleling

3) The frequency of the oncoming generator must be adjusted to
be slightly higher than the frequency of the running system. So
that when it is connected, it will come on the line supplying power
as a generator, instead of consuming the power as a motor

This check can be done by two options:

1) Use a frequency meter 2) Use a tachometer to measure the shaft speed of Gen 2

120𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑚 =
𝑃

69

Conditions required for paralleling

4) The phase angles of the same phases must be equal.
• To check phase angles we have two options:

When the three light

bulbs all go out, the
voltage difference
across them is zero
and the systems are in
phase.
Option 1: Use three-bulbs method

70

35
 04-Feb-24

Conditions required for paralleling

Option 2: Use a synchroscope

A synchroscope is a meter that measures the

phase angle difference between the a-phases of
the two systems.

How can we use synchronoscope ?

• The needle should rotate slowly.
• If it rotates to the right: This means that the oncoming generator is faster than the running system
(the desired situation)
• If it rotates to the left: This means that the oncoming generator is slower than the running system
• When the synchroscope needle is in the vertical position, we can close switch S1

71

Frequency-Power characteristics
• All generators are driven by a prime mover, which is the generator's source of mechanical power.
Examples are steam turbine, diesel engines, gas turbines, water turbines, wind turbines, etc...

• All prime movers tend to behave in a similar fashion: The power drawn from them increases, the speed
at which they turn decreases.

The speed vs power characteristics for a typical prime mover

72

36
 04-Feb-24

Frequency-Power characteristics
• The speed droop (SD) of a prime mover is defined by the following equation:

𝑛𝑛𝑙 − 𝑛𝑓𝑙
𝑆𝐷 = 𝑥100%
𝑛𝑓𝑙

𝑛𝑛𝑙 → No-load speed of the prime mover

𝑛𝑓𝑙 → Full-load speed of the prime mover

• Most generator prime movers have a speed

droop of 2 to 4 %

73

Frequency-Power characteristics
• Since the shaft of the synchronous generator (rotor) is connected to the prime mover, the prime mover
speed defines the electrical frequency output of the generator:

prime mover speed

𝑛𝑚 𝑃
𝑓𝑒 =
120

74

37
 04-Feb-24

Frequency-Power characteristics
• According to the figure:

𝑃𝑓𝑙 is the full-load power at frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑙

Power output is 0 at frequency 𝑓𝑛𝑙

• The equation for this line:

𝑃 = 𝑠𝑝 𝑓𝑛𝑙 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠

𝑃 is the power output of the generator

𝑓𝑛𝑙 is the no-load frequency of the generator
𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠 is the operating frequency of the system
𝑠𝑝 is the slope of curve (kW/Hz or MW/Hz)

75

Voltage-Reactive power characteristics

• When a lagging (or unity) power factor load is connected to a synchronous generator, terminal voltage drops.

• When a leading load is connected to a synchronous generator, terminal voltage increases.

• The equation for this line:

Q = 𝑚 𝑉𝑇𝑛𝑙 − 𝑉𝑇

Q is the reactive power output of the generator

𝑉𝑇𝑛𝑙 is the no-load terminal voltage of the generator
𝑉𝑇 is the terminal voltage of the generator at the
operating point
m is the slope of curve (kVAR/Volt or MVAR/Volt)
Leading PF load Lagging (or unity) PF load
76

38
 04-Feb-24

Example:
1000 kW
Figure shows a generator supplying a load. A second load is to
be connected in parallel with the first one. The generator has a
no-load frequency of 61.0 Hz and a slope sp of 1MW/Hz. Load 1
consumes a real power of 1000 kW at 0.8 PF lagging, while
800 kW
Load 2 consumes a real power of 800 kW at 0.707 PF lagging.

(a) Before the switch is closed, what is the operating frequency

of the system?
(b) After Load 2 is connected, what is the operating frequency of
the system?
(c) After Load 2 is connected, what action could an operator
take to restore the system frequency to 60 Hz?

77

Solution:

(a) Before the switch is closed, the operating frequency of the system 1000 kW
is found as follows:

𝑃 = 𝑠𝑝 𝑓𝑛𝑙 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠
1𝑀𝑊
1000 𝑘𝑊 = 61.0 𝐻𝑧 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 60 𝐻𝑧 800 kW
𝐻𝑧

61.0 Hz
60.0 Hz

1000 kW

78

39
 04-Feb-24

Solution:

(b) After Load 2 is connected, the operating frequency of the system

is found as follows:

𝑃 = 𝑠𝑝 𝑓𝑛𝑙 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠

1𝑀𝑊
(1000 𝑘𝑊 + 800 𝑘𝑊) = 61.0 𝐻𝑧 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 59.2 𝐻𝑧
𝐻𝑧

61.0 Hz
60.0 Hz

59.2 Hz 1800 kW

1000 kW
As seen, adding the load decreases the frequency of the system from 60 Hz to 59.2 Hz 79

Solution:

(c) After Load 2 is connected, how can we increase system

frequency from 59.2 Hz to 60.0 Hz ?

We should increase the governor no-load set point from 60.0 Hz

to 61.8 Hz.

Let’s check it:

61.8 Hz
𝑃 = 𝑠𝑝 𝑓𝑛𝑙 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠

1𝑀𝑊
1800 𝑘𝑊 = 61.8 𝐻𝑧 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝐻𝑧
60.0 Hz
61.8 𝐻𝑧 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 1.8 𝐻𝑧 1800 kW

𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 60.0 𝐻𝑧

80

40
 04-Feb-24

Operation of synchronous generators in

parallel with infinite bus
• When a synchronous generator is connected to a huge power system, the power system’s
capacity is too large so that a connection of a generator does not effect the voltage and the
frequency of the power system.

• An example of this situation is that Turkey’s installed power ≈ 89000 MW (@ Jan2019). So if a

100 MW generator is connected to the system, it can not change the voltage and the
frequency of the overall country.

81

Definition of infinite bus

• An infinite bus is a power system so large that its voltage and frequency do not vary regardless of
how much real and reactive power is drawn from or supplied to it.

• The P-f and Q-V characteristics of an infinite bus are shown below.

82

41
 04-Feb-24

Infinite bus 𝑃inf 𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

• When a generator is connected in parallel with another

generator or a large system, the frequency and terminal 𝑃𝐺
voltage of all the machines must be same.

• The house diagram is the combination of the real power

versus frequency characteristics of the generator and the
infinite bus.

• The real power-frequency characteristics of the generator

and the infinite bus are plotted back-to-back with a
common vertical axis.

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃inf 𝑏𝑢𝑠 + 𝑃𝐺 infinite bus generator

House diagram

83

Infinite bus
• No-load frequency of the generator should be
slightly greater than the frequency of the infinite
bus. If this is so, the real power drawn by the
generator becomes positive and the synchronous
machine is operating like a generator, supplying
real power 𝑃𝐺 > 0

𝑓𝑛𝑙 > 𝑓inf 𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑓inf 𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 50 𝐻𝑧

𝑃𝐺 > 0

𝑃𝐺 > 0
84

42
 04-Feb-24

Infinite bus
• If no-load frequency of the generator is smaller
than the frequency of the infinite bus, the real
power drawn by the generator becomes negative
and the synchronous machine is operating like a
motor, consuming real power

𝑓𝑛𝑙 < 𝑓inf 𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝐺 < 0

𝑓inf 𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 50 𝐻𝑧

This situation is not desired !

85

Infinite bus
• Assume that the generator has been connected to infinite bus and supplying real power of 𝑃𝐺1, what
happens when its governor set-point is increased?

1) The no-load frequency of the generator shifts upward.

𝑓𝑛𝑙2 > 𝑓𝑛𝑙1
2) The real power supplied by the generator increases.
𝑓𝑛𝑙3
𝑃𝐺2 > 𝑃𝐺1 𝑓𝑛𝑙2
𝑓𝑛𝑙1
𝑓inf 𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 50 𝐻𝑧

governor set
• If we further increase the governor set-point: point is
increased
𝑓𝑛𝑙3 > 𝑓𝑛𝑙2
𝑃𝐺3 > 𝑃𝐺2
86

43
 04-Feb-24

Infinite bus
• Now, what happens to the phasor diagram of the generator if its governor set-point is increased?

• We know that (from previous slide) the real power supplied by the generator increases.

constant

𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3𝑉∅
𝑋𝑆 constant

constant

𝑃𝐺3 > 𝑃𝐺2 > 𝑃𝐺1

• According to this equation, sin𝜹 or torque angle “𝜹“ must increase
𝛿3 > 𝛿2 > 𝛿1
87

Infinite bus
• What happens now, if the output of the generator is further increased so that it exceeds the power consumed by
the load?

𝑃𝐺 > 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

• If this occurs, the extra power generated by the generator flows back into the infinite bus.
• For example;
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1000 𝑘𝑊
𝑃𝐺 = 1300 𝑘𝑊
𝑃inf 𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃inf 𝑏𝑢𝑠 = −300 𝑘𝑊 (generated)

• Let’s remember the infinite bus, by definition, the infinite

can supply or consume any amount of power without 𝑃𝐺
a change in frequency, so the extra power is consumed. 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃inf 𝑏𝑢𝑠 + 𝑃𝐺
88

44
 04-Feb-24

Infinite bus
• So far we have seen that what happens to a synchronous generator connected to infinite bus when the governor set-
point is increased?
• Now, the next question will be what happens to a synchronous generator connected to infinite bus if its field current
is increased? (governor set-point is unchanged)

must be constant
must be constant
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 𝑉∅ . 𝐼𝐴 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3𝑉∅
constant constant 𝑋𝑆 constant

constant constant

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3. 𝑉∅ . 𝐼𝐴 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

constant increases
89

Infinite bus
• In summary, what happens to a synchronous generator connected to infinite bus if its field current is increased?
(governor set-point is unchanged)

➢ The real power output of the generator does not change (since governor set-point is unchanged)
➢ Since real power output of the generator is constant 𝐸𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 must be constant
➢ Since real power output of the generator is constant 𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 must be constant
➢ The magnitude (rms) of the armature current 𝐼𝐴 increases
➢ Since 𝐼𝐴 increases and 𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is constant, then 𝐼𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 must increase
➢ Since 𝐼𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 increases, 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 increases as well.

So, as a result:

➢ increasing the field current in a synchronous generator operating in parallel with an infinite bus increases the
reactive power output of the generator

90

45
 04-Feb-24

Infinite bus
To summarize;

• When a single generator is operating alone:

1) The real and reactive powers supplied by the generator are fixed, and constrained to be equal to the power
demanded by the load

2) The frequency and terminal voltage are varied by the governor set points and the field current,
respectively.

• When a generator is operating in parallel with an infinite bus:

1) The frequency and terminal voltage of the generator are controlled by the system to which it is connected.

2) The governor set points of the generator control the real power supplied by the generator to the system.

3) The field current in the generator controls the reactive power supplied by the generator to the system.
91

Parallel operation of generators with the same

size 𝑃 𝐺1
• If two generators are connected in parallel as shown in the
figure, the real and reactive power of the load is shared
between the generators.
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2
𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑄𝐺1 + 𝑄𝐺2
𝑃𝐺2

Two house diagrams shown together 92

46
 04-Feb-24

Parallel operation of generators with the same

size
• What happens if the governor set point of Gen-2 is increased?

1) Increases the real power supplied by Gen-2, while reducing the real power supplied by Gen-1.
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2
2) Increases overall system frequency.
93
𝑓2 > 𝑓1

Parallel operation of generators with the same

size
• What happens if the field current of Gen-2 is increased?

1) Increases the reactive power supplied by Gen-2, while reducing the reactive power supplied by Gen-1.
𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑄𝐺1 + 𝑄𝐺2
2) Increases system terminal voltage.
94
𝑉𝑇2 > 𝑉𝑇1

47
 04-Feb-24

Example: Parallel operation of generators with

the same size 𝑃 𝐺1

Example: The figure shows two generators supplying a load.

Generator 1 has a no-load frequency of 61.5 Hz and a slope sp1 of
1MW/Hz. Generator 2 has a no-load frequency of 61.0 Hz and a slope
sp2 of 1MW/Hz. The two generators are supplying a load of 2.5 MW 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
at 0.8 PF lagging. The resulting system power-frequency or house
diagram is shown below.
61.5 Hz
𝑃𝐺2
61.0 Hz

𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 = 2.5 𝑀𝑊

𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑃𝐺1 = 𝑠𝑝1 𝑓𝑛𝑙1 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠 Required equations

to find 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠 , 𝑃𝐺1 , 𝑃𝐺2
𝑃𝐺2 = 𝑠𝑝2 𝑓𝑛𝑙2 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠
kW
𝑃𝐺1 𝑃𝐺2
95

Example: Parallel operation of generators with

the same size 𝑃 𝐺1

Example: (continue): Suppose an additional 1-MW load is attached to + 1 MW

this power system. What would the new system frequency be, and
how much power would G1 and G2 supply now?
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

61.5 Hz
𝑃𝐺2
61.0 Hz

Required equations
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝐺1,𝑛𝑒𝑤 + 𝑃𝐺2,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 3.5 𝑀𝑊 to find 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠,𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑃𝐺1,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑠𝑝1 𝑓𝑛𝑙1 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠,𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑃𝐺1,𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠,𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑃𝐺2,𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑃𝐺2,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑠𝑝2 𝑓𝑛𝑙2 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠,𝑛𝑒𝑤
kW
𝑃𝐺1,𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑃𝐺2,𝑛𝑒𝑤
96

48
 04-Feb-24

Example: Parallel operation of generators with

the same size 𝑃 𝐺1

Example: (continue): With the system in the configuration described + 1 MW

in previous condition, what will the system frequency and generator
powers be if the governor set point on G2 is increased by 0.5 Hz?
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑓𝑛𝑙2,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 61.5 𝐻𝑧

𝑃𝐺2
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝐺1,𝑛𝑒𝑤 + 𝑃𝐺2,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 3.5 𝑀𝑊 Required equations
to find 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠,𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑃𝐺1,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑠𝑝1 𝑓𝑛𝑙1 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠,𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑃𝐺1,𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑃𝐺2,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑠𝑝2 𝑓𝑛𝑙2,𝑛𝑒𝑤 − 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠,𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑃𝐺2,𝑛𝑒𝑤

97

Parallel operation of generators with the same

size
• We see that if governor set point of one generator is increased, the system frequency increases.
• So how can we adjust the power sharing of each generator without changing system frequency?

• The solution is
• To decrease the governor set point of the other generator so as to keep the system frequency constant

𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃1 ′ + 𝑃2 ′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑃2′ > 𝑃2

𝑃1′ < 𝑃1

98

49
 04-Feb-24

Parallel operation of generators with the same

size
• We see that if field current of one generator is increased, the system voltage increases.
• So how can we adjust the reactive power sharing of each generator without changing system voltage?

• The solution is
• To decrease the field current of the other generator so as to keep the system voltage constant

𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑄1 ′ + 𝑄2 ′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑄2′ > 𝑄2

𝑄1′ < 𝑄1

99

Parallel operation of generators with the same

size
• The other two cases:

• To adjust 𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑠 without changing the real power sharing of the generators, simultaneously increase or decrease
both generators' governor set points.

• To adjust 𝑉𝑇 without changing the reactive power sharing of the generators, simultaneously increase or
decrease both generators' field currents

100

50
 04-Feb-24

Synchronous generator ratings

• There are certain basic limits to the speed and power that may be obtained from a synchronous generator.
• These limits are expressed as ratings on the machine.
• The purpose of the ratings is to protect the generator from damage due to improper operation.
• Each machine has a number of ratings listed on a nameplate attached to it (see figure).
• Typical ratings of a synchronous machine are voltage, frequency, speed, apparent power (kilovoltamperes),
power factor, field current, and service factor.

101

Frequency rating of synchronous generator

• The rated frequency of a synchronous generator depends on the power system to which it is connected.
• The commonly used power system frequencies today are 50 Hz (in Europe, Asia, etc.), 60 Hz (in the USA, Canada),
and 400 Hz (in special purpose and control applications).
• If the operating frequency is known, there is only one possible rotational speed for a given number of poles.

120𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑚 =
𝑃

• is it possible to operate a 60-Hz generator at 50-Hz system?

𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾∅w
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾∅2π𝑓
𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓

• The answer is Yes. But we have to derate (reduce) the voltage rating of the generator.
• Otherwise in order to get the same voltage, we need more flux. That can cause saturation of the machine.
102

51
 04-Feb-24

Apparent power and power-factor ratings

• The maximum allowable armature current 𝑰𝑨(𝒎𝒂𝒙) is determined by
the maximum current carrying capacity of the conductors in stator. So;

0 ≤ 𝐼𝐴 ≤ 𝐼𝐴(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

• This current limit defines apparent power rating of the generator. That is;

𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 3𝑉∅,𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝐴(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

• Similarly, the maximum allowable field current 𝑰𝑭(𝒎𝒂𝒙) is determined

by maximum current carrying capacity of the conductors in rotor. So;

0 ≤ 𝑰𝑭 ≤ 𝑰𝑭(𝒎𝒂𝒙)

103

Apparent power and power-factor ratings

Red lines are

allowable
region

The intersection of small

and big circles defines the
phase angle that armature
current can have
104

52
 04-Feb-24

Apparent power and power-factor ratings

The angle 𝜷 can not be
decreased further (minimum
limit) without reducing 𝐼𝐴(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

• Since;
𝛽 = 90° − 𝜃

𝜷 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 90° − 𝛽𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝜽
The possible maximum value of
the power factor angle of the 𝑃𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 = cos(𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
synchronous generator

The possible minimum value of

the (lagging) power factor of the
synchronous generator
105

Synchronous generator capability curve

• Capability curve of a synchronous generator is a plot of the complex power (S=P+jQ) of the generator.

• Capability curve is derived from the phasor diagram of the generator.

• We assume that;
➢ Phase voltage of the generator (𝑉∅ ) is constant (generator is connected to infinite bus)
➢ Armature resistance 𝑅𝐴 is ignored
➢ Power factor of the load is lagging

106

53
 04-Feb-24

Synchronous generator capability curve

𝑋𝑠 𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑋𝑠 𝐼𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

3𝑉∅
𝑋𝑠 𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 x 𝑃 = 3𝑉∅ 𝐼𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑋𝑠

3𝑉∅ 𝑄 = 3𝑉∅ 𝐼𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑋𝑠 𝐼𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 x
𝑋𝑠

107

Synchronous generator capability curve

Radius = 3𝑉∅ 𝐼𝐴

3𝐸𝐴𝑉∅
Radius =
𝑋𝑆

Center of big circle

108

54
 04-Feb-24

Synchronous generator capability curve

Prime mover power limit is considered

109

Example: Synch. generator capability curve

Example: A 480-V, 50-Hz, Y-connected, six-pole synchronous generator is rated at 50 kVA at 0.8 PF lagging. It has a
synchronous reactance of 1.0 ohm per phase. Assume that this generator is connected to a steam turbine capable of
supplying up to 45 kW. The friction and windage losses are 1.5 kW, and the core losses are 1.0 kW.
Answer the following questions:

(a) Sketch the capability curve for this generator, including the prime-mover power limit.

(b) Can this generator supply a line current of 56A at 0.7 PF lagging? Why or why not?

(c) What is the maximum amount of reactive power that this generator can produce?

(d) If the generator supplies 30 kW of real power, what is the maximum amount of reactive power that can be
simultaneously supplied? (Hint: Use circle equation)

110

55
 04-Feb-24

Example: Synch. generator capability curve

Solution a): The maximum armature current of the generator is found from:

𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 3𝑉∅ 𝐼𝐴(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

480
𝑉∅ = = 277 𝑉
3

𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 50𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝐼𝐴(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = = = 60 𝐴
3𝑉∅ 3(277𝑉)

111

Example: Synch. generator capability curve

Radius = 3𝑉∅ 𝐼𝐴 = 3 277 60 = 49.86 𝑘𝑉𝐴

33.24 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅 Prime mover power limit is considered

= 45 𝑘𝑊

3𝐸𝐴𝑉∅
Radius =
𝑋𝑆

3𝐸𝐴 𝑉∅ (3)(317)(277)
= = = 263.427 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑋𝑆 1
3𝑉∅ 2
=− = −230.187 kVAR
𝑋𝑆 112

56
 04-Feb-24

Example: Synch. generator capability curve

Solution b):

Radius = 3𝑉∅ 𝐼𝐴 = 3 277 60 = 49.86 𝑘𝑉𝐴

X

33𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅 Prime mover power limit is considered

= 45 𝑘𝑊

3𝐸𝐴𝑉∅
Radius =
𝑋𝑆

3𝐸𝐴 𝑉∅ (3)(317)(277)
= = = 263 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑋𝑆 1
3𝑉∅ 2
=− = −230. kVAR
𝑋𝑆 113

Example: Synch. generator capability curve

Solution c):

Radius = 3𝑉∅ 𝐼𝐴 = 3 277 60 = 49.86 𝑘𝑉𝐴

X
33 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅 Prime mover power limit is considered
= 45 𝑘𝑊

3𝐸𝐴𝑉∅
Radius =
𝑋𝑆

3𝐸𝐴 𝑉∅ (3)(317)(277)
= = = 263 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑋𝑆 1
3𝑉∅ 2
=− = −230 kVAR
𝑋𝑆 114

57
 04-Feb-24

END OF CHAPTER 2

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

115

58