04-Feb-24

EEE 322
Electromechanical Energy Conversion – II
By
Prof. Dr. A. Mete VURAL
[email protected]

CHAPTER 4

INDUCTION MOTORS

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Induction motors

Source: https://www.electricalengineeringtoolbox.com
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Induction motors
• So far we have seen that damping (amortisseur) windings on a synchronous motor could develop a starting
torque without the necessity of supplying an external DC field current.
• So we can define “induction machine” as a machine with only damping (amortisseur) windings without
supplying an external DC field current field.
• In induction machines, rotor voltage (which produces the rotor current and the rotor magnetic field 𝐵𝑅 ) is
induced in the rotor windings.
• So, the difference between an induction machine and synchronous machine is that no DC field current is
required to run the induction machine.
• The induction machine can be either used as a motor or a generator.
• Induction machines are also called “asynchronous machines”.

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Different size induction motors

0.5 Hp induction motor 300 Hp, 460V induction motor

2 Hp, 400V induction motor

Induction motors
• An induction motor has the same physical stator as a synchronous machine.
• But, induction motor has a different rotor structure than a synchronous machine.

The stator of an induction motor

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Rotor types of induction motors

• There are two different types of rotors which can be placed inside the stator of an induction motor:
➢ Squirrel cage rotor
➢ Wound rotor

A squirrel running
inside of a rotating cage
A real photo of a squirrel cage rotor
Schematic diagram of squirrel cage rotor

Rotor types of induction motors

• There are two different types of rotors which can be placed inside the stator of an induction motor:
➢ Squirrel cage rotor
➢ Wound rotor

Schematic diagram of wound rotor A real photo of a wound rotor

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Rotor types of induction motors

• Cheap
• Requires less maintenance than wound rotor
• Used only in induction motors
Squirrel Cage
• Can not be used in induction generators

• Expensive
• Usually Y-connected
• Extra resistance can be added to rotor circuit to modify torque-
Wound speed characteristics
• requires much more maintenance than squirrel cage rotor
• Can be used in wind turbines (Doubly Fed Induction Generators)

Development of induced torque

• A three-phase set of voltages has been applied to the stator.
• Then a three-phase set of stator currents is flowing in stator windings.
• These currents produce a magnetic field 𝐵𝑆 , which is rotating in
counterclockwise direction as shown in the figure.
• The rotating speed of 𝐵𝑆 is given by:

120𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 =
𝑃

where

• 𝑓𝑒 is the frequency of the applied voltage to the stator

windings (Source frequency, 50 or 60 Hz)
• 𝑃 is the number of poles of the machine

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Development of induced torque

• This rotating magnetic field 𝐵𝑆 passes over the rotor bars
(assuming squirrel cage rotor) and induces a voltage on
rotor bars.
• The induced voltage on a rotor bar is given by the equation:

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣 𝑥 𝐵𝑆 . 𝑙

where

• 𝑣 is the velocity of the bar relative to the magnetic field

• 𝑙 is length of conductor in the magnetic field

• Since the rotor is mostly inductive (𝑿 ≫ 𝑹), the peak rotor

current 𝐼𝑅 lags behind the peak rotor voltage as shown in
the figure.

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Development of induced torque

• The rotor current 𝐼𝑅 flowing through the rotor bars
produces a rotor magnetic field 𝐵𝑅 .

• Rotor magnetic field 𝐵𝑅 lags 90° behind itself as shown in

the figure.

• 𝐵𝑅 and 𝐵𝑆 interacts to produce a counterclockwise torque

induced in the machine, given by the following equation:

𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑘𝐵𝑅 𝑥𝐵𝑆

• Since the induced torque is in the counterclockwise

direction, the rotor starts to move in that direction.

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Upper limit of rotor’s speed

• There is a finite upper limit to the motor's speed. This can be explained as follows:

➢ If the rotor were turning at synchronous speed 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 , then the rotor bars would be stationary
relative to the rotating magnetic field 𝐵𝑆 and hence 𝑣 = 0
➢ Then there would be no induced voltage, 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0
➢ If 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0 then there would be no rotor current and no rotor magnetic field, 𝐵𝑅 = 0.
➢ With no rotor magnetic field, the induced torque 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0 would be zero.
➢ Since there is no induced torque on the rotor, the rotor starts to slow down as a result of friction losses.
➢ Thereby, an induction motor’s speed is very close to the synchronous speed, but the speed of the rotor can
never exactly reach synchronous speed.

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Rotor slip
• So far, we have understood that there is always a speed difference between rotating stator magnetic field and
the rotor itself.
• The slip speed is defined as this speed difference, and given by the following equation:

𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 − 𝑛𝑚

where
𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 is the slip speed of the induction machine 2𝜋𝑛𝑚
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 is the speed of the stator rotating magnetic field 𝐵𝑆 𝑤𝑚 =
60
𝑛𝑚 is the mechanical shaft (rotor) speed of the induction machine

• Slip is defined as follows:

𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 − 𝑛𝑚
𝑠= 𝑥100% = 𝑥100% • 0 ≤ s ≤ 100%
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 • if the rotor turns at synchronous speed, s = 0
𝑤𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑤𝑠𝑦𝑛 − 𝑤𝑚 • If the rotor is stationary (not rotating), s = 1
𝑠= 𝑥100% = 𝑥100%
𝑤𝑠𝑦𝑛 𝑤𝑠𝑦𝑛 14

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Rotor slip
• Since;
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 − 𝑛𝑚
𝑠= 𝑥100%
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛
• Solving the above equation for 𝑛𝑚 yields;

𝑛𝑚 = 1 − 𝑠 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 The unit is rev/min or rpm

• Or;

𝑤𝑚 = 1 − 𝑠 𝑤𝑠𝑦𝑛 The unit is rad/sec

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Electrical frequency on the rotor

• An induction motor works by inducing voltages and currents in the rotor of the machine, and for that reason it
has sometimes been called a “rotating transformer”.

• Like a transformer, the primary (stator) induces a voltage in the secondary (rotor).

• But unlike a transformer, the secondary frequency is not necessarily the same as the primary frequency.

• If the rotor is locked (blocked) so that it cannot move, then the rotor will have the same frequency as the stator.

• If the rotor turns at synchronous speed, the frequency on the rotor will be zero.

• What will the rotor frequency be for any arbitrary rate of rotor rotation?

➢ If 𝑛𝑚 = 0 ➔ s = 1 ➔ frequency of the voltage/current of the rotor (𝑓𝑟 ) will be equal to the frequency of the
three-phase applied voltage of the stator (𝑓𝑒 ), 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑓𝑒
➢ If 𝑛𝑚 = 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 ➔ s = 0 ➔𝑓𝑟 = 0 (since no induced voltage)
➢ By combining the above two conditions we can derive an equation as follows: 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑠𝑓𝑒
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Electrical frequency on the rotor

• Since;
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 −𝑛𝑚
𝑓𝑟 = 𝑠𝑓𝑒 and 𝑠 =
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛

𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 − 𝑛𝑚
𝑓𝑟 = 𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛

• Moreover since;
120𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 =
𝑃
𝑃
𝑓𝑟 = 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 − 𝑛𝑚 𝑓
120𝑓𝑒 𝑒

𝑃
𝑓𝑟 = 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑚
120 𝑠𝑦𝑛
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Example:
A 208-V, 10-hp, four-pole, 60-Hz, Y-connected induction motor has a full-load slip of 5 percent. Answer the following
questions:

(a) What is the synchronous speed of this motor?

(b) What is the rotor speed of this motor at the rated load?
(c) What is the rotor frequency of this motor at the rated load?
(d) What is the shaft torque of this motor at the rated load?

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Equivalent circuit of an induction motor

• Since the voltages and currents in the rotor circuit of an induction motor is essentially generated like a
transformer operation, the equivalent circuit of an induction motor can be accepted to be very similar to the
equivalent circuit of a transformer.

• An induction motor is called a singly excited machine (as opposed to a doubly excited synchronous machine), since
power is supplied to only the stator circuit.

• Because an induction motor does not have an independent field circuit, its model will not contain an internal
voltage source such as the internal generated voltage 𝐸𝐴 in a synchronous machine .

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Transformer model of an induction motor

𝑅𝐶

𝑅𝐶 is the resistance used to model core losses of the induction

𝑉𝑃 is the per-phase stator voltage (Amper-rms)
motor (hysteresis + eddy current losses) (ohm)
𝐼1 is the phase current of the stator (Amper-rms)
𝑋𝑀 is the magnetizing reactance of the stator (ohm)
𝑅1 is the per-phase stator resistance (ohm)
𝑋1 is the per-phase stator leakage reactance (ohm) 𝐼𝑀 is the magnetizing current of the stator (ohm)

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Transformer model of an induction motor

𝑅𝐶

𝐼𝑅 is the equivalent rotor current (Amper-rms)

𝑅𝑅 is the per-phase rotor equivalent resistance (ohm)
𝑋𝑅 is the per-phase rotor leakage reactance (ohm)
𝐸𝑅 is the induced per-phase equivalent rotor voltage (Volt-rms)

𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 is the effective turns ratio between stator and rotor

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Comparison of the magnetization curve of an

induction motor with a transformer
• The difference shown in figure is due to the air gap
between rotor and stator in the induction motor.

• Because, air gap greatly increases the reluctance of

the flux path and therefore reduces the coupling
between primary and secondary windings.

• The higher reluctance means that a higher

magnetizing current is required to obtain a given flux
level.

• Therefore, the magnetizing reactance 𝑋𝑀 in the

equivalent circuit is much smaller than that of an
ordinary transformer. The magnetization curve of an induction motor
compared to that of a transformer
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Rotor circuit model

• When a voltage is applied to the stator windings, a voltage is
induced in the rotor windings of an induction motor.

• The greater the relative motion between the rotor and the
stator magnetic fields, the greater the resulting rotor
voltage and rotor frequency.

• The largest relative motion occurs when the rotor is The rotor circuit model of an induction motor
stationary (s=1), called the “locked-rotor” or “blocked-
rotor” condition, so the largest voltage and rotor frequency
are induced in the rotor at that condition.

• The smallest voltage (0V) and frequency (0Hz) occur when

the rotor moves at the same speed as the stator magnetic
field, resulting in no relative motion (s=0).

• The magnitude and frequency of the voltage induced in the

rotor at any speed (0 ≤ s ≤ 1) is directly proportional to the
slip of the rotor, s: 23

Rotor circuit model

• Therefore, induced per-phase equivalent rotor voltage (𝐸𝑅 )
can be written as follows:

𝐸𝑅 = 𝑠. 𝐸𝑅0

The rotor circuit model of an induction motor

where

𝐸𝑅0 is the maximum possible value of rotor voltage obtained at s=1 (rotor is stationary)

• So;

➢ At s=1 ➔ 𝐸𝑅 = 𝐸𝑅0
➢ At s=0 ➔ 𝐸𝑅 = 0

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Rotor circuit model

• Similary, the frequency of the induced voltage/current in
the rotor (𝑓𝑅 ) can be written as follows:

𝑓𝑅 = 𝑠. 𝑓𝑒

• So;
The rotor circuit model of an induction motor
➢ At s=1 ➔ 𝑓𝑅 = 𝑓𝑒
➢ At s=0 ➔ 𝑓𝑅 = 0

• The rotor reactance depends on the inductance of the rotor and the frequency of the voltage/current in the rotor.
• The rotor reactance can be written as follows:

𝑋𝑅 = 𝑤𝑟 𝐿𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐿𝑅 𝑋𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑠𝑓𝑒 𝐿𝑅 = 𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑒 𝐿𝑅 = 𝑠𝑋𝑅0

where
• 𝐿𝑅 is the inductance of the rotor 𝑋𝑅0
• 𝑋𝑅0 is the locked rotor reactance 25

Rotor circuit model

• The rotor current can be found as

The rotor circuit model of an induction motor

• Now the equivalent rotor impedance from this point of view

can be written as:

The rotor circuit model with all the

frequency (slip) effects concentrated in
• The final modified equivalent circuit of the rotor can be
the resistor
redrawn as shown in the figure
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Rotor current as a function of rotor speed

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Final equivalent circuit of induction motor

• To produce the final per-phase equivalent circuit for an induction motor, rotor circuit is referred to stator side.

• In a transformer, the voltages, currents, and impedances on the secondary side can be referred to the primary
side by means of the turns ratio of the transformer.

• These referring actions are given by the following equations:

• The same sort of transformation can also be done for the induction motor's rotor circuit:

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Final equivalent circuit of induction motor

• The same sort of transformation can also be done for the induction motor's rotor circuit:

(The rotor voltage referred to stator)

(The rotor current referred to stator)

(The rotor impedance referred to stator)

(The rotor resistance and reactance referred to stator)

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Final equivalent circuit of induction motor

• The final per-phase equivalent circuit of the induction motor is shown in the figure.

The per-phase equivalent circuit of an induction motor

• Rotor resistance (𝑅𝑅 ) and the locked-rotor rotor reactance (𝑋𝑅0 ) are very difficult (or impossible) to
determine directly on cage rotors.

• Effective turns ratio (𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 ) is also difficult to obtain for cage rotors.

• But we can estimate the values of referred rotor resistance (𝑅2 ) and reactance (𝑋2 ) with some tests. 30

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Input power of an induction motor

• The input power (𝑃𝑖𝑛 ) of induction motor is in the form of three-phase electrical power:

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 3𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿 cos(𝜃)

(Either of them can be used)
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 3𝑉∅ 𝐼𝑝ℎ cos(𝜃)

where;
𝑉𝑇 is the terminal voltage (or line voltage or line-to-line voltage) of the stator
𝐼𝐿 is the line current of the stator

𝑉∅ is the phase voltage (or line-to-neutral voltage) of the stator

𝐼∅ is the phase current of the stator

𝜃 is the phase angle between 𝑉∅ and 𝐼∅

cos(𝜃) is the power factor of the induction motor (it is always lagging for an induction motor)
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Output power of an induction motor

• The output power (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) of induction motor is in the form of mechanical power:

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜏𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑤𝑚

where;

𝜏𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 is the load torque on the shaft (or rotor) (Nm)

𝑤𝑚 is the angular speed of the rotor (rad/sec)

• The efficiency of an induction motor can be calculated as follows:

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (0 < 𝜂 < 100%)

𝜂= 𝑥 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 < 𝑃𝑖𝑛 , because of losses)

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Losses of an induction motor

• There are five different losses in an induction motor:

• Stator copper losses (𝑷𝑺𝑪𝑳): These losses occur as a result of heating of the stator windings because of current flow:

• Core losses (𝑷𝑪𝑶𝑹𝑬): These losses occur as a result of hysteresis losses and eddy current losses in the stator.

• Rotor copper losses (𝑷𝑹𝑪𝑳): These losses occur as a result of heating of the rotor bars/windings because of current
flow:

• Friction and windage losses (𝑷𝑭&𝑾): These losses are mechanical losses due to rotation of the rotor side.

• Stray losses (𝑷𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒚): These losses are the losses occurring in the induction motor that can not be identified exactly.
Stray losses can be sometimes assumed to be zero.
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Losses of an induction motor

• Generally, the higher the speed of an induction motor, the higher its friction/windage, and stray losses.

𝑛𝑚 𝑃𝐹&𝑊 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦

• On the other hand, the higher the speed of the motor (up to synchronous speed), the lower its core losses.

𝑛𝑚 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒

• These three losses can be together encountered as “rotational losses”

• Since they change oppositely as speed changes, their sum is assumed to be constant (independent of speed)

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝐹&𝑊 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 ≅ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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Power flow diagram of an induction motor

• Finally, the power flow diagram of an induction motor is shown in the figure:

(induced torque=developed torque)

𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 > 𝜏𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (Because of the 𝑃𝐹&𝑊 and 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑦 losses)

𝑃𝐴𝐺 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − (𝑃𝑆𝐶𝐿 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 ) (Air-gap power)

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − (𝑃𝑆𝐶𝐿 +𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 + 𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 ) Converted power (𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 ) is sometimes called
as “developed mechanical power” and it is
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝑃𝐴𝐺 − 𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 the power when stator copper losses, core
losses, and rotor copper losses are subtracted
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 − (𝑃𝐹&𝑊 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 ) from the input power.
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Example:
A 480-V, 60-Hz, 50-hp, three-phase induction motor is drawing 60 A at 0.85 PF lagging. The stator copper losses are
2 kW, and the rotor copper losses are 700 W. The friction and windage losses are 600 W, the core losses are I800 W,
and the stray losses are negligible. Find the following quantities:

(a) The air-gap power

(b) The power converted
(c) The output power
(d) The efficiency of the motor

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Power and torque in an induction motor

𝒁𝒆𝒒

The per-phase equivalent circuit of an induction motor

(Per-phase stator current)

𝐺𝐶 = 1/𝑅𝐶
(Per-phase equivalent impedance)
𝐵𝑀 = 1/𝑗𝑋𝑀

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Power and torque in an induction motor

• Stator copper losses can be calculated as:

𝑃𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 3𝑅1 𝐼1 2 (Watts)

• Core losses can be calculated as:

3𝐸1 2
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = = 3𝐺𝐶 𝐸1 2 (Watts)
𝑅𝐶

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Power and torque in an induction motor

• Air-gap power was given previously as:

𝑃𝐴𝐺 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − (𝑃𝑆𝐶𝐿 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 )

• An alternative equation for the air-gap power can also be written as:

𝑅2
𝑃𝐴𝐺 = 3𝐼2 2
𝑠

Because the circuit element that can

consume only the real power on the rotor
𝑅
side (𝑃𝐴𝐺 ) is the resistive element ( 2)
𝑠

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Power and torque in an induction motor

• The actual resistive losses in the rotor circuit are given by:

𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 = 3𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝑅 2

The actual rotor circuit model

• After referring the rotor circuit to the stator, the above equation
is modified as follows:

𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 = 3𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝑅 2
𝑅2
𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 = 3 𝐼 2𝑎 2
𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 2 2 𝑒𝑓𝑓

𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 = 3𝑅2 𝐼2 2 The rotor circuit is referred to stator 40

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Power and torque in an induction motor

• Converted power can be formulated as:

• Since we already found that:

➢ The lower the slip of the motor, the
𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 = 3𝑅2 𝐼2 2 lower the rotor losses.

𝑅2 ➢ if the rotor is not turning (s=1), the

𝑃𝐴𝐺 = 3𝐼2 2 air-gap power is entirely consumed
𝑠
in the rotor (𝑃𝐴𝐺 = 𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 ).
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Power and torque in an induction motor

• Since;

(previously defined)

𝑤𝑚 = 1 − 𝑠 𝑤𝑠𝑦𝑛

• We can also write an alternative formula for the induced torque as follows:

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Separating rotor copper losses and converted

power in an induction motor's equivalent circuit
• Major part of the air-gap power is the converted power,
while the smaller part is the rotor copper losses:

𝑃𝐴𝐺 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿

• So, it is possible to express the air-gap power as two

different circuit elements in the equivalent circuit of the
induction motor.

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Separating rotor copper losses and converted

power in an induction motor's equivalent circuit

𝑅2 1−𝑠
= 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 ( )
𝑠 𝑠

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣

(After separation)

𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿 = 3𝑅2 𝐼2 2
𝑃𝐴𝐺 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑃𝑅𝐶𝐿

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Example:
A 460-V, 25-hp, 60-Hz, four-pole, Y-connected induction motor has the following impedances in ohms per phase
referred to the stator circuit:

R1 = 0.641 ohm
X1 = 1.106 ohm
R2 = 0.332 ohm
X2 = 0.464 ohm
XM = 26.3 ohm

The total rotational losses are 1100 W and are assumed to be constant. The core loss is lumped in with the
rotational losses. For a rotor slip of 2.2 percent at the rated voltage and rated frequency. Find the motor's
(a) Speed
(b) Stator current
(c) Power factor
(d) Converted power and output power
(e) Induced torque and load torque
(f) Efficiency
45

Induction motor torque-speed characteristics

• The figure shows a cage-rotor induction motor that is initially operating
at no load.

• Because of no-load condition, the rotor speed is very close to

synchronous speed (s≈0).

• Bnet is mainly produced by the magnetization current 𝑰𝑴 .

• The magnitude of the magnetization current 𝑰𝑴 is proportional to 𝑬𝟏 .

• The voltage drop on the elements (𝑹𝟏 + 𝒋𝑿𝟏 ) is relatively very small
and hence Bnet is approximately constant as load changes.

• At no-load, the relative motion between the rotor and the stator
magnetic field is very small and hence the voltage induced on rotor
bars (𝑬𝑹 ) and the rotor frequency (𝒇𝒓 ) are also very small.

• Since 𝑬𝑹 is very small, the rotor current (𝑰𝑹 ) is also very small and 𝑩𝑹
is also very small (as seen in the figure) 46

23
 04-Feb-24

Induction motor torque-speed characteristics

• Since at no-load (s≈0), the rotor frequency (𝒇𝒓 ) is very
small, the rotor reactance becomes also very small
(𝑋𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑅 𝐿𝑅 ).

• Since 𝑋𝑅 is too small, the rotor circuit becomes resistive

(𝑹𝑹 + 𝒋𝑿𝑹 ) and 𝐸𝑅 and 𝐼𝑅 are almost in-phase at no-load.

• At no-load, the induced torque just keeps the rotor turning,

and is given by the following equation:

• Since 𝑩𝑹 is too small, the induced torque is also quite small,

just large enough to overcome the motor's rotational losses.

47

Induction motor torque-speed characteristics

• Now suppose that a load is attached to the induction motor.

• As the motor's load increases, the speed drops and hence

slip increases.

• Since the rotor speed is slower, there is now more relative

motion between the rotor and the stator magnetic fields.

• This greater relative motion produces a stronger rotor

voltage (𝑬𝑹 ) which in turn produces a larger rotor current.

• With a larger rotor current (𝑰𝑹 ) the rotor magnetic field

(𝑩𝑹 ) also increases.

• Since the rotor slip is larger now, the rotor frequency rises.
(𝑓𝑅 = 𝑠𝑓𝑒 )

• As a result, the rotor's reactance increases (𝑋𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑅 𝐿𝑅 ).

48

24
 04-Feb-24

Induction motor torque-speed characteristics

• The rotor current now lags further behind the rotor voltage.

• Also the angle of the rotor magnetic increases. (Becomes

much larger than 90 degrees).

• The increase in (𝑩𝑹 ) tends to increase the torque, while the

increase in the angle tends to decrease the torque (𝛿 > 90)

• Since the first effect is larger than the second one, the
overall induced torque increases as the load of the motor is
increased.

49

Induction motor torque-speed characteristics

• What is the upper limit of this torque increase ?

• The maximum induced torque is defined as “pullout torque”

• This happens when the point is reached where, as the load on the shaft
is increased, the sin( 𝜹) term decreases more than the 𝑩𝑹 term
increases.

• At that point, a further increase in load decreases the induced torque

and the motor stops.

• If we do not reduce stator voltage immediately at this point, the stator

windings will be damaged because of very large current flow

50

25
 04-Feb-24

Induction motor torque-speed characteristics

• The rotor magnetic field is directly proportional to the
current flowing in the rotor, as long as the rotor is
unsaturated.

• The current flow in the rotor increases with increasing slip

(decreasing speed) according to the following equation:

s increases

The plot of rotor current versus speed

for an induction motor.

51

Induction motor torque-speed characteristics

• As explained before, the Bnet of the motor is
approximately constant and independent of the
load size. (refer to the eq. circuit of induction motor)
Voltage drop is
constant ≈constant
negligibly small

𝐼𝑀 is almost constant and hence

Bnet is almost constant.

Plot of net magnetic field versus speed for the motor

52

26
 04-Feb-24

Induction motor torque-speed characteristics

Rotor circuit is
almost resistive

Rotor circuit is
reactive

s increases

53

Induction motor torque-speed characteristics

• Since the induced torque equation is given as:

Three parameters can be

graphically multiplied to
obtain torque-speed
chararacteristics

The resulting torque-speed

characteristic of an induction motor
54

27
 04-Feb-24

Derivation of induction motor induced-torque

equation
• It is possible to use the equivalent circuit of an induction
motor and the power flow diagram for the motor to derive
a general expression for induced torque as a function of
speed.

• So far, the induced torque equation is given as:

or The air-gap power is the power

crossing the gap from the stator
circuit to the rotor circuit. It is
equal to the power absorbed in
the resistance R2/s.

55

Derivation of induction motor induced-torque

equation

• The airgap power of one phase of the motor:

• The total (three-phase) airgap power of the motor:

• If we are able to calculate 𝐼2 , we can find 𝑃𝐴𝐺 56

28
 04-Feb-24

Derivation of induction motor induced-torque

equation
• One efficient way to find 𝐼2 is to use Thevenin’s theorem:

? ?
?
57

Derivation of induction motor induced-torque

equation
• Thevenin’s voltage can be calculated by leaving the terminals open-circuit:

• The magnitude (rms) of Thevenin’s voltage is written as:

Since magnetization reactance

𝑋𝑀 ≫ 𝑋1 and 𝑋𝑀 ≫ 𝑅1 , Thevenin’s
voltage can be approximated as:
58

29
 04-Feb-24

Derivation of induction motor induced-torque

equation
• Thevenin’s equivalent impedance can be calculated by killing the voltage source:

Since magnetization reactance

𝑋𝑀 ≫ 𝑋1 and 𝑋𝑀 + 𝑋1 ≫ 𝑅1 ,
Thevenin’s resistance and reactance
can be approximated as:
59

Derivation of induction motor induced-torque

equation
𝐼2

• The magnitude of this current is

• The air-gap power is therefore given by

• And the induced torque is given by

60

30
 04-Feb-24

Derivation of induction motor induced-torque

equation There is a maximum possible torque
that cannot be exceeded, called the
pullout torque or breakdown torque

The starting torque on the motor is The torque-speed curve is nearly

slightly larger than its full -load linear between no-load and full-
torq ue, so this motor will start load. In this range, the rotor
carrying any load that it can supply resistance is much larger than the
at full power rotor reactance, so the rotor
current , the rotor magnetic fi eld,
and the induced torque increase
linearly with increasing slip.

The induced torque of the motor

is zero at synchronous speed

A typical induction motor torque-speed characteristics

61

Derivation of induction motor induced-torque

equation
If the rotor of the induction motor is driven faster
than synchronous speed, then the direction of the
If the motor is turning backward relative to the induced torque in the machine reverses and the
direction of the magnetic fields, the induced machine becomes a generator, converting mechanical
torque in the machine will stop the machine power to electric power (induction generator).
very rapidly and will try to rotate it in the other
direction. Since reversing the direction of
magnetic field rotation is simply a matter of
switching any two stator phases, this fact can
be used as a way to very rapidly stop an
induction motor. The act of switching two
phases in order to stop the motor very rapidly is
called “plugging”

62

31
 04-Feb-24

Derivation of induction motor induced-torque

equation

There is an induced torque at

start-up even if the motor’s
speed is zero. This torque is
called “start-up torque”

The peak power supplied by the

induction motor occurs at a
No power is converted to
different speed than the
mechanical form when the
maximum torque
rotor is at zero speed

63

Maximum (pullout) torque in an induction motor

• The induced torque is given as:

𝑃𝐴𝐺
𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 =
𝑤𝑠𝑦𝑛

• The maximum possible torque occurs when the air-gap power is maximum. (Synchronous speed is constant)

• Since the air-gap power is equal to the power consumed in the resistor R2/s, the maximum induced torque will
occur when the power consumed by that resistor is maximum.

𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

maximum 64

32
 04-Feb-24

Maximum (pullout) torque in an induction motor

𝐼2
• So when is the power supplied to R2/s becomes
maximum ?

• The maximum power transfer theorem states that

maximum power transfer to the load resistor R2/s
will occur when the magnitude of this resistance is
equal to the magnitude of the source impedance:

(Slip at pullout torque)

65

Maximum (pullout) torque in an induction motor

• Since induced torque is given by:

• We can find the pullout torque by inserting 𝒔 = 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒙 in the above equation:

66

33
 04-Feb-24

Maximum (pullout) torque in an induction motor

• Since the referred rotor resistance R2 appears only in the numerator, so the slip of the rotor at maximum
torque becomes directly proportional to the rotor resistance:

Denominator is constant

𝑅2 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 This feature can be used to change the torque-

speed characteristics of an induction motor

67

Maximum (pullout) torque in an induction motor

• Inserting a resistance into the rotor circuit of a wound
rotor induction motor changes the torque-speed
characteristics.

• This can be done using slip rings.

• The figure shows that as the rotor resistance is

increased, the pullout speed of the motor decreases.
(Pullout speed is the speed at which the maximum
torque is induced in the induction motor)

• However, as the rotor resistance is increased, the

maximum torque remains constant.

The effect of varying rotor resistance on the torque-speed

characteristic of a wound-rotor induction motor.
68

34
 04-Feb-24

Maximum (pullout) torque in an induction motor

• It is possible to take advantage of this characteristic of
wound-rotor induction motors to start very heavy loads.

• If a resistance is inserted into the rotor circuit, the

maximum torque can be adjusted to occur at starting
conditions.

• Therefore, the maximum possible torque would be

available to start heavy loads.

• On the other hand, once the load is turning, the extra

resistance can be removed from the circuit, and the
maximum torque will move up to near-synchronous speed
for regular operation.

wound-rotor
induction motor
69

Example:
A two-pole, 50-Hz induction motor supplies 15 kW to a load at a speed of 2950 r/min. Answer the following
questions:

(a) What is the motor's slip?

(b) What is the induced torque in the motor in Nm under these conditions? (assume efficiency is 100%)
(c) What will the operating speed of the motor be if its torque is doubled?

In the low-slip region, the torque-speed curve is linear, so induced torque is directly proportional to slip.

𝑠 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑

(d) How much power will be supplied by the motor when the torque is doubled?
70

35
 04-Feb-24

Rotor design due to desired torque-speed

characteristics
• if a rotor is designed with high resistance, then
pullout torque (maximum torque) is obtained at pullout torque
lower speeds or higher slip. (refer to the figure)

• So pullout torque is approached to starting

conditions of the motor if high resistance rotor is
used.

• Consequently, starting torque is increased if the

rotor is designed with high resistance.

• On the other hand, for higher slip values, Pconv is

reduced: speed reduces or slip increases

• So, the overall efficiency of the motor reduces if

the rotor is designed with high resistance.
73

Rotor design due to desired torque-speed

characteristics
• If a low resistance rotor is used, the induction motor pullout torque
will have a low starting torque (refer to the figure).

• Since, the slip is small at rated conditions, converted

power will be high:

• As a result, the overall efficiency of the motor

becomes high if a low resistance rotor is used. speed reduces or slip increases

74

36
 04-Feb-24

Rotor design due to desired torque-speed

characteristics
• So the solution is to use a wound-rotor induction motor.

• Add an extra resistance to the rotor circuit during starting to increase starting torque.

• When the motor reaches at its steady-state speed, remove this resistance from the rotor circuit to increase the
overall efficiency of the induction motor.

• Unfortunately, wound-rotor motors are

❑ more expensive
❑ need more maintenance
❑ require a more complex automatic control circuit than squirrel-cage rotor motors.

• So how can we get a solution with a squirrel-cage rotor to generate

❑ high starting torque
❑ high efficiency during normal operation

75

Rotor design due to desired torque-speed

characteristics
Pullout torque is obtained
near synchronous speed
High starting torque

Synchronous speed

The desired torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor.

76

37
 04-Feb-24

Control of motor characteristics by cage rotor

design
Definition of Rotor Leakage Reactance:

Rotor leakage reactance is the reactance due to the rotor

flux lines that do not couple with the stator windings.

Rotor leakage reactance is small

• So if the rotor current passes at the top of the bar, the flux
is tightly linked to the stator and rotor leakage reactance
becomes small. (See upper figure)

• So if the rotor current passes in the bottom of the bar, the

flux is loosely linked to the stator and rotor leakage Rotor leakage reactance is high
reactance becomes large. (See bottom figure) 77

Control of motor characteristics by cage rotor

design
NEMA Design Class A: Large bars near the surface:

• As seen in the figure, the rotor bars are quite large and
placed near the surface of the rotor.

• Such a design will have a low rotor resistance (due to

its large cross section) and a low leakage reactance
(due to the bar's location near the stator).

• Because of the low rotor resistance, the pullout torque

will be quite near synchronous speed and the motor
will be quite efficient under normal operation.

• Since rotor resistance is small, the motor's starting

torque will be small and its starting current is high.

78

38
 04-Feb-24

Control of motor characteristics by cage rotor

design
NEMA Design Class D: small bars near the surface:

• Since the cross-sectional area of the bars is small,

the rotor resistance is relatively high.

• Since the bars are located near the stator, the rotor
leakage reactance is still small.

• Since the rotor resistance is high, this motor has a

high starting torque and the pullout torque occurs
at low speeds (high slip).

• But the efficiency of this type of motor will be lower

as discussed previously.

79

Control of motor characteristics by cage rotor

design
• So, now the question must be:

• How can we join the benefits of these two different rotor classes (NEMA Class A and Class D) ?

• Advantages of NEMA Class A:

❑ The pullout torque is near synchronous speed
❑ High efficiency under normal operation

• Advantages of NEMA Class D:

❑ The pullout torque occurs at low speeds
❑ High starting torque

• The solution is to use either deep rotor bar or double-cage rotor structure.

80

39
 04-Feb-24

Control of motor characteristics by cage rotor

design
NEMA Design Class B: Deep rotor bars:

rotor bar close to the stator rotor bar far from the stator

81

Control of motor characteristics by cage rotor

design
NEMA Design Class B: Deep rotor bars:

• At low slip (high speed), the rotor's frequency is very small

(fr≈0), and the reactances of all the parallel paths through 𝐼
the bar are small compared to their resistances. (XL≈0) 𝐼
𝐼 𝑅
• The impedances of all parts of the bar are approximately 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
equal (see the figure), so current flows through all parts of 4
𝐼
the bar equally.

• The resulting large cross-sectional area makes the rotor

resistance quite small, resulting in good efficiency at low
slips. (Like NEMA Class A). Rotor resistance becomes
very small at low slips

82

40
 04-Feb-24

Control of motor characteristics by cage rotor

design 𝐼 1

NEMA Design Class B: Deep rotor bars: 𝐼2

• At high slip (starting conditions), the reactances become larger 𝐼3
compared to the resistances in the rotor bars. Because fr is higher.
𝐼4

• So major part of the rotor current is forced to flow in the region

which is close to the top of bar.
(𝐼1 > 𝐼2 > 𝐼3 > 𝐼4 )

• Since the effective cross section is lower, the rotor resistance is

higher than before. With a high rotor resistance at starting
conditions, the starting torque is relatively higher and the starting
current is relatively lower.

83

Control of motor characteristics by cage rotor

design
Small and high-
NEMA Design Class C: Double cage rotor bars: resistance set of bars are
located at the rotor
• It consists of a large, low-resistance set of bars buried deeply
surface
in the rotor and a small, high-resistance set of bars set at the
rotor surface. Large and low-
resistance set of bars
• It is similar to the deep bar rotor, except that the difference are located inside
between low-slip and high-slip operation is even more
exaggerated.

• At starting conditions, only the small bar is effective, and the

rotor resistance is quite high. This high resistance results in a
large starting torque.

• However, at normal operating speeds, both bars are effective,

and the resistance is almost as low as in a deep-bar rotor. This
greatly improves the efficiency under normal operation.
84

41
 04-Feb-24

Control of motor characteristics by cage rotor

design
NEMA Design Class C: Double cage rotor bars:

• Double-cage rotors have the disadvantage that they are

more expensive than the other types of cage rotors.

• But they are cheaper than wound-rotor designs.

• They allow the following features:

❑ High starting torque
❑ Low starting current
❑ Good efficiency at normal operating conditions

85

Induction motor design classes

• DESIGN CLASS A:
➢ Standard motors with a normal starting torque, normal starting current.
➢ Full-load slip is less than 5 %.
➢ Pullout torque is 200 to 300 % of the full-load torque and occurs at a low slip (less than 20 %).
➢ The starting torque is at least the rated torque for larger motors and is 200 % or more of the rated torque
for smaller motors.
➢ Typical applications for these motors are driving fans, blowers, pumps, lathes, and other machine tools.

• DESIGN CLASS B:
➢ They have a normal starting torque, a lower starting current, and low slip.
➢ These motors produce about the same starting torque as the class A motor with about 25 % less current.
➢ The pullout torque is greater than or equal to 200 % of the rated load torque, but less than that of the class
A design because of the increased rotor reactance.
➢ Rotor slip is still relatively low (less than 5 %) at full load.
➢ Applications are similar to those for design A, but design B is preferred because of its lower starting-current
requirements.

86

42
 04-Feb-24

Induction motor design classes

• DESIGN CLASS C:
➢ These motors have a high starting torque with low starting currents and low slip (less than 5 % ) at full load.
➢ The pullout torque is slightly lower than that for class A motors, while the starting torque is up to 250 % of
the full-load torque.
➢ These motors are built from double-cage rotors, so they are more expensive than motors in the previous
classes.
➢ They are used for high-starting-torque loads, such as loaded pumps, compressors, and conveyors.

• DESIGN CLASS D:
➢ They have a very high starting torque (275 % or more of the rated torque) and a low starting current.
➢ They also have a high slip at full load.
➢ They are essentially ordinary class A induction motors, but with the rotor bars made smaller and with a
higher-resistance material.
➢ The high rotor resistance shifts the peak torque to a very low speed. The highest torque occurs at zero
speed ( 100 % slip).
➢ Full-load slip is quite high because of the high rotor resistance. It is typically7 to 11 %.
➢ These motors are used in applications requiring the acceleration of extremely high-inertia-type loads, such
as large flywheels used in punch presses or shears. 87

Starting induction motors

• Induction motors can be started by simply connecting them to the three-phase power source.

• Although starting is easy, they require high starting currents in general.

• This high starting current may cause huge voltage dip in the power system’s voltage.

• For wound-rotor induction motors, starting current can be limited by inserting an extra resistance in the rotor
circuit during starting. This extra resistance also increases the starting torque (mentioned previously).

• For squirrel-cage induction motors, the starting current can be limited by other methods (will be discussed soon).

• The starting current of squirrel-cage induction motors depends on the motor's rated power and the effective
rotor resistance at starting conditions.

• To estimate the starting current, all squirrel-cage motors have a starting code letter on their nameplates.

88

43
 04-Feb-24

Starting induction motors

Table of NEMA code letters indicating the starting kilovolt amperes

per horsepower of rating for a motor. Each code letter extends up
to but does not include the lower bound of the next higher class.

89

Starting induction motors

• How is this table used to calculate the starting current of a given induction motor ?
Example: What is the starting current of a 15-hp, 208-V, code Ietter-F, three-phase induction motor?

Solution:

90

44
 04-Feb-24

Starting induction motors

• For squirrel-cage induction motors, the terminal voltage of the motor can be reduced during starting by using
autotransformers.

• Then the terminal voltage of the motor is increased gradually as motor speeds up to the rated condition.

• Since the induced torque is directly proportional to the square of the terminal voltage, the starting torque
decreases as the square of the applied voltage.

• Therefore, only a certain amount of current reduction can be done if the motor is required to start under load
(with a shaft load attached)

91

Speed control of induction motors

• The synchronous speed (the speed of rotating magnetic field of the stator) of an induction motor is given as:
120𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛 =
𝑃

• Since the rotor is chasing the rotating stator magnetic field, the rotor speed can be controlled by changing 𝒏𝒔𝒚𝒏

• So, there are two techniques in order to change the speed of an induction motor:

➢ Change 𝑓𝑒 (Use an inverter - variable speed drive, very common method used today)
➢ Change pole number 𝑃. (Very old method, not used today anymore)

92

45
 04-Feb-24

Speed control of induction motors

The torque-speed characteristics of an

induction motor for different stator frequencies.
93

Speed control of induction motors

• When running at speeds below the base speed of the motor, it is necessary to reduce the terminal voltage
applied to the stator linearly with decreasing stator frequency.

• This process is called “derating”.

• If derating it is not done, the steel in the core of the induction motor will saturate and excessive magnetization
currents will flow in the machine.

• The motor generates low order current harmonics which decreases the power quality of the power system.

• The proof of derating is given below:

For example, if w is
(Faraday’s Law) reduced by 10%, 𝑽𝑴
should also be reduced
If a voltage 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑀 sin 𝑤𝑡 is applied by 10% to keep the flux
to the core: the resulting flux will be: level constant in the core

94

46
 04-Feb-24

Speed control of induction motors

• If the motor is wound-rotor, speed control can also
be done by adding an extra resistance to rotor
circuit.

Speed control by varying the rotor resistance

of a wound-rotor induction motor
95

Determining circuit model parameters

• The equivalent circuit of an induction motor is a very useful tool for analyzing the motor.

• The equivalent circuit model parameters can be found (estimated) by making some tests on the
induction motor.

• These tests are as follows: (These are similar to the tests made on a transformer)
➢ No-load test
➢ DC test for stator resistance
➢ Locked-rotor (Blocked-rotor) test
96

47
 04-Feb-24

No-Load test
• No-load test of an induction motor is done to measure the rotational losses of the motor and provides
information about its magnetization current.

• The test set-up is shown in the figure.

The motor is freely

rotating without any load

• The only load on the motor is the friction and windage losses, so all Pconv is consumed by
mechanical losses.

• The slip of the motor is very small (possibly as small as 0.001 or less).
97

No-Load test
• The equivalent circuit of the motor under no-load test is shown in the figure.

• 𝑋2 is negligible (at no load, s≈0 and 𝑓𝑅 ≅ 0)

1−𝑠
• 𝑅2 ≫ 𝑅2 (at no load, s≈0)
𝑠

1−𝑠
• Since 𝑅2 is very high, 𝐼2 ≅ 0)
𝑠

The equivalent circuit of the

motor under no-load test
98

48
 04-Feb-24

No-Load test
• Under no-load conditions, the stator copper losses are given by:

• So the sum of wattmeter readings will be equal to:

𝑃1 + 𝑃2 =

99

No-Load test
• Since 𝑋1 is much greater than the series resistance 𝑅1

• And, 𝑋𝑀 is much smaller than the parallel resistance,

• The equivalent circuit of the induction motor under no load conditions is approximately a purely inductive circuit:

• So the equivalent impedance of the motor under no load conditions can be written as:

100

49
 04-Feb-24

DC test for stator resistance

• DC test is applied to stator windings to measure per-phase
stator resistance.

• To perform the test, the current in the stator windings is

adjusted to the rated value.

• Since the applied voltage is DC, there will be no induced

voltage in the rotor circuit and hence no rotor current will
flow (Faraday’s Law).

• Also, stator reactance becomes zero at DC (f = 0Hz).

• If the stator is Y-connected, the stator resistance can be

estimated using the following equation:

VDC is the voltmeter reading

IDC is the ampermeter reading
101

DC test for stator resistance

• If the stator is Δ-connected, the stator resistance can be
estimated using the following equation:

𝑉𝐷𝐶 2 VDC is the voltmeter reading

= 𝑅𝐷𝐶 = 𝑅1∆
𝐼𝐷𝐶 3 IDC is the ampermeter reading
102

50
 04-Feb-24

Locked-rotor test
• This test is also called «blocked-rotor test».

• This test corresponds to the short-circuit test on a

transformer.

• In this test, the rotor is locked so that it cannot move, a

variable AC voltage is applied to the stator, and the current
flow is adjusted to be approximately full-load value, and
the resulting voltage, current, and power are measured.

103

Locked-rotor test
• Since the rotor is not moving, the slip s = 1, and so the rotor
resistance R2/s becomes equal to R2 (a very small value)

(can be neglected)

• At normal operating conditions, the slip of most motors is

only 2 to 4 percent, and the resulting rotor frequency is in
the range of 1 to 3 Hz.

• Becasue of this situation, to obtain realistic results, typically

the frequency of the applied voltage is adjusted to be 25 %
or less of the rated frequency. 104

51
 04-Feb-24

Locked-rotor test
• Under locked-rotor conditions, the total input
power of the motor is given by:

• The magnitude of the total impedance in the motor

circuit:

105

Locked-rotor test
• Locked-rotor impedance can be written as:

where,

where X1’ and X2’ are the stator and

rotor reactances at the test frequency

• Since the reactance is directly proportional to the

frequency, the total equivalent reactance at the
nominal operating frequency can be found as: 106

52
 04-Feb-24

Locked-rotor test
• Unfortunately, there is no simple way to separate the contributions of the stator and rotor
reactances from each other.

• Over the years, experience has shown that motors of certain design types have certain
proportions between the rotor and stator reactances. The following table summarizes this
experience.

Rules of thumb for dividing rotor and stator circuit reactance.

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Induction generator
• If an induction motor is driven at a speed greater than
synchronous speed by an external prime mover (such as DC
motor or wind turbine, and etc…), the direction of its
inducted torque will reverse and it acts as a generator.

• As the torque applied to its shaft by the prime mover

increases, the amount of power produced by the induction
generator increases.

• There is a maximum possible induced torque in the

generator region, which is known as “pushover torque” of
the generator.

• If a prime mover applies a torque greater than the

pushover torque to the shaft of an induction generator, the
generator will overspeed.

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Induction generator
Disadvantages of induction generator:

• An induction generator does not have a separate field circuit

so it cannot produce its own reactive power.

• In fact, it consumes reactive power (remember its equivalent

circuit having many reactances), and an external source of
reactive power must be connected to it at all times.

• The required reactive power is usually supplied by delta-

connected capacitor banks. (Refer to the figure)

• An induction generator cannot control its output voltage

unlike a synchronous generator.

• The terminal voltage of the induction generator is controlled

by the external reactive power source.

• If the induction generator is connected to an infinite bus, its 109

terminal voltage is maintained by the infinite bus.

Induction generator
Advantages of induction generator:

• The induction generator is a very simple generator.

• It does not require a separate field circuit.

• It does not require synchronization procedures unlike a

synchronous generator.
Source: Saber Mohamed Saleh Salem, “Study of wind turbine based self-excited
induction generator under nonlinear resistive loads as a step to solve the Egypt
• It does not have to be driven continuously at a fixed speed electricity crisis”, Computers & Electrical Engineering, Vol. 51, 2016, pp. 1-11.

unlike a synchronous generator.

• As long as the machine’s speed is some value greater than

its synchronous speed, the machine will act as a generator.

• Self-excited induction generators (SEIG) are easy and cheap

to apply for wind energy applications (Refer to the figure)

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Induction generator
• Doubly fed induction generators (DFIG) are very popular
nowadays.

• DFIGs can operate at variable wind speeds (sub- or

super synchronously). However, SEIGs operate at only
constant wind speed.

• DFIGs can capture wind power better than SEIGs

• DFIGs can control reactive and active power separately.

(This function is not available in SEIGs).

• DFIGs are more expensive than SEIGs, because they

need power converters (Refer to the figure).

• However DFIGs are preferred more than SEIGs because

of many advantages, some of which are listed above.

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Induction motor ratings

The nameplate of a typical induction motor

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END OF CHAPTER 4

INDUCTION MOTORS

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