Architecture of Raspberry Pi

Raspberry Pi is a small single-board computer (SBC). It is a credit card-sized computer that can
be plugged into a monitor. It acts as a minicomputer by connecting the keyboard, mouse, and
display. Raspberry Pi has an ARM processor and 512MB of RAM. The architecture of Raspberry
Pi is discussed in this article.
The following diagram shows the architecture of Raspberry Pi:

The following diagram shows some main blocks of Raspberry Pi:

Raspberry Pi mainly consists of the following blocks:

 Processor: Raspberry Pi uses Broadcom BCM2835 system on chip which is an ARM processor
and Video core Graphics Processing Unit (GPU). It is the heart of the Raspberry Pi which
controls the operations of all the connected devices and handles all the required computations.
 HDMI: High Definition Multimedia Interface is used for transmitting video or digital audio
data to a computer monitor or to digital TV. This HDMI port helps Raspberry Pi to connect
its signals to any digital device such as a monitor digital TV or display through an HDMI
cable.
 GPIO ports: General Purpose Input Output ports are available on Raspberry Pi which allows
the user to interface various I/P devices.
 Audio output: An audio connector is available for connecting audio output devices such as
headphones and speakers.
 USB ports: This is a common port available for various peripherals such as a mouse,
keyboard, or any other I/P device. With the help of a USB port, the system can be expanded
by connecting more peripherals.
 SD card: The SD card slot is available on Raspberry Pi. An SD card with an operating system
installed is required for booting the device.
 Ethernet: The ethernet connector allows access to the wired network, it is available only on
the model B of Raspberry Pi.
 Power supply: A micro USB power connector is available onto which a 5V power supply can
be connected.
 Camera module: Camera Serial Interface (CSI) connects the Broadcom processor to the Pi
camera.
 Display: Display Serial Interface (DSI) is used for connecting LCD to Raspberry Pi using 15
15-pin ribbon cables. DSI provides a high-resolution display interface that is specifically used
for sending video data.

A Raspberry Pi 4 board has 40 pins on it. Among these pins, we have four power
pins on the Raspberry Pi, two of which are 5v pins and another two are 3.3v pins.
The 5v power pins are connected directly to the Raspberry Pi's power input and we
can use these pins to run low power applications.

GPIO Pinout

 One of the powerful features of the Raspberry Pi is the row of GPIO (general-purpose input
output) pins and the GPIO Pinout is an interactive reference to these GPIO pins.
 Following diagram shows a 40-pin GPIO header, which is found on all the current
Raspberry Pi boards –
 Voltages

From the above diagram, we can see that there are two 5V pins and two 3V3 pins on the board. It
also has several ground pins (0V). All these pins are unconfigurable.

Outputs

A GPIO pin can be designated as an output pin. The pin set as output pin can be set to 3V3(high) or
0V(low).

Voltages

From the above diagram, we can see that there are two 5V pins and two 3V3 pins on the board. It
also has several ground pins (0V). All these pins are unconfigurable.

Outputs

A GPIO pin can be designated as an output pin. The pin set as output pin can be set to 3V3(high) or
0V(low).

Inputs

A GPIO pin can be designated as an input pin. The pin set as input pin can be read as 3V3(high) or
0V(low). You can use internal pull-up or pull-down resistors.

You can see in the above diagram, GPIO2 and GPIO3 pins have fixed pull-up resistors but for the
other pins, you can configure it in software.

Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)


Generally, sensors are used in the architecture of IOT devices.
Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.
A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.
The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for processing (e.g.
electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or material to detect the presence of
a particular physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like changes in
characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.
Transducer :

 A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.

 It converts one type of energy into another type.
 It might be used as actuator in various systems.

Types of sensors –

 Electrical sensor :
Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non contact.
Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the component complete an electrical
circuit.
Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical principles of either induction for
detecting metals or capacitance for detecting non metals as well.
 Light sensor:
Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of the important sensor.
Light dependent resistor or LDR is a simple light sensor available today.
The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the ambient
light i.e when the intensity of light increases, it’s resistance decreases and vise versa.
 Touch sensor:
Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus is known as touch sensor.
It’s name suggests that detection of something.
They are classified into two types:
1. Resistive type
2. Capacitive type
Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types.
Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.
 Range sensing:
Range sensing concerns detecting how near or far a component is from the sensing position,
although they can also be used as proximity sensors.
Distance or range sensors use non-contact analog techniques. Short range sensing, between a few
millimetres and a few hundred millimetres is carried out using electrical capacitance, inductance
and magnetic technique.
Longer range sensing is carried out using transmitted energy waves of various types eg radio
waves, sound waves and lasers.
 Mechanical sensor:
Any suitable mechanical / electrical switch may be adopted but because a certain amount of force
is required to operate a mechanical switch it is common to use micro-switches.
 Pneumatic sensor:
These proximity sensors operate by breaking or disturbing an air flow.
The pneumatic proximity sensor is an example of a contact type sensor. These cannot be used
where light components may be blown away.
 Optical sensor:
In there simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by breaking a light beam which falls
onto a light sensitive device such as a photocell. These are examples of non contact sensors. Care
must be exercised with the lighting environment of these sensors for example optical sensors can
be blinded by flashes from arc welding processes, airborne dust and smoke clouds may impede
light transmission etc.
 Speed Sensor:
Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle which is in motion is known as speed
sensor .For example – Wind Speed Sensors, Speedometer ,UDAR ,Ground Speed Radar .
 Temperature Sensor:
Devices which monitors and tracks the temperature and gives temperature’s measurement as an
electrical signal are termed as temperature sensors .These electrical signals will be in the form of
voltage and is directly proportional to the temperature measurement .
 PIR Sensor:
PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic sensor that is used for the tracking
and measurement of infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view and is also
known as Pyroelectric sensor .It is mainly used for detecting human motion and movement
detection .
 Ultrasonic Sensor:
The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working principle of SONAR or RADAR in
which the interpretation of echoes from radio or sound waves to evaluate the attributes of a
target by generating the high frequency sound waves .

WHAT IS AN INTEGRATED SENSOR?

An integrated sensor is the core technology of a sensor without the package. It allows for multiple
sensor technologies to be combined or "integrated" into a single plug-and-play assembly.
Integrating as little as 3 sensors can reduce leak points by 75%, reduce footprint by up to 80%,
while also reducing the complexity and optimizing the end-user's experience.
Temperature sensor:
Temperature sensor is a device, used to measure the temperature using an electrical signal. It
requires a thermocouple or RTD(Resistance temperature Detector). It is the most common and
most popular sensor.
Temperature sensor, the change in the temperature correspond to change in its physical property

like resistance or voltage.

Working :
The measurement of the temperature sensor is about the coolness or hotness of an entity.
The working of the sensor is the voltage that read across to the diode. If increment in voltage,
then the temperature increases and there is a voltage decrement between the transistors
terminals of emitter & base. That data saved by the sensor.
If the difference in voltage is amplified, then analog signal is generated by the device, and it is
directly proportional to the temperature.
Types of temperature sensor :
 Thermocouple sensor
 Thermistor sensor
 Resistance temperature detector
 Thermometer
 IR temperature sensor
 Semiconductor based sensor
1. Thermocouple sensor –
A thermocouple sensor is a temperature measuring tool lies two different conductors that
contact each other at one or more points. It produces a voltage when the temperature of one of
the points differs from the reference temperature of one of the points differs from the
reference temperature at other parts of the circuits.
2. Thermistor sensor –
This type of sensors is widely used in the human thermometers. If there are changes in the
temperatures, then the electric current or resistance also change.
The thermistor is made by using the semiconductor materials with a resistivity which is
especially sensitive to temperature.
The resistance of a thermistor decreases with increasing temperature so that when the
temperature changes, the resistance changes predictable.
3. Resistance temperature detector –
They are the temperature sensors. Temperature sensors with a resistor what changes the
resistive value cumulatively temperature changes.
Resistance temperature detector(RTD) are used in a wide temperatures range from -500c to
5000c for thin film and for the wire wound variety the range is from the +2000c to 8500c. A
thin layer of platinum on an underlying substance is present on the thin film (Resistance
 temperature detector) element. A new type of model is created who provide the electrical
circuit, and it is well-ordered to provide specific resistance.
4. Thermometer –
It is a device which is used to measure the temperature of any class solid or liquid in this type
of alcohol is used in a tube whose volume is changed by changing the temperature.
Its volume is directly proportional to temperature.
5. IR temperature sensor –
These are an electronic and non contacting sensors which have a certain characteristic such
that it can EMIT the IR radiations. Two types of IR temperature sensor used in market are IR
sensor and Quantum IR sensor the surface temperature by emitting radiation does its cost
depend on its working its accuracy level depend upon its cost in other words low cost- low
accuracy level and high cost -high accuracy level.
6. Semiconductor based sensor –
It operates with the reverse bias has a small capacitance and low leakage current. They are
formed on thin wafers of silicon. They are compact, produce linear output and have a small
range of temperature. They also have low-cost and accurate following calibration.
Applications of Temperature sensor :
 These are used in electric motors for measuring the motor winding temperature, bearing
temperature, brushes temperature.
 These are used in electric cables for measuring the table internal temperature.
 In mechanical engine for measuring engine oil temperature engine bearing temperature.
 In rubber, plastic, biomedical industries.
What is Temperature and humidity sensor?
A temperature and humidity sensor are low cost-sensitive electronic devices that detects, measures
and reports both dampness and air temperature. The proportion of moisture noticeable all around
to the highest amount of moisture at a specific air temperature.
It is one of the most important devices that has been widely in consumer, industrial, biomedical,
and environmental etc. applications for measuring and monitoring temperature and humidity to a
specific location especially in a data center or a sever room.
In most industries, temperature and humidity measurement is important because it played a role
for a safety of all crucial equipment that may affect the whole operation.
How Does It Work?
oes It Work?
Temperature and humidity sensor work by measuring the capacitance or resistance of air samples.
Most of these sensors utilize capacitive measurement to determine the amount of dampness in the
air. This sort of measurement relies on two electrical conductors with a non-conductive polymer
film laying between them to form an electrical field between them.
Moisture from the air collects on the film and causes changes within the voltage levels between the
two plates. This alter is then converted into a computerize measurement of the air’s relative
humidity after taking the air temperature into account.
All about HC-05 Bluetooth Module
Ever wanted to control your Mechanical Bots with an Android Phone or design the robots with
custom remote, here in this tutorial we will learn about a Bluetooth Module HC-05 used for the
above mentioned and many other cases. Here we will be understanding the connection and
working of a HC-05 module and also its interfacing with custom android app.
Basics
Wireless communication is swiftly replacing the wired connection when it comes to electronics
and communication. Designed to replace cable connections HC-05 uses serial communication to
communicate with the electronics. Usually, it is used to connect small devices like mobile phones
using a short-range wireless connection to exchange files. It uses the 2.45GHz frequency band.
The transfer rate of the data can vary up to 1Mbps and is in range of 10 meters.
The HC-05 module can be operated within 4-6V of power supply. It supports baud rate of 9600,
19200, 38400, 57600, etc. Most importantly it can be operated in Master-Slave mode which means
it will neither send or receive data from external sources.

Description of pins

Enable - This pin is used to set the Data Mode or and AT command mode (set high).
VCC - This is connected to +5V power supply.
Ground - Connected to ground of powering system.
Tx (Transmitter) - This pin transmits the received data Serially.
Rx (Receiver) - Used for broadcasting data serially over bluetooth.
State -Used to check if the bluetooth is working properly.

Modes of Operation

The HC-05 Bluetooth Module can be used in two modes of operation: Command Mode and Data
Mode.

Command Mode
In Command Mode, you can communicate with the Bluetooth module through AT Commands for
configuring various settings and parameters of the Module like get the firmware information,
changing Baud Rate, changing module name, it can be used to set it as master or slave.
A point about HC-05 Module is that it can be configured as Master or Slave in a communication
pair. In order to select either of the modes, you need to activate the Command Mode and sent
appropriate AT Commands.

Data Mode
Coming to the Data Mode, in this mode, the module is used for communicating with other
Bluetooth device i.e. data transfer happens in this mode.

Programming HC-05 with Microcontroller

Technical specs of the code:
 Arduino-Uno is used as the microcontroller.

 Name: HC-05

 Password: 1234 (or 0000)

 Type: Slave

 Mode: Data

 Baud Rate: 9600 with 8 data bits, no parity and 1 stop bit
NWhat is an Ultrasonic Sensor, How Does It Work, and What are Its Applications?

Ultrasonic sensors are electronic devices that determine a target’s distance. They work by emitting
ultrasonic sound waves and converting those waves into electrical signals. Furthermore, ultrasonic
travel at a faster rate than audible sounds. Therefore, ultrasonic sensor work involves sound waves
to find the distance to an item. A transducer is also there to transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses.
These pulses help to communicate information about an object within range. Further, this detail
can be applied in various applications including industrial. Let’s discuss in detail how ultrasonic
sensor works.

Ultrasonic sensors operate by emitting sound waves at frequencies that are too high for humans to
hear. The sensor’s transducer serves as a microphone to receive and transmit ultrasonic sound.
They also use a single transducer to send and receive pulses. Further, the sensor measures the total
time taken to deliver and receive an ultrasonic pulse and calculates the target’s distance.

Ultrasonic Sensor Working Principle

The working principle of an ultrasonic sensor revolves around the emission and reception of high-
frequency sound waves. These waves range from 20 kHz which is beyond the range of human
hearing. Here’s a simplified explanation of ultrasonic sensor operation:
  Emitting Sound Waves: The ultrasonic sensor generates a burst of ultrasonic sound waves,
usually in the range of 20 kHz to 65 kHz. These sound waves travel through the air towards
the target object.

 Bouncing Off Objects: When the sound waves encounter an object in their path, they
bounce off the surface of the object.

 Measuring the Return Time: The sensor measures the time it takes for the emitted sound
waves to bounce back after hitting the object. This time interval is extremely short, typically
measured in microseconds.

 Calculating Distance: The sensor figures out how far an object is by using the speed of
sound in the air. It does this by multiplying the time it takes for sound waves to go to the
object and then coming back by the speed of sound.

 Output Data: Last, the sensor provides this distance information as an output, which can be
used in various applications, such as obstacle detection, object positioning, or navigation.

Ultrasonic Sensor Application

Ultrasonic sensors are used in many areas of engineering. In automation, robotics, and
instrumentation, “no-contact” distance measuring is highly helpful. Below are the common uses
and functions of ultrasonic sensors:

 Distance Measurement: Ultrasonic sensors are commonly used to measure distances

between the sensor and an object. By emitting sound waves and measuring the time it takes
for them to bounce back, the sensor can calculate the distance accurately.

 Object Detection: In robotics and autonomous systems, ultrasonic sensors are crucial for
detecting obstacles in the environment. It can determine whether an object is present within
a specific range.

 Positioning and Navigation: Ultrasonic sensors are employed in robotics and autonomous
vehicles for accurate positioning and navigation. By continuously measuring distances to
surrounding objects, these systems can map their environment and make real-time
decisions.

 Tank Level Monitoring: Ultrasonic sensor working seen in industries like agriculture. It is
used to monitor the levels of liquids in large tanks or silos.

 Collision Avoidance: In automotive safety systems, ultrasonic sensors assist in collision

avoidance by detecting nearby objects and providing warnings or assisting with parking.

Other Common Applications of Ultrasonic Sensors Include:

 Ultrasonic sensors can measure the coil/roll’s diameter.

 Useful in quality control.
 Applicable in the Detection of proximity.
 Helpful to position robotic arms through robotic sensing.
 Used in security system management.
Limitations of Ultrasonic Sensors

1. Displacement

The sensor (movement of a manipulator’s arm or mobile robot) may have an impact on how
measurements are captured. Thus, the displacement must be evaluated to do precise measurements
or high-speed robot displacement.

2. Atmospheric movements

Moving air in the atmosphere messes with the measurement and may limit the range. Noise, for
example, can disrupt work and cause detection errors.

3. Sound-absorbing materials are not detectable

Sound-absorbing materials are invisible to them. Thus, objects with angled surfaces deflect the echo
away from the sensor or permeable targets. For example, sponges, foam, and soft garments may
make it more difficult to detect them. They absorb most of the reflected ultrasonic energy and
disrupt ultrasonic sensor working.

4. Precision in detecting temperature changes

Temperature changes strongly affect ultrasonic sensors. However, using models with temperature
compensation will help you avoid this issue.

An ultrasonic sensor is an electronic device that measures the distance of a target object by emitting
ultrasonic sound waves, and converts the reflected sound into an electrical signal. Ultrasonic waves
travel faster than the speed of audible sound (i.e. the sound that humans can hear). Ultrasonic
sensors have two main components: the transmitter (which emits the sound using piezoelectric
crystals) and the receiver (which encounters the sound after it has travelled to and from the target).

ESP8266
ESP8266 is Wi-Fi enabled system on chip (SoC) module developed by Espressif system. It is mostly
used for development of IoT (Internet of Things) embedded applications.
The ESP8266 is a system on a chip (SOC) Wi-Fi microchip for Internet of Things (IoT) applications
produced by Espressif Systems.Given its low cost, small size and adaptability with embedded
devices, the ESP8266 is now used extensively across IoT devices.

ESP8266 comes with capabilities of

 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g/n, supporting WPA/WPA2),

 general-purpose input/output (16 GPIO),
 Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C) serial communication protocol,
 analog-to-digital conversion (10-bit ADC)
 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) serial communication protocol,
 I²S (Inter-IC Sound) interfaces with DMA(Direct Memory Access) (sharing pins with
GPIO),
  UART (on dedicated pins, plus a transmit-only UART can be enabled on GPIO2), and
 pulse-width modulation (PWM).

ESP8266 Functions
ESP8266 has many applications when it comes to the IoT. Here are just some of the functions the
chip is used for:

 Networking: The module’s Wi-Fi antenna enables embedded devices to connect to

routers and transmit data
 Data Processing: Includes processing basic inputs from analog and digital sensors for far
more complex calculations with an RTOS or Non-OS SDK
 P2P Connectivity: Create direct communication between ESPs and other devices
using IoT P2P connectivity
 Web Server: Access pages written in HTML or development languages.

ESP8266 Applications
The ESP8266 modules are commonly found in the following IoT devices:

 Smart security devices, including surveillance cameras and smart locks

 Smart energy devices, including HVACs and thermostats
 Smart industrial devices, including Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)
 Smart medical devices, including wearable health monitors