THE COMMUNICATION PROCESSES

Communication Models and Concepts

Introduction

This topic describes the models of human communication. Models of communication illustrate where or
with whom a communication encounter starts and ends. Communication isa complex process and
therefore the purpose of models is to simplify the process by providing a visual representation of the
various aspects of a communication encounter.

Intended Learning outcomes

By the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

i. Discuss the components of the transmission model of communication.

ii. Describe the components of the interaction model of communication.
iii. Discuss the components of the transaction model of communication.
iv. Compare and contrast the three models of communication.
v. Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter.

Communication Models

Models of communication simplify the process by providing a visual representation of the various
aspects of a communication encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of
communication because they allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the process of
communication, define communication, and apply communication concepts. Communication models can
help you better prepare for future communication and learn from your previous communication.

In communication models, the participants are the senders and/or receivers of messages in a
communication encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content being conveyed from sender
to receiver. The three models of communication we will discuss are the transmission, interaction, and
transaction models.

The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and understand messages is the
encoding and decoding process. Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication.
Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts. Encoded messages are sent through a
channel or a sensory route on which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding. The linked term
encoding–decoding emphasizes the fact that you perform these functions simultaneously.

A) Transmission Model of Communication-Linear model of communication

The transmission model of communication13 describes communication as a linear, one-way process in

which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver. In early models (representations) or
theories, the communication process was thought to be linear. According to this linear view, the speaker
spoke and the listener listened
 • This model focuses on the sender and message within a communication encounter. The Linear
Model suggests communication moves only in one direction.
• The receiver is viewed as a target/end point rather than part of an ongoing process.
Communication was seen as proceeding in a relatively straight line. The Sender encodes a
Message, then uses a certain Channel (verbal/nonverbal communication) to send it to a Receiver
who decodes (interprets) the message.
• Speaking and listening were seen as taking place at different times; when you spoke, you didn’t
listen, and when you listened, you didn’t speak

• It is assumed the receiver either successful receives and understands the message or does not
• Early scholars who designed this model extended a linear model proposed by Aristotle that
included Speaker, Message, and hearer
• Shannon and Weaver (1946) proposed a Mathematical Model of Communication (often called
the Linear Model) that serves as a basic model of communication.

Examples

• Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio studio to you listening. The send
(radio presenter) encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a radio tower through
electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an
antenna and speakers in order to be decoded. Television also works in one direction.
• Think of Watching YouTube videos (sender). You act as the receiver when you watch videos,
receiving messages from the source (the YouTube video).

This model emphasizes clarity and effectiveness, but it also acknowledges that there are barriers to
effective communication. Noise is anything that interferes with a message being sent between participants
in a communication encounter. Noise is anything that interferes with, or changes, the original encoded
message.

All communication contain noise. Noise cannot be totally eliminated but can be minimized. Signal-to
noise ratio refers to useful information in relation to noise. For example, a post that contains lots of
useless information is high on noise and low on signal.
 • Physical/environmental noise interferes with physical transmission, include sounds of moving
cars, sunglasses, small/blurred/difficult to read texts, misspellings/poor grammar
• Physiological noise is created by barriers within the sender or receiver and would include visual
impairments, hearing loss, articulation problems, sickness, health problems and memory loss
• Psychological noise refers to mental interference in the speaker or listener and includes
preconceived ideas, wandering thoughts, biases and prejudices, close-mindedness, and extreme
emotionalism.
• Semantic noise is interference that occurs when the speaker and listener have different meaning
systems; such as use of jargon/complex terms, language barrier, autocorrect, and ambiguous or
overly abstract terms whose meanings can be easily misinterpreted e.g doctor who uses
medicalese without explanations, or sales person who speaks who speaks in the jargon of the
insurance industry. Imagine texting a friend if she wanted to go for thrifting over the weekend but
the smartphone autocorrected thrifting to thrusting!! Have you experienced such problems?

B) Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which participants

alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving
feedback within physical and psychological contexts. In transactional process communication is seen as
process in which each person serves as both speaker and listener, sending and receiving messages

• Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction model
incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process.
• Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages.
• The interaction model focuses on the communication process instead of whether the message
was received or not
 • The transactional view also sees the elements of communication as interdependent (never
independent)-each element exists in relation to the others. A change in any of the element
produces changes in the other elements. For example, if you’re having a meeting with a group
of your coworkers and your boss enters the room, this change in “audience” will lead to other
changes, for example change of what you are saying and how you are saying it
• The personal filters and experiences of the participants impact each communication exchange.
• Noise and personal filters always influence the outcomes of every communication exchange.

Examples: Face-to-face communication, Instant messaging/chatting, phone communication.

The interaction model takes physical and psychological context in to account.

• Physical context includes environmental factors in a communication encounter such size,

temperature, lighting and space influence our communication (think of job interview in different
setting)
• Psychological context includes mental and emotional factors(noise) in a communication
encounter-stress, anxiety, emotions etc affect our communication (think of receiving worrisome
news in the middle of a presentation)

C) Transaction Model of Communication

Communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the
transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of
communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context.

• The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which

communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts.
• In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create
relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts ,and engage with others in
dialogue to create communities.
• We don’t communicate about our realities; communication helps to construct our realities
• In addition, the model suggest that meaning is co-constructed between all parties involved in
any given communication interaction.
• The notion of co-constructed meaning is drawn from the relational, social, and cultural contexts
that make up our communication environments.
• Hence, role of sender and receiver in transactional model differs from the other models-they are
referred as communicators
• The transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers, and we
simultaneously send and receive both verbal and nonverbal messages (think of a date, you
exchange both verbal and nonverbal messages about our backgrounds, interests, expects etc
through talk and nonverbal communication such reinforcing listening by nodding)

• The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The model
portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede
communication
• The transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and
influence our communication encounters.
✓ Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. Norms
are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial
and error. For example, new employees learn organization norms and rules eg how to
dress, how to reach the boss, attentiveness, politeness, respect etc. We often interrupt
colleagues and we are unlikely to interrupt lecturers. Norms and rules vary among
people and cultures. How we negotiate cultural values, beliefs, attitudes, and
traditions also impact our communication interactions.
✓ Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we
have with a person. Relational contexts may bend or break social norms. communication
norms and rules are based on type of relationship we have. For example, certain
communication rules and norms that apply to a supervisor-supervisee relationship that don’t
apply to a brother-sister relationship and vice versa
 ✓ Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality,
tribe/ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. Intercultural communication creates
uncertainty, it can deter people from communicating across cultures or lead people to view
intercultural communication as negative.

Summary

Transmission model view communication as sending and receiving messages. The interaction model
views communication as an interaction in which a message is sent and then followed by a reaction
(feedback), which is then followed by another reaction and so on. From this view, communication is
viewed as process of producing conversions and interactions within physical and psychological contexts.
The transaction model views communication as integrated into our social realities in such a way that helps
us not only understand them but also created and change them.