TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 2
THEORY ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 7
DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................. 8
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ............................................................................................................................ 10
CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................................... 11
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 12

0
 ABSTRACT
The aim of the experiment was to investigate the manner in which a calorimeter cools down. The
cooling apparatus involved calorimeter contained hot water, stirrer and thermometer inserted were
used. The experiment was done by recording the value of temperature of water inside the
calorimeter every after 2 minutes until the temperature of water drops to about 50°C. The results
were tabulated in a table. After experiment room temperature was recorded as 29°C. These values
used for plotting a graph (cooling curve) which indicate the rate of cooling. Six points were chosen
from the graph along the temperature axis and their corresponding gradients were found.

Newton’s law of cooling hold under forced convection, its equation was used to describe the results
obtained as follows, the slope signifies the constant of the relationship thus gives the surface area
and the coefficient of cooling of that particular surface. The method was relatively precise to
approximate the accurate though some sources of error resulted into significant variation of the
results. It was suggested that whenever heat is been transferred by one mechanism, I it was likely
for the other mechanisms also to take place though in a limited case, hence the rate of heat transfer
by a particular mechanism cannot accurately obtained accurately from the experimental data
without considering the other two mechanisms. Thus, once studying an experiment about the
cooling of an object under convection it was important to include the correction for radiation as
well as conduction if heat conducting materials were nearly or in contact with convective

1
 INTRODUCTION
Heat as the energy that makes molecules move. Molecules with more heat energy move faster and
molecules with less heat energy move slower. Also, as molecules heat up and move faster, they
spread apart and objects expand (get bigger). This as called thermal expansion. Heat is always
moving, if two objects or substances that have different temperatures, heat will always move out
of the warmer object or substance, and into the cooler object or substance. This heat transfer will
continue until the objects are the same temperature (equilibrium temperature). Heat transfer is the
process of the movement of energy due to a temperature difference. When a temperature difference
is present, heat will flow from hot to cold. So how, exactly, does heat move out of one thing and
into another thing? This is called heat transfer. Energy transfer was when energy moves from one
thing or place to another, but the energy type stays the same. Heat can transfer (or move) in
different ways. The three types (ways) of heat transfer includes the following; Conduction,
convection and Radiation. In all ways of heat transfer, heat Q is transferred between bodies due to
temperature difference ΔT. convection will involve true movement of air molecules that carry heat
energy from the hot body to cold surroundings as the function of temperature difference between
the object and the surrounding. Newton found that the rate of cooling was proportional to the
excess of temperature of the body over that of the surroundings. This observation was what was
called Newton’s law of Cooling The law states that: “The rate of heat loss of a body s directly
proportional to the difference in the temperatures between the body and its environment’’. Newton
did not originally state his law in the above form in 1701. Rather, using today's terms, Newton
noted after some mathematical manipulation that the rate of temperature change of a body as
proportional to the difference in temperatures between the body and its surroundings. This final
simplest version of the law, given by Newton himself, was partly due to confusion in Newton's
time between the concepts of heat and temperature, which would not be fully disentangled until
much later. In 2020, Maruyama and Moriya repeated Newton's experiments with modern
apparatus, and they applied modern data reduction techniques. In particular, these investigators
took account of thermal radiation at high temperatures (as for the molten metals Newton used),
and they accounted for buoyancy effects on the air flow. By comparison to Newton's original data,
they concluded that his measurements (from 1692 to 1693) had been "quite accurate.

2
 THEORY
Newton's Law of cooling states that the rate of cooling of an object due to radiation provided there
was no other external force acting on the object was proportional to the temperature difference
between the object and its surroundings. We all know that a hot cup of tea when left on the table
cools down slowly depending on the external temperature. The greater the difference in
temperature the faster is the rate of cooling. In the study of heat transfer, Newton's law of cooling
as a physical law which states that “The rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the
difference in the temperatures between the body and its environment”. The law as frequently
qualified to include the condition that the temperature difference is small and the nature of heat
transfer mechanism remains the same. As such, it was equivalent to a statement that the heat
transfer coefficient, which mediates between heat losses and temperature differences, was a
constant. In heat conduction, Newton's Law was generally followed as a consequence of Fourier's
law. The thermal conductivity of most materials was only weakly dependent on temperature, so
the constant heat transfer coefficient condition is generally met. In convective heat transfer,
Newton's Law was followed for forced air or pumped fluid cooling, where the properties of the
fluid do not vary strongly with temperature, but it is only approximately true for buoyancy-driven
convection, where the velocity of the flow increases with temperature difference. In the case of
heat transfer by thermal radiation, Newton's law of cooling holds only for very small temperature
differences.

Relationship to mechanism of cooling

Convection cooling is sometimes said to be governed by "Newton's law of cooling." When the heat
transfer coefficient as independent, or relatively independent, of the temperature difference
between object and environment, Newton's law is followed. The law holds well for forced air and
pumped liquid cooling, where the fluid velocity does not rise with increasing temperature
difference. Newton's law was most closely obeyed in purely conduction-type cooling. However,
the heat transfer coefficient is a function of the temperature difference in natural convective
(buoyancy driven) heat transfer. In that case, Newton's law only approximates the result when the
temperature difference is relatively small.

If we plot a graph taking the above values with ∆Q = Q2 – Q1 in the y-axis and time t in the x-axis
then the graph will look like

3
 Fig 1 shows a graph depicting cooling hot water with time.

From the graph, we understand that cooling of hot water is dependent on the temperature of its
surroundings i.e. that is how hot the water is when compared to the surrounding temperature. From
the graph, we also find out that the rate of cooling is faster in the beginning but slows down as the
temperature of the water approaches the surrounding temperature.

The loss of heat to the surroundings is due to heat radiation.

Derivation for Newton’s Laws of Cooling

The rate of loss of heat from a hot body is equal to (-dQ/dt) ∝ ∆T = (T2 –T1) of the hot body and
the surroundings(applicable only for small differences of temperature).

We need to remember that any loss of heat by radiation depends on the type of the body and surface
area exposed. Therefore, let us suppose k is a positive constant depending upon the type of the
body surface and area exposed.

Then (-dQ/dt) = k(T2 –T1)……………………………(1)

Let us consider a body with mass m, specific heat capacity s and temperature T2.

T1 is the temperature of the surroundings

Let them fall in temperature denoted by dT₂ in time dt

∴ Rate of loss of Heat

dQ/dt=ms(dT₂ /dt)………………(2)

From equations (1) and (2) we get

= – m s (dT₂ /dt) = k(T₂-T₁))

4
 = dT₂ /(T₂ -T₁)=-kdt/ms=-Kdt…………(3)

Where K=k/ms

Integrating

logₑ (T₂ -T₁) =-Kt+c …………..(4)

Or T₂ = T₁)+C ́e–Kt; C ́=ec……….. (5)

Equation (5) is the representation of Newton’s Law of Cooling and helps us to calculate the time
to cool a body through a particular range of temperature.

Therefore, Equation for Newton’s Law of Cooling can be written as

T₂ = T₁ + C′ e –Kt; where C′ = ec

For minute temperature differences, the cooling rate because of conduction, convection and
radiation are directly proportional to the temperature differences. It results after approximation of
heat transfer from a radiator to a room, the heat loss through the walls of a room or cooling of a
hot teacup on the table.

Verification of Newton’s Law of cooling:

T1(temperature of hot water) and T2 (temperature of water in the calorimeter)

Verification of Newton’s law of cooling can be done with the help of an experimental setup shown
in Fig. 2(a). The set-up includes a double-walled vessel (V) with water-filled between the two
walls. A calorimeter (C) made of copper-containing hot water is placed inside the double-walled
vessel. With the help of corks, two thermometers are placed to detect the temperatures: T2 of water
in the calorimeter and T1 of hot water in between the double walls respectively. After equal time
intervals, the temperature of hot water in the calorimeter is noted. A graph is plotted between loge
(T2 –T1) [or ln(T2 –T1)]versus time (t). The graph is observed to be a straight line having a
negative slope as shown in Fig. 2(b).

This is in support of Eq. (5).

5
Fig 2(a) and fig 2(b) show the experimental setup for Verification of Newton’s Law of cooling.

Newton's law of cooling

LIMITATION OF NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING.

1. A correction to Newton's law concerning convection for larger temperature differentials by

including an exponent, was made in 1817 by Dulong and Petit. (These men are better-
known for their formulation of the Dulong–Petit law concerning the molar specific heat
capacity of a crystal.)
2. Another situation that does not obey Newton's law is radiative heat transfer. Radiative
cooling is better described by the Stefan–Boltzmann law in which the heat transfer rate
varies as the difference in the 4th powers of the absolute temperatures of the object and of
its environment.
3. The temperature difference between surroundings and the body must be small.
4. The Source of heat loss from the body to the surroundings must be through radiation only
5. During the cooling process of the hot body, the temperature of the surroundings must be
constant

6
 METHODOLOGY
The apparatus used in an experiment

APPARATUS DIAGRAM USES

Calorimeter This is an insulated container in which the
experiment will be conducted.

Thermometer Needed to measure the temperature of the

water inside the calorimeter, as well as the
temperature of the heated solid sample.

Stirrer To stir the water for uniform distribution

of heat.
Beaker For boiling water at a given temperature.

Stop watch Recording time.

PROCEDURES
1. The cooling apparatus involved calorimeter contained hot water, stirrer and thermometer
inserted were used. Firstly, room temperature was recorded before experiment. Thereafter,
enough water was heated in the beaker to a temperature of about 90°C.
2. Then the calorimeter filled half-full of hot water and immediately thermometer and stirrer
were placed in the calorimeter on the wooden bench.
3. When water reach temperature of 88°C the stopwatch was started and recording
temperature for every minute for about 2.0 minutes while stirring. The results were
tabulated in a table.
4. After experiment room temperature was recorded. These values used for plotting a graph
(cooling curve) which indicate the rate of cooling. Six points were chosen from the graph
along the temperature axis and their corresponding gradients were found. To verify this
relationship the graph of rate (gradient) was plotted against the temperature of cooling
body.

7
 DATA ANALYSIS
After performing the experiment, the data obtained can be analyzed using appropriate statistical
techniques to determine the effect of forced convection on the cooling rate.

Now from newtons law of cooling “The rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the
difference in the temperatures between the body and its environment”.

𝑑𝜃
α (𝜃 - 𝜃S)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑇
= k (𝜃 - 𝜃S)
𝑑𝑡

Let 𝜃f be the final temperature at time t and 𝜃0 be the initial temperature.

𝑑𝜃
= k.𝑑𝜃, On integrating both sides, we get,
(𝜃 − 𝜃S)

𝜃0 𝑑𝜃
∫𝜃 = − ∫ k. 𝑑𝑡
𝑓 (𝜃 − 𝜃S)

𝜃 − 𝜃𝑠
ln (𝜃 𝑓 − 𝜃 ) = -k.t
0 𝑠

𝜃− 𝜃𝑠
= 𝑒 −𝑘.𝑡
(𝜃0 − 𝜃𝑠 )

𝜃𝑓 − 𝜃𝑠 =(𝜃0 – 𝜃𝑠 )𝑒 −𝑘.𝑡

𝜃𝑓 =𝜃𝑠 + (𝜃0 − 𝜃𝑠 )𝑒 −𝑘.𝑡

Which was the formula for Newtons law of cooling.

The graph was an exponential curve and it shows that the temperature falls quickly at the beginning
and then slowly as the difference of temperature goes on decreasing.

This verifies the Newton’s Law of cooling

From the cooling curve (graph of temperature against time)

𝑑𝜃 (74−88)°C
Gradient (G1) = 𝑑𝑡 = (4−0 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = -3.5°C/min

8
 𝑑𝜃 (64−74)°C
Gradient (G2) = 𝑑𝑡 = (12−4)𝑚𝑖𝑛 = -1.25°C/min

𝑑𝜃 (62−64)°C
Gradient (G3) = 𝑑𝑡 = (14−12 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = -1.00°C/min

𝑑𝜃 (60−62)°C
Gradient (G4) = 𝑑𝑡 = (16−12)𝑚𝑖𝑛 = -0.5°C/min

𝑑𝜃 (58−60)°C
Gradient (G5) = 𝑑𝑡 = (18−16 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = -1°C/min

𝑑𝜃 (52−58)°C
Gradient (G6) = 𝑑𝑡 = (26−18 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = -0.75°C/min

Therefore, these data can be tabulated in tabular form as shown below with excess temperature

S/NO GRADIENT (G) (°C/min) EXCESS TEMPERATURE(°C)

1 -3.5 45
2 -1.25 35
3 -1 33
4 -0.5 31
5 -1 29
6 -0.75 23
These data obtained from graph one was used to draw a graph of gradient (G) against Excess
temperature (θ-𝜃𝑅).

➢ By applying Newtons law of cooling, which states that “The rate of heat loss of a body is
directly proportional to the difference in the temperatures between the body and its
environment”. According to the nature of graph is straight line implies the newtons of law
of cooling

9
 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The data obtained was used to draw the first graph, the graph was used to provide gradients for
chosen six points which was further used in plotting another graph of gradient against their
corresponding temperature. The method was relatively precise to approximate the accurate though
some sources of error resulted into significant variation of the results, these errors were Parallax
error during taking reading on the thermometer, during conduction, convection, and radiation,
there might be heat loss, starting temperature was not correct as directed by this experiment, Error
in approximation during calculating different values. These errors can be minimized through the
following, taking reading perpendicular to the instrument. Example thermometer, be careful to
minimize heat loss through convection, conduction and radiation process, be careful in starting
temperature directed by your instructor, too much approximation should be avoided during
calculation.

10
 CONCLUSION
The use of forced convection (stirring) significantly increases the rate of cooling for the object.
This is due to the enhanced heat transfer between the object and the surrounding fluid, as the
stirring mechanism increases the rate at which the fluid comes into contact with the object’s
surface. The results of this experiment are in line with Newton’s Law of Cooling, which states that
the rate of cooling is proportional to the difference in temperature between the object and its
surroundings. In this case, the forced convection increases the rate of heat transfer, effectively
reducing the temperature difference and causing the object to cool more rapidly. In summary, the
experiment demonstrates that forced convection has a substantial impact on the cooling rate of an
object, as predicted by Newton’s Law of Cooling. This understanding is essential for engineers
and scientists working in fields such as thermal engineering, materials science, and food
processing, as it allows them to optimize processes and designs to achieve the desired cooling
rates.

11
 REFERENCES
Bejan, A., Tsatsaronis, G., & Moran, M. (1996). Thermal design and optimization. John Wiley &
Sons.

Çengel, Y. A., & Ghajar, A. J. (2014). Heat and mass transfer: fundamentals and applications.
McGraw-Hill Education.

Holman, J. P. (2010). Heat transfer. McGraw-Hill Education.

Incropera, F. P., & DeWitt, D. P. (2002). Introduction to heat transfer. John Wiley & Sons.

Kakac, S., Liu, H., & Pramuanjaroenkij, A. (2018). Heat exchangers: selection, rating, and
thermal design (3rd ed.). CRC Press.

Kays, W. M., Crawford, M. E., & Weigand, B. (2005). Convective heat and mass transfer (4th
ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Lienhard, J. H., & Lienhard, J. H. (2019). A heat transfer textbook (5th ed.). Dover Publications.

Patankar, S. V., & Spalding, D. B. (1972). Heat and mass transfer in boundary layers.

Rohsenow, W., Hartnett, J., & Cho, Y. I. (1998). Handbook of heat transfer (3rd ed.). McGraw-
Hill Education.

12