CONTANT TABLE

MATHS

1 Rational Numbers

2 Linear Equations in one variable

3 Understanding Quadrilaterals

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4 Practical Geometry

5 Data Handling

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Squares and Square Roots

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Cube and Cube Roots
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8 Comparing Quantities
9 Algebraic Expressions and Identities
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10 Visualising Solid Shapes

IIT IN

11 Mensuration
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 MATHS RATIONAL NUMBERS

Rational Numbers

1. Natural numbers: Counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 ..… etc are called natural numbers. The collection of
natural numbers is denoted by N. That is, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}

2. Whole numbers: All natural numbers together with zero are called whole numbers. The collection of
whole numbers is denoted by W. That is, W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}

3. Integers: Whole numbers together with negative natural numbers are called integers. The collection of
integers is denoted by Z. That is, Z = {…, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ….}
p
4. The numbers of the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0 are called rational numbers. For
q
−3 7 −13 ....
example , , etc.
5 −11 −213

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5. Rational numbers are closed under the operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication.

6. Rational numbers are commutative under the operations addition and multiplication.

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7. Rational numbers are associative under the operations addition and multiplication.
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8. The number 0 is the additive identity for rational numbers.
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9. The number 1 is the multiplicative identity for rational numbers.
a a
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10. The additive inverse of the rational number is − and vice-versa.

b b
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a c a c
11. The reciprocal or multiplicative inverse of the rational number is , if  = 1 .
b d b d

12. Multiplication is distributive over addition and subtraction of rational numbers. That is, for any three
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rational numbers a, b and c,

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a  (b + c) = a  b + a  c and a  (b - c) = a  b - a  c

13. Rational numbers can be represented on a number line.

14. Between any two given rational numbers there are countless rational numbers.

15. There are two methods of finding rational numbers between the two given rational numbers:

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 MATHS RATIONAL NUMBERS

First Method:
a. Add the two rational numbers and divide the sum by 2 to get a new rational number. The rational
number so obtained will lie between the given ones. (Note that here we get three consecutive
rational numbers).

b. To get another new rational number, divide the sum of any two consecutive rational numbers
(obtained in above step) by 2.
c. Repeat the above step as many times as per requirement of finding rational numbers between
two rational numbers.

Second Method:
a. Convert the denominator of both the fractions into the same denominator by taking LCM.

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b. Find the different values of integers which lie between the numerators of the two rational
numbers having same denominator.

c. The required rational numbers are obtained by taking the integers found in step 2 as numerator

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and keeping the denominator same as the LCM.

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d. If the new fractions do not have any number in between the given numerator, then multiply
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numerator as well as denominator of both the fractions by a suitable number and then find the
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rational numbers between them.
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 MATHS LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

Linear Equations in One Variable

1. An equation is a statement of equality of two algebraic expressions involving one or more unknown
quantities.

2. An equation involving only a linear polynomial is called a linear equation.

2x 1 3t t 7
For example: 4 , 11.
5 2 2 3

3. Any value of the variable which makes the equation a true statement is called the solution or root of the
equation.

For example: - 2 is root of the equation 3x - 2 = -8.

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4. Any term of an equation may be taken to the other side with its sign changed, without affecting the
equality. This process is called transposition.

5. Without changing the equality, we may

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i. add the same quantity to both sides of the equation.

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ii. subtract the same quantity from both sides of the equation.
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iii. multiply both sides of the equation by the same non-zero quantity.
iv. divide both sides of the equation by the same non-zero quantity.
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ax b p
6. If , then q (ax + b) = p (cx + d)
cx d q
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This process is called cross multiplication.

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 MATHS UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS

Understanding Quadrilaterals

1. A plane figure formed by joining a number of points without lifting a pencil from the paper and without
retracing any part of the figure is called a curve.

2. A curve which does not cut itself is called an open curve.

3. A curve which cuts itself is called a closed curve.

4. A simple closed curve is a closed curve which does not pass through one point more than once.

5. A simple closed curve made up of line segments is called a polygon.

6. The line segments that constitute a polygon are known as its sides and their end points are known as

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the vertices of the polygon.

7. Any two sides with a common end-point (vertex) are called the adjacent sides.

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8. The end points of the same side of a polygon are known as the adjacent vertices.

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9. The line segment obtained by joining vertices which are not adjacent are called the diagonals of the
polygon.
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10. Classification of polygons according to the number of sides:
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Number of Classification Figure

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Sides or vertices
Triangle

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Quadrilateral

Pentagon

Hexagon

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 MATHS UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS

Heptagon

Octagon

Nonagon

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Decagon

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n-gon
n
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11. A polygon having all sides equal and all angles equal is called a regular polygon. Polygons which are
not regular are called irregular polygons.
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12. A regular polygon is both equiangular and equilateral.

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13. A polygon in which at least one angle is more than 180o is called a concave polygon. A polygon in
which each angle is less than 180o is called a convex polygon.

14. A polygon having all sides equal and all angles equal is called a regular polygon. Polygons which are
not regular are called irregular polygons.

15. For a regular polygon of n sides:o

360
i. each exterior angle = .
n
ii. each interior angle = 180o – (each exterior angle).

16. For a convex polygon of n sides:

i. Sum of all exterior angles = 4 right angles.
ii. Sum of all interior angles = (2n – 4) right angles.

n n 3
17. Number of diagonals in a polygon of n sides = .
2

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 MATHS UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS

18. A quadrilateral is a four sided polygon.

19. The sum of all the angles of a quadrilateral is 360o.

20. If the line containing any side of the quadrilateral has the remaining vertices on the same side of it,
then the quadrilateral is called a convex quadrilateral.

21. In a convex quadrilateral the measure of each angle is less than 180o.

22. The sum of the interior angles of a pentagon is 540o

23. The sum of the measures of the external angles of any polygon is 360o.
o
 360 
24. Each exterior angle of a regular polygon of n sides is equal to   .
n 

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25. Types of quadrilaterals and their properties:

Name of quadrilateral Properties

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Parallelogram: A quadrilateral with each pair 1. Opposite sides are equal.
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of opposite sides parallel. 2. Opposite angles are equal.
3. Adjacent angles are supplementary.
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4. Diagonals bisect one another.
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Rhombus: A parallelogram with sides o 1. All properties of a parallelogram.

equal length. 2. Diagonals are perpendicular to each
other.
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Rectangle: A parallelogram with a right 1. All the properties of a parallelogram.

angle. 2. Each of the angles is a right angle.
3. Diagonals are equal.

Square: A rectangle with sides of equal All the properties of a parallelogram, a

length. rhombus and a rectangle.

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 MATHS UNDERSTANDING QUADRILATERALS

Kite: A quadrilateral with exactly two pairs of 1. The diagonals are perpendicular to one
equal consecutive sides. another.
2. One of the diagonals bisects the other.
3. If ABCD is a kite, then  B =  D but  A
  C.

Trapezium: A quadrilateral with one pair of 1. One pair of parallel sides.

parallel side is called trapezium.

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Isosceles Trapezium: A trapezium is said to 1. One pair of parallel sides.

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be an isosceles trapezium, if its non-parallel
sides are equal. 2. Non-parallel sides are equal.
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 MATHS PRACTICAL GEOMETRY

Practical Geometry

1. A quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon.

2. A quadrilateral has four sides, four angles and two diagonals, i.e., 10 elements. A quadrilateral can be
constructed uniquely if at least five of its elements are given.

3. A quadrilateral can be constructed uniquely, if we know any one of the following:

i. Four sides and one diagonal
ii. Four sides and one angle
iii. Two diagonals and three sides
iv. Two adjacent sides and three angles
v. Three sides and two included angles

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4. For the construction of different type of quadrilaterals like parallelogram, rhombus, trapezium etc. we
use their properties.

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 MATHS DATA HANDLING

Data Handling

1. A collection of information is called the data. Data obtained in the original form is called a raw data.

2. To draw meaningful inferences, we need to organize the data systematically.

3. The systematic arrangement of data, either in ascending or in descending order, is called an arrayed
data.

4. The number of times a particular observation occurs is called its frequency.

5. The difference between the highest and lowest values of the observations in a given data is called its
range.

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6. When the number of observations is large, the data is usually organized into groups, called class
intervals.

7. Presentation of data in the form of groups (classes) along with the frequency of each class is called

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grouped data or frequency distribution.

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8. Frequency distributions are of two types: (i) Discrete frequency distribution (ii) Continuous or grouped
frequency distribution.
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9. The lower value of a class interval is called its lower limit and the upper value of the class interval is
called its upper limit.
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10. The difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a class interval is called the class size. The
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mid-value of a class interval is called its class mark.

11. In a bar graph, bars of uniform width are drawn with various heights. The height of a bar represents
the frequency of the corresponding observation.
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12. A histogram is a pictorial representation of the grouped data in which class intervals are generally
taken along the horizontal axis and class frequencies along the vertical axis. For each class a
rectangle is constructed with base as the class interval and height determined from the class
frequency such that there is no gap between any two successive rectangles.

13. Pie chart represents data in relative quantities by using the area of sectors in the circle.
o
 Value of the component 
Central angle for a component =   360
 Sum of the values of all components 

14. The words probable, chance etc. are used for an event which has some chance of uncertainty. In
probability, we give a numerical value to certainty and uncertainty associated with any event.
i. Experiment: An operation which can produce some well-defined outcomes it called an
experiment.
ii. Random experiment: An experiment in which all possible outcomes are known and the exact
outcome cannot be predicted in advance, is called a random experiment.
iii. By a trial, we mean performing a random experiment.
iv. Event: The collection of all or some of the possible outcomes is called an event.

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 MATHS DATA HANDLING

15. Let E be an event, then probability of occurrence of E is defined as

number of out comes favourable to E
PE
total number of possible outcomes

16. The probability of an event always lies between 0 and 1.

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 MATHS SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS

Squares and Square Roots

1. Square number
• Square of a number is obtained when it is multiplied by itself twice. Thus, square of x = (x x),
denoted by x2.
• Some of the square numbers are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, …
• A natural number n is a perfect square if n can be expressed as m2, for some natural number m.
The numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … are perfect squares.

2. Steps to find whether a given natural number is a perfect square or not:

i. Step 1: Get the natural number.
ii. Step 2: Find the prime factorization of the given natural number.
iii. Step 3: Group the factors in pairs in such a way that both the factors in each pair are equal.
iv. Step 4: Check if any factor is left over. If no factor is left over in grouping, then the given number is

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a perfect square. Otherwise, it is not a perfect square.
v. Step 5: To find the square root of a given number, take one factor from each group and multiply
them.

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3. Properties of square numbers:

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i. A number ending in 2, 3, 7 or 8 is never a perfect square.
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ii. A number ending with an odd number of zeroes is never a perfect square.
iii. The number of zeroes at the end of a perfect square is always even.
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iv. Squares of even numbers are even.
v. Squares of odd numbers are odd.
vi. If a number has 1 or 9 in the unit's place, then its square ends in 1.
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vii. If a square number ends in 6, the number whose square it is, will have either 4 or 6 in the unit's
place.
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4. Triangular numbers
• The numbers whose dot patterns can be arranged as triangles are called the triangular numbers.
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• Adding any two consecutive triangular numbers give a square number, for example:

5. Numbers between square numbers

There are 2n non perfect square numbers between the squares of the numbers n and (n + 1).
For n = 4, n + 1 = 5
n2 = 42 = 16, (n + 1)2 = 52 = 25
n2 – (n + 1)2 = 25 – 16 = 9
There are 8 (2n) non perfect square numbers between 42 and 52.

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 MATHS SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS

6. Adding consecutive odd numbers

The square of a natural number ‘n’ is equal to the sum of the first ‘n’ odd natural numbers.
1 [one odd number] = 1 = 12
1 + 3 [sum of first two odd numbers] = 4 = 22
1 + 3 + 5 [sum of first three odd numbers] = 9 = 32
1 + 3 + 7 + 9 […] = 16 = 42
And so on…

7. There are no natural numbers m and n such that m2 = 2n2

8. Square of an odd number

The square of any odd number can be expressed as the sum of two consecutive positive integers.
32 = 9 = 4 + 5
52 = 25 = 12 + 13
72 = 49 = 24 + 25
92 = 81 = 40 + 41 and so on….

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Moreover, if n is the square of an odd number m then the two consecutive numbers whose sum is n
n−1 n+1
are and .
2 2

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The first odd number is 3 and its square is 9 which can be written as 4 + 5

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9. Some useful square identities:
If a and b are two natural numbers, then,
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i. (a + 1) (a - 1) = a2 - 1
ii. (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
iii. (a - b)2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab
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Note: Square of big numbers can be calculated using these three identities.
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10. Calculating the square of a number with unit digit 5

Consider a number with unit digit 5, say, (a5).
(a5)2 = (10a + 5)2
= 10a(10a + 5) + 5(10a + 5)
2

= 100a2 + 50a + 50a + 25

= 100a(a + 1) + 25
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= a(a + 1) hundred + 25
Hence, (a5)2 = a(a + 1) hundred + 25.
For example: 352 = 3(3 + 1) 100 + 25 = 3(4)100 + 25 = 1225.

11. Pythagorean triplet

• A triplet (a, b, c) of three natural numbers a, b and c is called a Pythagorean triplet if a2 + b2 = c2.
• For any natural number m greater than 1, (2m, m2 – 1, m2 + 1) is a Pythagorean triplet.

12. What is square root?

• Square root is the inverse operation of square.
• Square of 2 is 4, and so, the square root of 4 is 2.
• Finding the number with the known square is known as finding the square root.

13. Number of digits in the square root

n n +1
If a perfect square is of n-digits, then its square root will have, digits if n is even or digits if n is
2 2
odd.

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 MATHS SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS

14. Square root of a number

The square root of a number ‘x’ is that number which when multiplied by itself gives ‘x’ as the product.
We denote the square root of x by x .

15. Finding square roots through different methods

• Repeated subtraction
We stated above that the square of a number is the sum of first n odd natural numbers. So, square
root of a square number can be obtained by subtracting the successive odd natural numbers
starting from 1 till we get 0.
Example: To find 49
49 – 1 = 48, 48 – 3 = 45, 45 – 5 = 40, 40 – 7 = 33, 33 – 9 = 24, 24 – 11 = 13, 13 – 13 = 0
We subtracted 7 successive odd natural numbers.
Thus, 7 is the square root of 49.

• Prime factorization

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Express the number as the product of prime numbers, group the common primes in a pair, take
one prime from each pair and then multiply to get the square root.
Calculation of square root of 9604 using prime factorization method:

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9604 = 2 × 2 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7

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∴
T = 98
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Note: If one or more primes are not in pairs, the number is not a perfect square.

• Division method
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Steps to perform division:

i. Place a bar over every pair of digits starting from the one’s digit.
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ii. Find the largest number whose square is less than or equal to the number under the left-most
bar (take this as dividend) and take this as a divisor. Divide and get the remainder.
iii. Bring down the number under the next bar and place it to the right of the remainder and this
2

will act as the new dividend.

iv. Double the quotient and write it with a blank on its right.
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v. Find the largest digit to fill the blank which also becomes the new digit in quotient such that
the product of new quotient and new divisor gives a number less than or equal to the
dividend.
vi. Continue this process till we get the remainder as 0. The quotient becomes the square root of
the number.

Example: Square root of 841

 841 = 29

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 MATHS SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS

Note: This method can also be used to find the square root of a non-perfect square or decimal
number.

16. For positive numbers a and b, we have:

i. ab a b

a a
ii.
b b

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 MATHS CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS

Cubes and Cube Roots

1. Cube number
• Cube of a number is obtained when it is multiplied by itself thrice.
• If ‘a’ is a number, then the cube of ‘a’ is a3 = a × a × a.
• Some of the cube numbers are 1, 8, 27, …
• A natural number n is a perfect cube if n can be expressed as m3, for some natural number m. The
numbers 1, 8, 27, … are perfect cubes.

2. Properties of cubes
i. Cubes of all even natural numbers are even.
ii. Cubes of all odd natural numbers are odd.
iii. Cubes of negative integers are negative.
iv. Cube of a number which ends in a zero ends in three zeroes.

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v. Sum of the cubes of first n natural numbers is equal to the square of their sum.
vi. Unit digit of the cubes of the numbers ending in 1, 4, 5, 6 and 9 are 1, 4, 5, 6 and 9 respectively.
vii. Unit digit of the cubes of the numbers ending in 8 and 2 are 2 and 8 respectively.
viii. Unit digit of the cubes of the numbers ending in 3 and 7 are 7 and 3 respectively.

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ix. For an integer a, a3 is always greater than a2.

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x. If unit digit of a2 is 9, then unit digit of a3 is 7.
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xi. Let x and y be any two integers, then 3 xy = 3 x  3 y
x
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3
x
xii. Let x and y be any two integers, then 3 = , y≠0
y 3 y
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3. Adding consecutive odd numbers

The cube a number natural ‘n’ is equal to the sum of ‘n’ consecutive odd natural numbers. Smallest
among these ‘n’ consecutive number is n2 – (n – 1). The pattern is as follows:
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1 = 1 = 13
3 + 5 = 8 = 23
7 + 9 + 11 = 27 = 33
2

13 + 15 + 17 + 19 = 64 = 43
And so on….
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4. To find whether a number is a perfect cube or not:

• Express the number as the product of prime factors.
• If each factor appears three times in the prime factorization, the number is a perfect cube.
• If there are one or more factor(s) which do not appear 3 (or multiples of 3) times, the number is a
non-perfect cube.
• 64 = 4 × 4 × 4, is a perfect cube. 72 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 = 22 × 32, is not a perfect cube.

5. Smallest multiple to convert a non-perfect cube into perfect cube

• Apply prime factorization to express the number as a product of prime factors.
• Arrange the same primes in a group of three.
• If a prime number can’t be arranged in a group of 3, make it a group of 3 by multiplying with the
smallest required number. Perform this operation with each of those prime numbers, which can’t
be grouped in 3.
• Product of all those numbers which have been multiplied will be the smallest multiple.
Example: 1188 is a not a perfect cube as 1188 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 11
2 and 11 don’t appear in groups of three.
We need to multiply with 2 × 11 × 11 = 44.
Hence, the smallest multiple is 44.
Note: Same process can be applied for smallest divisor.
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 MATHS CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS

6. Cube root
• The cube root of a number x is that number whose cube gives x. It is denoted by .
• For any positive integer x, we have = .

7. Finding cube root through prime factorisation

• For finding the cube root of a perfect cube by prime factorisation method, resolve it into prime
factors; make triplets of similar factors and then take the product of prime factors, choosing one out
of every triplet.
• Cube root of a perfect cube can also be evaluated through estimation.

8. Cube root of a cube number

Use the following steps to find the cube root of a cube number
• Take the number and start making group of three digits from the right.
• The first group will give the unit’s digit of the required cube root.
• Take the next group and find the greatest cube number less than this group whose unit’s digit will

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become the ten’s digit of the required cube root.

9. An interesting pattern about cubes and squares of natural numbers:

13 = 1

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13 + 23 = (1 + 2 )
2
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13 + 23 + 33 = (1 + 2 + 3)
2
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13 + 23 + 33 + 43 = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 )
2

.
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.
.
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13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + ... + n3 = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n)
2

10. An interesting pattern to find the cube root of a natural number:

2

13 = 1
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 2 1 
23 = 1 + 7 = 1 + 1 +  6
2
 
 2 1   32 
33 = 1 + 7 + 19 = 1 + 1 +  6  + 1 + 6
2 2
   
 2 1   32   43 
43 = 1 + 7 + 19 + 37 = 1 + 1 +  6  + 1 +  6  + 1 + 6
2 2 2
     
.
.
.
 2 1   32 
n3 = 1 + 7 + 19 + 37 + ... = 1 + 1 +  6  + 1 + 6
2 2
   
 43   n  (n − 1) 
+ 1+  6 + ... + 1 + 6
 2   2 
   

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 MATHS COMPARING QUANTITIES

Comparing Quantities

1. Ratio and percentage

• Ratio means comparing two quantities with each other.
• Percentages are numerators of fractions with denominator 100. The symbol '%' is used for percent
1
and it indicates multiplication with .
100

2. Increase or decrease percentage

Amount of change
Percentage increase/decrease =  100%
Original amount

3. Cost price (C.P.) and selling price (S.P.)

• The price at which an article is purchased is called the cost price (CP).

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• The price at which an article is sold is called the selling price (SP).

4. Discount
In order to give a boost to the sales of an item or to clear the old stock, articles are sold at reduced

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prices. This reduction is given on the Marked Price (MP) of the article and is known as discount.

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• Discount = MP – SP
• Discount % =
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MP − SP
100
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MP
• 100 − Discount%
100 
S.P = M.P.
 
-J S

• M.P. = 100  S.P.

(100 − Discount%)
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5. Estimation in percentage
In case, discount is given on the MP of an article which a decimal quantity, try to round off it to the
2

nearest tens. Apply the discount on the rounded number to get the final amount to be paid.
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6. If SP > CP, then the profit is made and it is evaluated as follows:

• Gain = (SP) – (CP)
Gain 100
• Gain% =
CP
• 100 +100
Gain%
S.P = C.P.
 
• C.P. = 100  S.P.
(100 + Gain%)
7. If SP < CP, then a loss is incurred and it is evaluated as follows:
• Loss = (CP) – (SP)
Loss 100
• Loss% =
C.P.
• 100 −100
Loss% 
S.P = C.P.
 
• C.P. = 100  S.P.
(100 − Loss%)

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 MATHS COMPARING QUANTITIES

8. Sales tax/Value added tax (VAT)/Goods and services tax (GST)

• Sales tax or value added tax (VAT) is charged on the sale of an item by the government and is
added to the Bill Amount. It is collected by the retailer when the final sale in the supply chain is
reached from the end consumer and given to the government.
Sales tax = Tax% of Bill Amount
• VAT is collected by all sellers at each stage of the supply chain.
• GST is introduced from July 1, 2017 by the Government of India which is levied on the supply of
goods or services or both.

9. Interest and Principal

• Whenever we borrow money from some lending sources such as banks or financial institutions
etc., we have to pay some extra money for the service of lending.
• This extra money depends on the sum and the period of time and this extra money is called the
interest.
• The money borrowed is called the principal or sum.
• Amount = (principal + interest).

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• Interest on 100 for 1 year is called the rate per cent per annum.

10. Simple Interest

/N U
• If the interest is calculated uniformly on the original principal, it is called the simple interest.

T
• If P, R, T stand for principal, rate and time respectively, and SI stands for simple interest, then
T
P R T
SI
100
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11. Compound interest
• Compound interest is the interest calculated on the previous year’s amount.
-J S

• Conversion period
The time period after which the interest is added each time to form a new principal is called the
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conversion period.
• Amount when interest
n
is compounded annually is given by
 R 
A = P 1 + ; P is principal, R is rate of interest, n is time period
100 
2


• When the interest is compounded half yearly, there are two conversion periods in a year each
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after 6 months. The rate of interest in such situations is half of the annual rate.
• Amount when interest is compounded half yearly is

• Compound Interest is givennkas

 R  
C.I = A – P = P 1 +  − 1 , where the interest is compounded k times in a year, P be the
 100k  
principal and the R be the rate of interest per annum.

12. Compound interest for n years

Let P be the principal and the rate of interest be R1% for first year, R2% for second year, R3% for third
year and so on and Rn% for nth year. Then the amount A and the compound interest C.I at the end of
n years are given by R  
A = P 1 + R1   2
Rn  
... 1 + 100
  1
 + 100
100
    

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 MATHS COMPARING QUANTITIES

13. Applications of Compound Interest formula

There are many situations where the formula for the calculation of amount in compound interest is
used. Some situations are listed below:
i. Increase or decrease in population.
ii. The growth of a bacteria if the rate of growth is known.
iii. The value of an item, if its price increases or decreases in the immediate years.

14. Compound Interest formula in Population

• Let P be the population of a city or town at the beginning of a certain year and the population
grows at a constant rate of R% per annum, n then
 R 
Population after n years=P 1+
 100 
• Let P be the population of a city or town at the beginning of a certain year. If the population grows

EE TE
at a constant rate of R1% during
 theR first year and R2% during the second year, then
Population after 2 years=P 1+ 1   R2  
    1+100
100
   
• Let P be the population of a city or town at the beginning of a certain year. If the population

/N U
T
decreases at a constant rate of R% per nannum, then
 R 
T
Population after n years=P 1 −
 100 
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•
-J S

15. Compound Interest formula in Depreciation

• Depreciation means reduction of price due to use and age of an item. If by any reason, the price
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goes up, we call it appreciation. n

 r 
• In case of depreciation, the formula used is: A = P 1 − 
 100
n
 r 
2

• In case of appreciation, the formula used is: A = P 1 + 

 100
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 MATHS ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND IDENTITIES
Algebraic Expressions and Identities

1. What are constant and variable?

• Constant is a symbol that takes fixed numerical value which is represented by letters.
• Variable is a symbol that takes various numerical values which is represented by letters.

2. Algebraic Expression
A combination of constants and variables connected by the operators +, -,  and  is known as an
algebraic expression.
Example: 15x2 – 9x + 4xy is an algebraic expression.

3. Introduction to Term
Terms are different parts of the algebraic expression which are separated by ‘+’ or ‘-‘
Example: In the expression, 15x2 – 9x + 4xy, there are three terms, namely, 15x2, 9x and 4xy.

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4. Monomial, Binomial and Trinomials
• An algebraic expression having only one term is called a monomial.
1 2 732
Example: –5, 2z, x ,5xyz, a b c are monomials.

/N U
2 3

T
• An algebraic expression having two terms is called a binomial.
T
Example: x – y, 3x + 5y, a =
7b
are binomials.
3
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• An algebraic expression having three terms is called a trinomial.
2 xy3 5 2
Example: a + b + c, x – 2y + 3c, x y + − x are trinomials.
-J S

3 7
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5. Factors
• An algebraic expression is further divided in to a product of one or more numbers and/or literals.
• These numbers and literals are known as factors of that particular term.
•
2

Consider the example:

1
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Here, , x and y are the factors of the term

3

6. Numerical factor and Literal factor

• Constant factor of the expression is called numerical factor, whereas the variable is called the
literal factor.
• Example: The expression, 2x − 6xy3 + 12x2z2 , can be rewritten as 2x(1 − 3xy3 + 6xz2 )
Here, 2 is called the numerical factor and ‘x’ is called the literal factor.

7. Coefficient
A factor of the term is called the coefficient of the term.
Example: In the term ‘– 5xy’, coefficient of x is – 5y, coefficient of y is –5x, Coefficient of xy is –5.

8. Like Terms
• Terms whose variables and their exponents are same and may be with different coefficients are
called like terms.
1 7
• Example: Consider the expression, x2y + 3xy2 − xy + xy2 − 5x2y .
3 3

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 MATHS ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND IDENTITIES
7
In the above expression, the terms, x2y and − 5x2y,3xy2 and xy2 are like terms.
3

9. Unlike Terms
• Terms which are not like terms are called Unlike Terms.
1 7
• Example: Consider the expression, x2y + 3xy2 − xy + xy2 − 5x2y .
3 3
7 2
In the above expression, the terms, x2y and xy ,3xy and − 5x2y are Unlike terms.
2

10. Polynomial
An algebraic expression having one or more terms in which the variables involved have only non-
negative integral powers is called a polynomial.
Example: 2 – 3x + 5x2y – is a polynomial.

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11. Degree of a Polynomial
• In case of a polynomial in one variable, the highest power of the variable is called the degree of the
polynomial.

/N U
T
Eg: 5x3 – 7x + Tis a polynomial in x of degree 3.

• In case of a polynomial having more than one variable, the sum of the power of the variables in
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each term is taken up and the highest sum so obtained is called the degree of the polynomial.
Eg: 5x3 – 2x2y2 – 3x2y + 9y is a polynomial of degree 4 in x and y.
-J S

12. Addition of algebraic expressions

• While adding algebraic expressions, we add the like terms and keep the unlike terms as they are.
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• The sum of several like terms is a like term whose coefficient is the sum of the coefficients of those
like terms.

13. Subtraction of algebraic expressions

2

• While subtracting algebraic expressions, change the sign of each term to be subtracted in the
second expression and then add.
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• The sum of several like terms is a like term whose coefficient is the sum of the coefficients of those
like terms.

14. Multiplication of algebraic expressions

• Rule of signs: The product of two factors with the same signs is positive and the product of two
factors with different sign is negative.
• Product of two monomials = (product of their coefficients) (product of their variables).
• While multiplying a polynomial by a monomial, multiply every term of the polynomial by the
monomial.
• While multiplying a polynomial by a binomial (or trinomial, or polynomial), multiply term by term.
That is, every term of the polynomial is multiplied by every term in the binomial (or trinomial, or
polynomial).

15. Horizontal method of multiplication

We are able to carry out the multiplication term by term using the distributive law.

Consider two binomials, say, (x + y) and (u + v).

Thus, we have, (x + y) × (u + v) = x × (u + v) + y × (u + v).
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 MATHS ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND IDENTITIES

That is, (x + y) × (u + v) = (x × u + x × v) + (y × u + y × v)

That is, (x + y) × (u + v) = xu + xv + yu + yv
This method is also known as horizontal method for multiplication.

16. Column method of multiplication

Column method of multiplication of polynomials is very similar to the multiplication of two whole
numbers. This method is used when the binomials being multiplied contain terms with like terms.
Example:
4x + 3y
 5x + 2y
20x2 + 15xy multiplying 4x+3y by 5x
+8xy+6y 2
multipllying 4x+3y by 2y
20x2 + 23xy + 6y2 adding the like terms

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17. Dividing a polynomial by a monomial
• Quotient of two monomials = (quotient of their coefficients) (quotient of their variables).
• While dividing a polynomial by a monomial, divide every term of the polynomial by the monomial.

/N U
T
18. What is an identity?
T
• An identity is an equality, which is true for all values of variables in it.
• On the other hand, an equation is true only for certain values of the variables in it. An equation is
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not an identity.
-J S

19. Some standard and important identities:

i. (a + b)2 = a2+2ab+b2
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ii. (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2

iii. (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2
iv. (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
2

20. Use of algebraic identities

• The algebraic identities are useful in carrying out the square and products of algebraic
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expressions.
• They can also be used as an alternative method to calculate product of numbers.

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 MATHS VISUALISING SOLID SHAPES

Visualising Solid Shapes

1. Plane Shapes:

➢ Plane shapes have two measurements like length and breadth.

➢ For example: Circle, Square, Triangle, Rectangle and Quadrilaterals are plane figures.
➢ Plane figure are of two – dimensions (2 – D).
The cube, the cuboid, the sphere, the cylinder, the cone, the pyramid are examples of solid
shapes.

2. Solid Shapes:

➢ Solid shapes have three measurements like length, breadth and height or depth.
➢ For example: Cube, Cuboid, Cone, Cylinder, Sphere, Pyramid are Solid figures.
➢ Solid figures are of three – dimensions (3 – D).

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3. 3D Shapes:

/N U
T
T
EE TI
-J S
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2

➢ Each side of a solid has a surface called a face.

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➢ Two faces meet at a line segment called an edge.

➢ Three edges meet at a point called a vertex.
➢ 3D shapes have different views when seen from different positions.

4. Mapping Space around us:

➢ A map is different from a picture.

➢ It depicts the location of a particular object/place in relation to other objects/places.
➢ Symbols are used to depict the different objects/places.
➢ Perspective is very important for a picture but it is not relevant for a map.
➢ Maps use a scale which is fixed for a particular map.
➢ It reduces the real distances proportionately to distances on the paper.

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 MATHS VISUALISING SOLID SHAPES

5. Polyhedron:
Polyhedron is a solid figure bounded by plane polygonal faces.

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i. Regular polyhedrons:

/N U
A polyhedron is said to be regular if its faces are made up of regular polygons and the same

T
number of faces meet at each vertex.
T
EE TI
-J S
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ii. Convex polyhedrons:

Convex Polyhedron is a polyhedron in which a line segment connecting any two vertices of the
polyhedron contains only points that are on a face or inside the polyhedron.
2
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6. Important polyhedrons:

i. Prism:

➢ Prism is a polyhedron with two parallel opposite faces, called bases, that are congruent polygons
and the lateral faces are parallelograms.
➢ A prism is called a triangular prism if its ends are triangles.

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 MATHS VISUALISING SOLID SHAPES

ii. Pyramid:

➢ Pyramid is a solid whose base is a plane rectilinear figure and whose side faces are triangles
having a common vertex, called the vertex of the pyramid.
➢ A pyramid is said to be a regular pyramid if all the sides of its base are equal.
➢ A pyramid is called a triangular pyramid if its base is a triangle.
➢ A triangular pyramid is also called a tetrahedron.
➢ If the base of a pyramid is a quadrilateral, then it is called quadrilateral pyramid.

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7. Euler's formula:

For any polyhedron: F + V = E + 2

/N U
where,

T
F = number of faces,
T
V = number of vertices,
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E = number of edges.
-J S
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2
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 MATHS MENSURATION

Mensuration

1. Area of polygons:
i. Area of a rectangle = Length  Breadth
ii. Area of a square = (Side)2
1
iii. Area of a triangle =  Base  Height
2
iv. Area of a parallelogram = Base  Height
1
v. Area of a trapezium = sum of parallel sides distance between them
2
1
vi. Area of a rhombus = product of its diagonals
2
vii. Area of a general quadrilateral can be found by dividing it into two triangles, by drawing on of its

EE TE
diagonals, and then applying the formula of area of a triangle.

2. Area of a polygon (or field) can be calculated by suitably dividing it into triangle, rectangle, trapezium
etc.

/N U
T
3. Surface area of a solid is the sum of the areas of all its faces.
T
4. Amount of region occupied by a solid is called its volume.
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5. For a cuboid of length l, breadth b and height h, we have:
i. Volume of cuboid = (l b h) cubic units
-J S

ii. Total surface area of cuboid = (lb + bh + lh) sq units

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iii. Lateral surface area of cuboid = {2(l + b) h] sq units

iv. Diagonal of cuboid = l2 b2 h2 units
2

6. For a cube of side a, we have:

i. Volume of cube = (a3) cubic units
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ii. Total surface area of cube = (6a2) sq units

iii. Lateral surface area of cube = (4a2) sq units
iv. Diagonal of cube = 3a units

7. For a cylinder of height h and base radius r, we have:

i. Volume of cylinder = ( r2h) cubic units
ii. Curved surface area of cylinder = (2 rh) sq units
iii. Total surface area of cylinder = 2 r (h + r) sq units

8. Unit conversion:
i. 1 cm3 = 1 mL
ii. 1 L = 1000 cm3
iii. 1 m3 = 106 cm3 = 1000 L

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 MATHS EXPONENTS AND POWERS

Exponents and Powers

1. Large numbers can be written in shorter form using exponents.

For example: 1000 = 103
Here, 103 is called the exponential form of 1000.
10 (the number that is being multiplied) is called the base.
3 (number of times the same number is multiplied by itself) is called the power (or index or exponent)

2. As the exponent increases by 1 the value becomes ten times the previous value.
1
3. As the exponent decreases by 1 the value becomes th the previous value.
10
1
4. For any non-zero integer ‘a’, a−m = , where m is a natural number.
am
−m m
5. For a and b non-zero rational numbers, then  a  =  b  , where m is a natural number.

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b a
   
6. Laws of exponents: If 'a' and 'b' are rational numbers different from zero and if x, y are positive
integers, then

/N U
i. ax ay = ax+y

T
ii. ax ay = ax – y T
iii. (ax)y = axy
iv. (ab)x = ax bx
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x x
a a
b x
v. b
-J S

x x
a b
b a
vi.
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vii. a0 = 1
viii. (-1)odd number = -1
(-1) even number = 1
2

7. Exponential Equation: An equation which has an unknown quantity as an exponent is called an

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exponential equation.

Example: i. 5x 625 ii. 33x 15

1

8. A number is said to be in standard form (or scientific notation) if it can be written as (k 10n), where k
is real number such that 1 k < 10, and n is a positive integer.
Example:
i. 160000 = (1.6 105)
ii. 1548000 = (1.548 106)
iii. 0.0016 = (1.6 10-3)

9. To write very small numbers in standard form:

a. Get the number first and check if it lies between 1 and 10 or less than 1.
b. When the number is between 1 and 10, then write it as a product of the number itself and 100.
c. When the number is less than 1, then shift the decimal point to the right such that there is
only one digit on the left side of the decimal point. Now write the given number as the product
of the number so obtained and 10-n, where n is the number of places the decimal point has
been shifted to the right. Thus, the final number so obtained is the standard form of the given
number.

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 MATHS DIRECT AND INVERSE PROPORTIONS

Direct and Inverse Proportions

1. If two quantities are related such that a change in one causes a corresponding change in the other,
then we say that one varies with the other.

There are two type of variations/ proportions:

i. Direct variation/ proportion

ii. Indirect variation/ proportion

2. Direct proportion:

i. Two quantities x and y are said to be in direct proportion if whenever the value of x increases (or
x
decreases), then the value of y increases (or decreases) in such a way that the ratio remains
y

EE TE
constant.

Example: Cost is directly proportional to the number of articles, Work done is directly proportional to

/N U
the number of men working on it.

T
ii. When x and y are in direct proportion, we have:
T
x1 x2 x3
, etc.
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y1 y2 y3

Here, y1, y2, y3, … are the values of y corresponding to the values x1, x2, x3, … of x.
-J S

3. Inverse Proportion:
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i. Two quantities x and y are said to be indirect proportion if whenever the value of x increases (or
decreases), then the value of y decreases (or increases) in such a way that xy remains constant.
2

Example: The time taken to finish a work is inversely proportional to the number of persons working
at it, The time taken by any vehicle in covering a certain distance is inversely proportional to the
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speed of the car.

ii. When x and y are in inverse proportion, then

x1 y1 = x2 y2 = x3 y3, and so on.

Here, y1, y2, y3, … are the values of y corresponding to the values x1, x2, x3, … of x.

4. Map is a miniature representation of a large regions. Hence we can say that scale of a map is based
on the concept of direct variation.
The scale shows a relationship between actual
length and the length represented on the map. Thus, it is the ratio of the distance between two points
on the map to the actual distance between two points on the large region.
1
5. Suppose A can finish a piece of work in n days. Then, work done by A in 1 day = .
n
th
1
6. When a person A completes   part of the work in one day, then A will take n days to complete the
n
work.
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 MATHS DIRECT AND INVERSE PROPORTIONS

7. In a cistern there are two pipes. The inlet is the pipe that fills the cistern and the outlet is the pipe that
empties the cistern.
1
8. When an inlet fills the cistern in ‘n’ hours, then it will fill up th part of the cistern in one hour.
n
1
9. When an outlet empties the cistern in ‘n’ hours, then it will empty out th part of the cistern in one
n
hour.

10. Multiplicative inverse of a number is called the reciprocal of a number.

EE TE
/N U
T
T
EE TI
-J S
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2
K

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 MATHS FACTORISATION

Factorisation

1. When an algebraic expression is written as the product of two or more expressions, then each of these
expressions is called a factor of the given expression.

2. Factorisation of an expression means writing it as a product of its factors. These factors may be
numbers, algebraic variables or algebraic expressions.

3. An irreducible factor is a factor which cannot be expressed further as a product of factors.

4. Factorisation using common factor method:

Step 1: Find the factors of the individual terms of the given expression.
Step 2: Find out all the common factors between the terms involved.
(same as finding HCF of terms)

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Step 3: This common factor would be one factor of the given expression. Other factor would be the
expression obtained on dividing the given expression by common factor.

5. Rearranging the given expression to a convenient form allows us to form groups leading to

/N U
factorization. This is regrouping.

T
T
6. Factorisation by regrouping terms
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Step 1: Arrange the terms of the given expression in groups in such a way that all the groups have a
common factor.
Step 2: Factorise each group.
-J S

Step 3: Take out the factor which is common to all such groups.
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7. Factorisation using following identities:

i. a2 + b2 + 2ab = (a + b)2
ii. a2 + b2 - 2ab = (a - b)2
iii. a2 - b2 = (a + b)(a - b)
2

iv. x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b)

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Method: Express the give expression as the LHS of the identities given above by choosing suitable
values of a and b. Using identities, factorise the expression as RHS.

8. Division is inverse process of multiplication.

9. Quotient of two monomials = (quotient of their coefficients) (quotient of their variables).

10. While dividing a polynomial by a monomial, divide every term of the polynomial by the monomial.
Division of a polynomial by a monomial can also be done by using common factor method and
cancelling out the common factors.

11. While dividing a polynomial by a polynomial, we factorise both the polynomials and cancel out their
common factors.
12. In division of algebraic expressions, we have
Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder

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 MATHS INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS

Introduction to Graphs

1. Graphical presentation of data is easier to understand.

2. A bar graph is used to show comparison among categories.

3. A pie graph is used to compare parts of a whole.

4. A Histogram is a bar graph that shows data in intervals.

5. A line graph displays data that changes continuously over periods of time.

6. Two perpendicular number lines intersecting at point zero are called coordinate axes. The horizontal
number line is the x-axis and the vertical one is the y-axis. The plane containing both the coordinate

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axes is called the Cartesian plane. It is also called coordinate plane or xy-plane.

7. The point of intersection of x-axis and y-axis is called origin and is denoted by ‘O’.

/N U
8. The distance of a point from y-axis is called its x-coordinate and the distance of a point from x-axis is

T
called its y-coordinate. The x-coordinate of a point is called its abscissa. The y-coordinate of the point
is called its ordinate. If the abscissa of a point is x and the ordinate of the point is y, then (x, y) are
T
called the coordinates of the point. The coordinates of the origin are (0, 0).
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9. The two coordinates x and y taken together for a point P constitutes an ordered pair P(x,y).
-J S

10. The positions of the coordinates cannot be interchanged. Therefore P(x,y)≠Q(y,x), if x≠y.
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11. The x- coordinate of every point on y-axis is zero.

12. The y-coordinate of every point on x-axis is zero.

2

13. The x-coordinate of every point on the line parallel to y-axis is constant.
K

14. The y-coordinate of every point on the line parallel to x-axis is constant.

15. The Cartesian plane can be used to graph different kinds of situations from everyday life.

16. A line graph which is a whole unbroken line is called a linear graph.

17. Two quantities which vary directly can be plotted as a linear graph. Independent variable is generally
taken on x axis the dependent variable is taken on y axis.

18. Steps to draw a graph:

i. Find out the relation between y and x.
ii. Calculate different values of y corresponding to the values of x.
iii. Tabulate the results.
iv. Plot the points.
v. Join the points to obtain the graph.

19. By looking at a linear graph, we can find out the ‘y’ coordinate (or 'x' coordinate) in relation to any
point on the ‘x’ axis (or 'y' axis).

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9716864415/9910732241 Shivaji prak | Jyoti Nagar | Teliwara | Baburam school
 MATHS PLAYING WITH NUMBERS

Playing with Numbers

1. A number is said to be in a generalized form if it is expressed as the sum of the products of its digits
with their respective place values.

2. The general form of a 2-digit number ab can be written as:

ab = a  10 + b  1,
where a is any whole number from 1 to 9 and b is any whole number from 0 to 9.

3. The general form of a 3-digit number abc can be written as:

abc = a  100 + b  10 + c  1,
where a is any whole number from 1 to 9, b and c are any whole number from 0 to 9.

4. The sum of a 2-digit number and the number obtained by reversing the digits is always divisible by 11.

EE TE
5. The difference of a 2-digit number and the number obtained by reversing its digits is always divisible
by 9.

6. The difference of a 3-digit number and the number obtained by reversing its digits is always divisible
by 99.

/N U
T
T
7. The general form of numbers are helpful in solving puzzles or number games.
EE TI
8. Test for divisibility by 2: A number is divisible by 2, if its unit place digit is 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.

9. Test for divisibility by 3: A number is divisible by 3, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
-J S

10. Test for divisibility by 4: A number is divisible by 4, if the number formed by its digits in tens and units
IIT IN

place is divisible by 4.

11. Test for divisibility by 5: A number is divisible by 5, if its unit's digit is 0 or 5.

2

12. Test for divisibility by 6: A number is divisible by 6, if it is divisible by both 2 and 3.

K

13. Test for divisibility by 8: A number is divisible by 8, if the number formed by its digits in hundreds, tens
and units places is divisible by 8.

14. Test for divisibility by 9: A number is divisible by 9, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.

15. Test for divisibility by 10: A number is divisible by 10, if its unit's digit is zero.

16. Test for divisibility by 11: A number is divisible by 11, if the difference of the sum of its digits in odd
places and sum of its digits in even places (starting from unit's place) is either 0 or a multiple of 11.

17. If two numbers are divisible by a number then their sum and difference are also divisible by that
number.

18. If a number is divisible by two co-prime numbers then it is divisible by their product also.

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9716864415/9910732241 Shivaji prak | Jyoti Nagar | Teliwara | Baburam school