New Syllabus (As per WBSCTE, 2021)

APPLIEDPHYSICtS
1st Year 1st Semester
For Diploma Engineering Stod

D.Choudhuri

BBhagabati Publication
NEW
SYLLABUS
NEW 2021
SYLLABUS
2021
WRITEN IN ACCORDANCE WTH THE
OR
REVISED SYLLABUS OF 202
THE 1r SEMESTER OF DIPLOMA ENGINEERING
STUDENT
9EWB.8TATE COUNCIL OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

P5?

APPLIED PHYSICS-I
EERI TEC
L'2A.?

1st Semester shnuppEr

ankura
For DiplomaEngg. Students
5950M85555555wmmtow

wrwnmmmmm mm

ENGLISH&BENGALI VERSION BOTH

By
Prof. Dinabandhu Choudhuri
Ex-Lecturer in Physics, Technique Polytechnic Institute, Hooghly
Ex-becturer, Women's Polytechnic,Chandannagore
Ex-Lecturer in Physics, J. C. Ghosh Polytechnic, Kolkata

3033

B BAAGABATI PUBLICATION
57/1 College Street,Kolkata 700073
 Published By: BHAGABATI PUBLICATION
57/1, College Street, Kolkata 700 073
Phone : (003) 2257 3166
Mobile 94333 40312

Copyright: Reserved by Mrs. Mallika Choudhuri

First Published: November 1993

Twenty Second Revised (New Syllabus) Edition : October, 2021

Price: Rs. TO BE HAD OF

340/- only
BHAGABATI PUBLICATION
57/1, College Street, Kolkata - 73
Mob.: 94333 40312

Hoat Qynet
ated
Wark Weparsdesd
 PREFACE TO THE TWENTY SECOND EDITION

It is good news in presenting the book written strictly to the new syllabus
of 2021 of the APPLIED PHYSICS-I for Diploma engineering students
under W.B. State Council of Technical Education.
The important features of this book are like my previous edition of
books. Both English & Bengali version have been used. At the end of
each module short questions with answers and also subjective questions
have been set for the benefit of students and concerned teachers.
I am thankful to Montu Naskar, publisher of Bhagabati Publication of
this book for his untired effort for this publication.
I hope this edition will also be well accepted by teachers and my
beloved students like my previous edition.

Kolkata Dinabandhu Choudhuri

October, 2021

3033
III APPLIED PHYSICS-I in
BY SYLLABUs.sUB-COMMITTEE O THEL
REVIEWED AND PREPARED
RECOMMENDATIONOF AICTE

BS103
Course Code
Course Title
Applied Physics-1
Number of credits 3 (L:2, T: 1, P: 0)
High School Level Physics
Prerequisites
-
BS
Course Category
MEASUREMENTS
UNIT 1: PHYSICAL WORLD. UNITS AND
and derived, Units and systemso
quantities ; fundamental
Physical
units (COGS and SI units),
Dimensions and dimensional formulae
of physical quantities, Princinl
of homogeneity of dimensions,
Dimensional equations and their
applications (conversion from
one system of units
to other, checking of
dimensional equations and derivation of simple equations), Limitations
of dimensional analysis.
Measurements : Need, measuring instruments, least count, types of
Errors in Measurements (systematic and
Measurement (direct, indirect),
error propagation, error estimation
random), absolute error, relative error,
and significant figures.
UNIT 2 FORCE AND MOTION momentum, its applications
of linear
Force, Momentum, Conservation
such as recoil of gun, numerical problems rockets ( concept only),

Impulse and impulsive force.

Circular motion, definition of angular displacement, angular velocity,
time period, relation between linear and
angular acceleration, frequency,
and angular acceleration (related
angular velocity, linear acceleration forces with examples
numerical), concept of centripetal and centrifugal
(No derivation, only formula) banking of roads
and bending of cyclist,
concept and formula and numerical problems.
UNIT 3: WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
WORK: Concept and units, examples of zero work, positive and negative
work
FRICTION: concept, types, laws of limiting friction, coefficient of friction,
reducing friction and its engineering applications, Work done in moving
an object on rough inclined
plane.

v
SYLLABUS
NEW 2021
WRITTEN IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE REVISED SYLLABUSs.OF 2021
FOR THE 1ST SEMESTER OF DIPLOMA
ENGINEERING STUDENTS
OF W.B. STATE COUNCIL OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

APPLIED PHYSICS-I
1st Semester
For Diploma Engg. Students
ww.w
wwe
ww w.w

**ANN ww

ENGLISH &BENGALI VERSION

BOTH * WRwww.w
wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwO A *** ww.wwwwwwww.w.ww.wwwww.ww

By
Prof. Dinabandhu Choudhuri
Ex-Lecturer in Physics, Technique Polytechnic Institute, Hooghly
Ex-Lecturer, Women's Polytechnic, Chandannagore
Ex-Lecturer in Physics, J. C. Ghosh Polytechnic, Kolkata

BBHAGABATI PUBLICATION
57/1 College Street,Kolkata700073
 57/1, College Street, Kolkata 700 I T
3I/T
Aco. N

BHAGABATI PUBLICATION LIBRA

Published By:

Phone (003) 2257 3166

Mobile 94333 40312 Bishnupur
Bankurä.

Copyright: Reserved by Mrs. Mallika Choudhuri dONHS1B

First Published : November, 1993
Edition: October, 2021
Twenty Second Revised (New Syllabus)

TO BE HAD OF
Price: Rs.340/- only BHAGABATI PUBLICATION
Th 57/1, College Street, Kolkata -
73
Mob.:94333 40312

Hat O gyneraed
Wur Wepncles
 PREFACE TO THE TWENTY SECOND EDITION
It is good news in presenting the book written strictly to the new syllabus
of 2021 of the APPLIED PHYSICS-I for Diploma engineering students
under W.B. State Council of Technical Education.
The important features of this book are like my previous edition of
books. Both English & Bengali version have been used. At the end of
each module short questions with answers and also subjective questions
have been set for the benefit of students and concerned teachers.
I am thankful to Montu Naskar, publisher of Bhagabati Publication of
this book for his untired effort for this publication.
I hope this edition will also be well accepted by teachers and my
beloved students like my previous edition.

Kolkata Dinabandhu Choudhuri

October, 2021

.
 APPLIED PHYSICS-T a
BY SYLLABUS SUe-cOMMITTEE, ON THE
REVIEWED AND PREPARED
RECOMMENDATION OF AICTE BASIS OF
Course Code
BS103

Course Ttle Applied Physics-l

Number of credits
3 (L: 2, T: 1, P: 0)
High School Level Physics
Prerequisites
Course Category BS

UNIT 1: PHYSICAL WORLD. UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Physical quantities ; fundamental and derived, Units and systen.
of
units (CGS and SI units),
Dimensions and dimensional formulae of physical quantities, Princinl.
of homogeneity of dimensions, Dimensional equations and their
applications (conversion from one system of units to other, checking of
their
dimensional equations and derivation of simple equations), Limitatinns
of dimensional analysis.
Measurements: Need, measuring instruments, least count, types of
Measurement (direct, indirect), Errors in Measurements (systematic and
random), absolute erro, relative error, error propagation, error estimation
and significant figures.
UNIT 2: FORCE AND MOTION
Force, Momentum, Conservation of linear momentum, its applications
such as recoil of gun, numerical problems rockets ( concept only),
Impulse and impulsive force.
Circular motion, definition of angular displacement, angular velocity,
angular acceleration, frequency, time period, relation betweenlinearand
angular velocity, linear acceleration and angular acceleration (related
numerical), concept of centripetal and centrifugal forces with examples
(No derivation, only formula) banking of roads and bending of cyclist,
concept and formula and numerical problems.
UNIT 3: WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
WORK:Concept and units, examples of zero work, positive and negative
work.
FRICTION: concept, types, laws of limiting
friction, coefficient of friction,
reducing friction and its engineering applications,
Work done
an object in moving
on
rough inclined plane.
 SYLLABUS
nergy and its units, kinetie energy anl potential energy, nservatim
fmechanieal energy for freely falling hodiest nimple numernal
publem), tanstomatiom of energy (examples only
Iower and its units, power and work relationship, calculstion f pwer
umeieal problems)

UNIT 4: ROTATIONAL MOTION

Translational and otational motion with examples, Definition of torque
and angular momentum and their relation, Conservation of angular
momentum (quantitative) and its upplications.
Moment of inertia and its physical significance, radius of gyration for
rigid body, Theorems of purullel und perpendicular axes (statements only).
Moment of inertia of rod, disc, ring and sphere (hollow and solid),
(Formulae only). Simple numerical problems.

UNIT 5: PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Elasticity: definition of stress and strain, moduli of elasticity, Hooke's
law, significance of stress-strain curve.
Surface tension: Concept, units, cohesive and adhesive forces, angle of
contact, Capillary rise (formula only), applications of surface tension,
effect of temperature and impurity on surface tension.
Viscosity and coefficient of viscosity: terminal velocity, Stoke's law
and effect of temperature on viscosity.
Hydrodynamics: Fluid motion, stream line and turbulent flow, Reynold's
number, Equation of continuity, Benoulli's Theorem (only fomula and
numericals) and its applications (mention name only).

UNIT 6: HEAT AND THERMOMETRY

Concept of heat and temperature, basic concepts of measurements of
heat and temperature, modes of heats transfer (conduction, convection
and radiation with examples), Co-efficient of thermal conductivity simple
numerical problems.
Expansion of solids, liquids and gases, coefficient of linear, surface and
cubical expansions of solids and relation amongst them, specific heats
Cp &Cv of u gas and their relationship (Mention only).
 SYLLABUJS

APPLIED PHYSICS FOR

SETA(LAB
BS 107
Course Code
Course Ttle
Applied Physics-1 Labs
Number of credits
1 (L:0,T:0, P: 2)
NIL
Prerequisites
BS
Course Category

cOURSE OBJECTIVES:
Study of Applied Physics aims to give an understanding of phvsinal
principles world
sical princinOr
by observations and predictions. Concrete use of physical
analysis in various fields of engineering and technology n d
prominenee. The course aims to supplement the factual knowledge
in
the lecture by first hand manipulation of apparatus. This
This will deve
devek gained
scientific temper and help to apply the basic concepts and
principles in
solving engineering and technology based problems. In addition,
get necessary confidence in handling equipment and thus dents
learn varione
skills in measurement. us

LIST OF
1.
PRACTICALS/ACTIVITIES
To measure the
(To perform minimum 8
practical's).
volume of the material of
using Venier
a
given hollow cylinder,
a
calipers.
2. To determine the of
cross-section of a thin wire
area
gauge. using a screw

3. To determine radius
of curvature of a
surface using convex and a concave mirot/
4 To find the
a
spherometer.
co-efficient of friction between wood and
horizontal board. glass using a
5. To determine force constant of
6. To find the moment spring using Hook's law.
a
of inertia of a
To find the flywheel.
8. To find
viscosity of a given
liquid (Glycerin) by Stoke's law
the co-efficient
of linear
9. To
verify Boyle's law.
expansion of the material of a roa.
10. To
determine the relative density of
sand by using a sp. gr. Bott
 CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

UNIT 1: PHYSICAL wORLD.UNITS

1-50
AND MEASUREMENTS
51-108
UNIT 2: FORCE AND MOTION
UNIT 3: wORK, POWER AND ENERGY 109-158

159-194
UNIT 4: ROTATIONAL MOTION
195-276
UNIT 5: PROPERTIES OF MATTER
277-330
UNIT 6: HEAT AND THERMOMETRY
PRACTICALS: 331-384
 U

wwwwwww wwwwwww www

Dedicated
to
The memory of my beloved Father
LATE GURUPADA CHOUDHURI
Whose honesty and devotion to
education is
ever rememberable

wwwww wWWIROR00

vil
 SYLLABUS
Energy and its units, kinetic energy and potential energy. Conservation
ot mechanical energy for freely falling bodies( simple numerical
problems). transformation of energy (examples only).
Power and its units. power and work calculation of power
relationship,
numerical problems).

UNIT 4: ROTATIONAL MOTION

Translational and rotational motion with examples, Definition of torque
and angular momentum and their relation, Conservation of
angular
momentum (quantitative) and its applications.
Moment of inertia and its physical significance, radius of gyration for
rigid body, Theorems of parallel and perpendicular axes (statements only).
Moment of inertia of rod, disc, ring and sphere (hollow and solid):
(Formulae only). Simple numerical problems.
UNIT 5: PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Elasticity: definition of stress and strain, moduli of elasticity, Hooke's
law, significance of stress-strain curve.
Surface tension : Concept, units, cohesive and adhesive forces, angle of
contact, Capillary rise (formula only), applications of surface tension,
effect of temperature and impurity on surface tension.
Viscosity and coefficient of viscosity : terminal velocity, Stoke's law
and effect of temperature on viscosity.
Hydrodynamics: Fluid motion, stream line and turbulent flow, Reynold's
number, Equation of continuity, Bermoulli's Theorem (only formula and
numericals) and its
applications (mention name only).
UNIT 6: HEAT AND THERMOMETRY
Concept of heat and temperature, basic concepts of measurements of
heat and temperature, modes of heats transfer
(conduction, convection
and radiation with examples), Co-efficient of thermal
numerical problems.
conductivity simple
Expansion of solids, liquids and gases, coefficient of linear, surface and
cubical expansions of solids and relation
amongst them, specific heats
Cp &Cv of gas
a and their relationship (Mention only).
 SYLLABUs

PHYSICS FOR SET(LAB)

APPLIED

BS 107
Course Code Applied Physics-I Labs
Course Title
1(L 0, T:0, P : 2)
Number of credits
NIL
Prerequistes BS
Course Category

cOURSE OBJECTIVES:
physical Woel
understanding of
aims to give an
orld
Study of Applied Physics Concrete use of physical principles
and
observations and predictions.
by fields of engineering
and tecl ology
technology is very
analysis in various the factual knowledge gained
course aims to supplement
prominence. The of apparatus. This will devela
lecture by first hand manipulation
in the and principles i
to apply the basic concepts
scientific temper and help
In addition, students
engineering and technology based problems.
solving and thus learn varione
confidence in handling equipment
get necessary
skills in measurement.

LIST OF PRACTICALS/ACTIVITIES (To perform minimum 8 practical's).

1. To measure the volume of the material of a given hollow cylinder,
using a Vemier calipers.
2 To determine the area of cross-section of a thin wire using a screw

gauge.
3 To determine radius of curvature of a convex and a concave mirot/
surface using a spherometer.
4. To find the co-efficient of friction between wood and glass using a
horizontal board.
5. To determine force constant of a spring using Hook's law.
6. To find the moment of inertia of aflywheel.
7. To find the viscosity of a
given liquid (Glycerin) by Stoke's law
8. To find the
co-efficient of linear expansion of the material of a rod.
9. To verify
Boyle's law.
10. To determine the relative
density of sand by using a sp. gr. Botue
 CONTEN1S

PAGL N
UNIT 1
PMYSICAI. WORLD INITS
AND MRASUREMENT 1-0
UNIT 2: VORCEANID MOTION 1-104
UNIT
wORK,PoWER AND ENERGY 199-158
UNIT 4:
ROTATIONAL MOTION 159-194
UNIT 5:
PROPERTIES OF MATTER 195-276
UNIT 6 EAT AND THERMOMETRY
277-330
PRACTICALS
331-384

vil)
 wwww
ww.wwN

Dedicated
to
The memory of my beloved Father
LATE GURUPADA CHOUDHURI
Whose honesty and devotion to
education is
ever rememberable

vil
 UNIT

1 PHYSICAL WORLD, UNITS

312

& MEASUREMENTS

DEFINITION OF UNIT:
The chosen invariable standard of kind taken
same as reference in order to measure a
physical quantity is called the unit of that
quantity.
Example: Distance between two poles is 10 metre means 10 times the standard reference
length i.e. metre.
Definition of fundamental units: Fundamental units are those units, which can neither be
derived from one another, nor can
they be further resolved into any other units.
Example : Metre, kilogram, sec, Ampere, Kelvin etc.

Definition of Derived Units The units of all those

physical quantities, which can be
expressed in terms of the fundamental units of mass, length, time, temperature etc. are called
derived units.
Example: Volume > m3
Density kgm-3
Work Joule > N-m > kgm sec2
Fundamental S.I. Units: (Shown before)
Dimensional formula and S.I. Unit of some physical quantities
(FOT AA, UTA I 4R S.I. )

SL Physical Relation Dimensional S.L Unit

Nol quantity formula
131
length x breadth
1. Area LIL=|LA m
|2. Volume length x breadth x height
LILL=|L'P m
mass
3 Density volume
-ML L i1
kgm3

Displacement Distance in particular direction L m

wt. of the body

Specifie gravity wt. of displaced water at 4°C| [M°L°T°] Unit less

1
 Applied Physics--
SI. Physical Relation Dimensional S.I. Unit
No. quantity formula

6. Specifnc volume Yolume Kgr'm

Mass

Velocity Displacement ms
Time

Change of velocity
8. Acceleration m2
Time
Force Mass x Acceleration IM||LT- = |MLT
Newton

10. Pressure Force TE-M'T] Nm2

Area
(Pascal)
11. Stress Restoring force MLT
Area E-MLT Nm2

12. Modulus of Elasticity Stress

Strain MLT-[MLTI
M°LT
Nm-2

13. Angular velocity Angular displacement

Time [ML'T] rad s-l

14. Angular acceleration Angular velocity

Time MLT| rad s2

15. )Moment of inertia . 2mr?

[MLA kg m
(b) Radius of gyration Distance M°LT
16. Torque L* [MLT Nm
(Force x L Distance) - [ML/T1

17. Linear momentum

Massx Velocity M|LT'HMLTH) kg ms
18. Angular momentum
MLAIT'H[MLPT'] kg m's=Js
19.
Frequency Time period M°LT] Hertz
20. Work Force x displacement
[MLTILI=[MLPT] Joule
 Physienl World, Units, Dimension & Measurement
(2
SI. Physical Relation Dimensional formula S.I. Unit
No. quantity

21. Power Work

Time M-MIT watt

22. Surface tension Force

Length T MT Nm

23. Co-efficient
Tengential stress MI-'- = IML"'T- da P
velocity gradient
of viscosity
(deca-poise)
24. Energy Capacity of doing work [ML'T-1 J (Joule)
(Mechanical,
heat, light,
gravitational,
magnetic etc.)
25. Impulse Forcex Time MLTx T =[MLT'| Ns

26. Gravitational Force x (distane)

Mass x Mass
MLT
M x M
[M-1T"| Nm2 kg2
constant (deca-poise)

27. Universal gas Px

nxT
ML-Tx L' J mor'k-1
molx k
constant
=MLTmolk
28. Planck's
constant
Energy
FrequencyY MPT-MEr Js

Lateral strain No units (pure

29. Poisson's Longitudinal strain MLT number)
ratio

30. Heat Energy

Specific
heat (S) MassxTemp. diff. ML'T - MT"|
Mxk
J kg'k

31. Heat capacity

Heat Energy
MassxTemp. diff. M-ML'Tk Jk-

32. Latent heat Heat Energy

Mass M-M°T Jkg
33. Thermal Jm-'k-s-1
conductivity (k) Heat Energy*Thicknes
AreaxTemp. diff. xTime ML-MLTk"|| or
watt m'kl
 Applied e Applied Physics
Physical Relation Dimensional formula S.I. Unit
quantity
34 Potential
difference or
EMR
Work
Change
Work
Currentx Time M-MIT'a"|
AT
volt or
J/Coulumh
Potential difference
35 Resistance
Current M A -[ML/T°a"] ohm (0)

36. Electricfield Force N/Coulumb

Charge MLT-MLTa" or
volt
37. Capacitance Charge
Potential Difference AME-Mr'A] Farad

38. Magnetic fMux ()

E-
or, Magnetic flux = EMF
MLTAT-MPT'A" weber

x Time

39. Magnetic field Magnetic flux

strength (B) Area MLA-[ML'T'A Tesla

or, F=Bqv
40 Resistivity MITA Qm
p-RA
Rest.xArea of cross section
Length -ML'TA
henry
41. Inductance L
dt
EMF
Current
time
Mr-MLT*A
(Torque)=pB sin6 MLT-2
42. moment
Magnetic(P) Am
ML°TAxM°L°TO
PBsin6
=[M°L:TA
43. Pole-strength p 2ml m= Maa =M'LT°a| Am

44. Magnetic
Permeability
4RB
m(pole strength)
sMTAMLTA
AL WbA m

(AT)
45 Permittivity (e)
(ch(charge)
forcex(dis tan ce)
MLTx12 M'TA"]|| CCN'm
 Dimension &Measurement
Physieal World, Units,
BENGALI VERSION

SI. *IoR TTN N (Basic or Fundamental Physical quantities & their units)
TT (Fundamental units)& a Eaafns anta, c 4R THA
T9
clreS.I. TR (Fundamental units)
S.I. P a
(Fundamental Physical quantities) (S.I. Unit) (Symbol)
ADTA (Metre) m
1. (length)
2. (mass) TaTA (Kilogram) kg
3. (Time) TCPS (Second)
(Kelvin) K
4. 1AIT (Temperature)
5. 5fyesREufRT (Ampere) A

(Electric current)
(Candela) Cd
6. e T
(Luminous Intensity)
CATOT (Mole) Mol
7. MIC9HT
(Quantity of substance)
CRCATA (Radian) rad
8.TA
(Plane angle)
9. T7 MGTATUAA (Steradian) Sr.
(Solid angle)
T3f 4 (Derived Physical Quantity and Units)

CTT,RA T = x x 5UD

ANT, UIOA =
m x m x m =
m*

AY kgmkgm UR==ms"
S
m
 Applted Physics

is nothing but n Dras.

ess
at o
ftnneasunenment

Amn that the mvess it with a standard unit

tha
de #sn quantity, ne comyare
c a n n o t be elimina
eare any phv seal itnvolve in the p r c e s s
mperdve
Nmeevreent
is t i N I a the ernus m e a s u r e d value of a
quantity is al
n e s t etints, the in true value
Hemr tnite t This ditterernce and
the
e atual valuve n t n e value.
t i t i e n t h u n its measurement.
wwmen hat quantit is valled e r r w r in
eevrf a h e ofa phiskal
pe ef ermn : Generaly tm te
tematie ermMs
Randvn emmus those whose cnuses are known. Such errors
rs
1his (ypes vt e r r o r s
errws :
are
. rematte
thereRve he nminimised.
For enample
n, manufacturino and
Jnstrumental errors lt may be due to imperfection of design
:
in the instrument. This instrumental
instrument. Oten, there may be zero crror
vees of the
e minimised.
en oan observer for lack of proper
may
Personal e r r o r s : be due to inexpericence of the
t
(i) minimised.
errors can obviously be
handling of the apparatus. 1hese
arises due to change in temperature, pressure, humidity
(i) Erors due to external causes
the experiment. Relevant correction can
be made to minimise their effects.
etc during
factors. The causes of
2. Random These erors may arise due to large variety of
error :
to eliminate the random
such emors are therefore not known precisely. Hence it is not possible
errors W'hen a same person repeats same abservation, this error can be minimised by
times and taking the arithmatic mean of all the
repeating the observation a large number of
observation. The mean value would then by very close to the true value.

O Calculation of errors:
True value : True value may be considered as an arithmatic mean qf number of same
measure values of a certain physical quantity large number of times.
Explanation : Let a physical quantity 'a' be measured n times. The measured values are
say a,. . a The arithmatic mean of these values is
a+a, +a,t. +
m n
Usually, a is taken as the true value of the physical quantity, if the same is not known
otherwise.
O Absolute error :
Absolute in the measurement ofa physical
error
the difference between the true value and the
quantity is defined as the magnitude of
measured value of the physical quantity. The
absolute error may be positive
or values. negative
By definition, absolute errors in the measured values of the
Aa, -a quantity are
Physieal World, Units, Dimension & Measurement 7
Aa, am 2
****** **********'**'.

***** '****'

Aa, am n

Mean absolute error:

in all the measurements of
It is the arithmatic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors

It is represented by Aa. Thus

physical quantity ignoring the sign (+) of absolute
errors.
the

Jaa,/da,
Aa=
n

Hence the final result of measurement may be written as

a a tAa
is likely to lie between
This implies that any measurement of the physical quantity
( a and (-a).
Relative error or Fractional error or proportional error:
in a
important than that of the absolute
error
The knowledge of the relative error is more

measurement. Let us suppose in the measurement

of length the absolute error is say 0.1 mm.
Then question arrises in which measurement of length
this error in observed. If the measure
measure the height of Qutab
Minar this
the diameter of hair, the error is too much, but to measurement.
small. So the relative error is most important in
error of 0.1 mm is negligible
Definition: The relative or proportional error is defined as the ratio of the absolute
error to the true value.

Absolute error Aa
Aa
Relative error or proportional error
=s01ute error
True value m
is expressed in percentage,
Percentage error: When the relative or proportional
error

we call it percentage error.

* 100%
Aa x 100%
Percentage error= Proportional error m

Combination oferrors
then the errors involved
When a number of quantities are involved in the final calculation,
result. The error in the final result
in the measurement of all quantities will effect the final
measurements but also on the nature of the
depends not only on the errors in the individual done on
mathematical operation (Addition, substraction, multiplication, division, powers etc.)
the combined error
them to arrive at the final result. We, therefore, need rules for calculating
associated with different mathematical operations
 8
nerwt ieu Applied Physics--I
(a) Errors in addition:
Suppose x =a+b. (1)
Let Aa =
absolute error in measurement of a
Ab absolute error in measurement
of b
Ax absolute emor in calculation
of x
. From (1), we have
xtAx =
(a t Aa) + (b+ Ab)
(a +b) Aat Ab
x Aat Ab
or, tAx =t Aa t Ab
The four possible values of Ax are (+ Aa + Ab); (+ Aa- Ab):(-Aa +
Therefore, the maximum absolute error in x is Ab) and (-da -Ab).
Ax=t(Aa+Ab)
Rule: Maximum absolute error in sum
of the two quantities is equal to sum of the
absolute errors in the individual
quantities.
(b) Errors in subtraction: Suppose, x a-b
In similar way, the maximum absolute
error in x will be
3i0eds s ig Ax=t(4a+ Ab)
Rule Maximum absolute error in subtraction
the absolute errors in the individual
of the two quantities is equal to sum of
quantities.
(c) Errors in Multiplication and division: Let x=axb
Considering the absolute errors Ax, Aa, Ab in the respective physical quantities x, a and b,
we have,
x+ Ax= (a+ Aa) x (bt Ab)

or, 1 t = l t t
X a b
. Maximum values of proportional error in x is

Let x= xtax=tAa
el ur bt Ab
Physienl World, Units, Dimension &Mensrement 9
Negieeting higher power terms, the maximum proportional error in case of division is also

Rule: When wo quantities are multiplied or divlded, the marimum proportional error in
the final rswlt is the sum of the
proportional
errors In the to he
quantitles multiplled
or
t
be divided.
Error in power of a quantity:
a"
Suppose x =

XtA=tAa)"n 4)
(btAb) b(1+4

or, 1=ltntm b
X neglecting higher power terms ]

Rule To find maximum proportional error in a quantity involving powers of two or

more quantities, the rule is to multiply the proportional error of each individual quantity by
the numerical value of their respective powers and all such terms are finaly added.

Calculus method: x=a

Taking log on both sides.
log xn log a m log b
Now taking derivative on both sides,

dx - m
In our present notation dx, da and db are taken as Ax, Aa & Ab.
Therefore, maximum proportional error will be,

+m

Concept of Slgniflcant flgure:

We have seen every measurement involves errors. Thus, the result of measurement should
 tten erit Applied Physics-I

be reported in a way that indicates the precision of measurement. Generally, the reported
result of measurement is a number that includes all digits in the number that are reliably
known plus the first digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus uncertain digit are known
as significant digit or significant figure.
Example : If a student reported the result of time period of oscillator of simple pendulum
153S, the digits I and 5 are reliable and certain, while the digit 3 is uncertain, because any

error may hide in the last figure. Thus the measured value has three significant.
value
Now, suppose the students have taken five observations and taking their average
534S. The students should not report the result up to 3 decimal places. It is seen from his
observations that least count of stop watch is 0-01 (two decimal places), so the average valve
cannot exceed the least precise measurement. So rounding off is urgently needed.

Rules of Rounding off:

If any number contains more than one uncertain digit, then rounding off is necessary. In
result.Averagetime period=1 534. In this case there are two uncertain
our previous average
digits 3 & 4. So we have to report with only 3 significant digits. For rounding off followings
rules are adopted:
Rule 1: If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceeding digit is left

unchanged. For example x= 1-534 is rounded offto 1-53.

Rule 2: Ifthe digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceeding digit is raised by 1.
For example x= 1.537 is rounded off to x = 1-54.

Rule 3: Ifthe digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the
preceeding digit is raised by one.
For example:x= 8:452 is rounded offto 8:5.
Rule 4: Ifthe digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zero, then the preceeding digit is
left unchanged, if it is even.
For example: x = 6-350 becomes 6 3.

Rule 5: If the digitto be dropped in 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceeding digit is
raised by one, if it is odd.
For example:*= 8-750 is rounded off to 8 8.
Common rules for Counting Significant Figures
Following are some of the common rules for counting signif+cant figure in the following
way
Rule 1: Al non-zero digits are significant
For example:x 4512 has four significant are significant.
=

Rule 2: All zeros occurring between two non-zero digits are significant.
For example: x = 20008 has five,significant digits
Again, x = 5-0809 has five significant digits.
Physieal World, Units, Dimension & Measurement (11
Rule 3: n a number less than one, all zeros to the right of decimal point and to the
left of a non-zero digit are no significant.
For Example: r 0 0056 has only two significant digits. Again r = 10056 has five

significant figures.
Rale 4: 4
sigmificant.
zeros on the right of the last non-zero digit in the decimal part are

For rample: r =
0-005000 has four significant figure 5, 0, 0, 0. The zeros brfore 5 are
not significant.
Again, x 1-00 has three significant
=

figure.
But,x =0-001 has only one significant figure.
Rule 5: All zero on the right of non-ero digit are not significant for whole Mumber.
For example: x =
1000 has
only one significant figure.
Again x=476000 has three significant figures.
Rule 6: All zeros on the right of the last non-zero digit become significant, when they
comefroma measurement.
For Example: There can be some confusion regarding the trailing zeros. Suppose a
distance is measured to be 4060m. It has four significant figure not three. The same distance
can be expressed as 4-060km or 4060,00cm or 4060,000mm. In each case significant figure
should be same. It should not depend on system of units. Therefore to remove such
ambiquities in determining the number of significant figures, the best way is to report
every measurement in scientific notation (in the power of 10 which has no contribution
to the significant figure).
By convention, decimal point is written after the Ist digit.
For Example : Reported distance x = 4060m = 4-060km = 4-060 x 10 m =4-060 x 10 cm
=
4-060x 10 mm
In each case significant is four. So it is independent on system of units.

Arithmatic operations with significant figures

Rule 1 In case of addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many
decimal places as are there in the number with the least decimal places.
For Example: The sum of the numbers 436 32 m, 227-2 m and 0-301m 663 821m, but
the least precise measurement is 227-2m is correct to only one decimal place. The final result
should therefore be rounded of to 663 8m. Similarly for subtraction also.
Rule 2: In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many significant
figures not decimal places as are there in the original number with the least significant
figures.
 12 Rt iAppliedPhysics
For Example: Density 4567k8 1-8268kgm"
18268kgm
2-5m
The reported result should be ofleast 2 significant digits ie., 18 kgm"

BENGALI VERSION

(1) ard 1 fUT P (Systematic error)

(2) t (Random error)

2. TPe a (Personal error) : e a A a E I d HOTI, Z terT od

3, a e 5 a 294sfo d (Errors due to External causes) I, 1T1,

A

feeyT (Random error) &fo I , TAI RTC 9TtaT 94S5 TT I TI

O PD (Calculation of error) 8
h 12

ata2 +at..ta
a ID
Physieal World, Units, Dimension & Measurement

Aa, am
Aa, am-a2
Aa am
******

Aa, am -4n
TOF C bN PUA 15 tve -ve 5 ITKI

O st3 P (Mean absolute error) 8

Aa=
n

OTft a Bsi9 376 (Relative error or Fractional error or Proportional error)

TCR 20 CAA 100 7TAA TI 20 CtA , T1 T AU ATA TST

Aa

P (Percentage error) NTO TTo pib HTT 100 11 e A

Aa
. 6 1 Pd = x 100%
(14 Applied Physics-I
o fITR D (Combination of error): ren a ofAT CBUA M f f (

(a) CUTCR CA a1 (Errors in Summation)

WTA 3. 2=atb]

. z iATTA, 5N P Az
TOTR, z Az = (a t Aa) + (b + Ab)
( a + b) + Aa t Ab
=
z+ Aa + Ab
or, t Az = t Aa t Ab

Toa Az 4 z5T DEG NTA AIS, (Aa + Ab); (+ Aa- Ab); (-Aa + Ab) 4R (-Aa-
Ab)I

Az=t(Aa+Ab)

b) fAAa CTa Fd (Errors in difference)

ATA, Z=a - b

Az-+(da+ Ab)

( ) 0 A CA PT (Errors in Product) :

TA 3, Z=a xb
a, b 93R z ATA FT 7RPTA Aa, Ab 4R Az ,
z Az (a Aa) x (b + Ab)

= ab{1
Physienl World, Units, Dimension &Mensurement 1
or

. *)

(d) s1tA CA T (Error in division)

TR R, Z=

Aa Ab
z b

(e)ai FITE TATE TA P (Error in Power of a quantity)

a
, z=
TA a,b 9R z °ATT T TRIPA Aa, Ab ga Az.

logz = log a" log b

log log b
logz =
m a n
-

or,

m.4a Ab
Z a
 i nsita Applied Physics
(16 s t
Aa Ab
tmtn
Z b

Ab
n

T -rU (Significant digit)

se 4 0-001cm)

I s g I 4 bR QPAI Y TROTIDT 10-4 TTO S AT 1234x 10 m

4 x 10

4000 4x 10
0-004 4x 10-3
3940 3.94 x 10
1-004 1-004x 10 A

4956000 4-956 x 10

50 5:0x 10 2
5-00 5.00 x10 3

Rule:1 47 9d |
 Physienl World, Units, Dimension &Measurement
17
Rule: 2
(non-zero) y ra T Ufrz 1 a mdI
760005 taiBre y1ofa q*e1 eid
Rule: 3
0 00068 7r«mbro z1ofa uanm gG
Rule:4
50 00 midre q1ofa y 51a1
Rule: 5

Rule:6 C A SAICTA TUM 1

45000 raUTBCU F19a qa yiti

) 2574N (i) 0-023m (ii) 8-0054 gem (iv) 2.760x 10m

(vii) 80000 (v) 0-007 (vi) 7-0 (vii) 1

Solution: M -(i) 4 (ii) 2 (ii) 5 (iv) 4 (V)1 (vi) 2 (vii) 3 (viii) 1.

Numerical Examples
Example-1. Determine proportional and percentage error in the measurement of
with the help of simple pendulum. Given: length of pendulum 100 em, time period
=
2
secs. Minimum length of metre seale =
0.1 em. Minimum
graduation of stop watch = 0.1
Sec.

RIITA j =
100 cm, AtA CAPTTP 2 GIPS, 1 ADTA CATA AAH ID 1 mm 9t uTy

Soln.: We know, T =
27, where g->acceleration due to gravity.
4T1
T time period

Taking log, on both sides,

log8 log, (47) + log!-2 log, T

Taking derivative on both sides

dg-0+-2dT
d

Applied Physies-- 2
 (1
Applled Physlcs
Mas aible propuotional error in the mwarement of g ls

INign han been taken tve for mav.

poasible orror |
d
10 0001 0.1 0.10
100

'ropotionnl error (M1gIfDn qd)- 0.101

% error (em qid) -0.101 100%- 10.1%
Example-2. The mensurement of dlameter of a rod
by screw gauge of 50 C.S.D
and of serew plteh 0.5 mm lu 2.00 em. What ls the proportlonal and % error in the
meaxurement of dlameter?

q17 2.00 em 440 -(MCA Botoin CMMA VPIRNTI 50 4 19'5- 0.5 mm |

Soln. Leastcount (MNR 40) a screw pitch 0.5
cireular scnle div. 50
0:1
0-01
10
mm=0-001 cm.
Proportional error 0-001
=0-005
2
%crror ( v qD) = .005 x 100 0.05%

Example-3. The density of the material of a solid cylinder is measured by

measuring
its mass 13 gm by common balance of minimum wt, in wt box of 5 mg. The diameter of
the rod is 6.5 mm measured by a serew gauge of least count 0.01 mm. The length of the
cylinder is 7.5 cm measured by a slide calliper whose vernier constant (91ARTA A) is
Caleulate the maximum % of error in the mensurement of density of the
0.02 mm.
materlal.

1 11 M 6.5 mm a4r aRU f t a 71RICU Trf anem co 7.5 cm a y a

RH 5 mg, -CICUrH MNB 4TT 0.01 mm N ATRU ATCaT U RR 0.02 mm

Soln.: Let mass of the cylinder be m, diameter = D, length=, density of material = p.

D
Volume ofthe cylinder (v) =7
4
m 4m 4m
p p _ .RD
TD
Taking log, on both sides.
Physieal World, Units, Dimension Measurement (19
loge p loge +loge m-2 loge D-loge.
Now, taking derivative on both sides.
=04am_, dD_d
m D
. Maximum % of error in density
(de x 100% |=
dm
+2d 100%
P m

[All signs are taken tve for max. error]

5x10,01,02x 100%
1565*75100%
= (0.00033+0.003+ 0.000267) x 100%
=
0.0036 x 100% =
0.36%
Example-4. The mass of beaker is found to be (50.3 0.2)g when emptly and (59.4
0.2) g, when filled partially with water. What is the best value for the mass of water
with accuracy limits.

9 a fRta (50.3 0.2) g 4R oaa (59.4 +0.2)g q a

Soln.: Since in case of addition or subtraction of two quantities, errors should be added.

T = (59.4 - 50.3) + 0.4 9 . 1 + 0.4 (Mass of water)

Example-5. Mass of a substance is (100 + 4%) kg and volume is (10 + 2%) m'. Find
) % error of density (ii) absolute error of density and (ii) value of density with error
limit.
[4P T (100 4%) kg 47 UT (10 + 2%) m'. Aa -(1) 7C9A M q

Soln.: (i) We know for division or multiplication proportional or % error are added.
M
Since PV

dpp M t(4% +2%) =+ 6%

% error in density = +6%.
 Applied Physics--
20
Proportional crror)
(in)Absolute error, dp- + (p
M 100
10 kgm
- t10x 100 kgm : P y10
100
- t 0.6 kgm"
with limits is
(ii) Magnitude of density eror

p (10 t06) kg m
resistance (100 0.2)2 Find the
Example-6. A current (2.00 +0.01)A is passing through
a

limits.
potential difference across, the resistance with error
ATTY gPd OTAA 74 Ma (2.00 0.01)A N ATIAA 2T F*7E
I100 0.2)2

Soln. V =IR
2x 100 200 volt.
Proportional error in potential,

dvd 0-01, 0-2

= 0.005+ 0.002 =
0.007
V 100
dv =
0.007 x
V =0.007 x 200 1.4 volt.
Potential diff. with error limit is
(200 1.4) Volt.
of resistance
Example-7. A current of (2.00 + 0.01)A passes through a conducter
(100 +0.2).2 Find the % of error in power using the formula P 1'R.
=

[(100 0.2)2 ATYA TI fRA (2.00 + 0.01)A JTGe R ZTT, P FR T TRIA FTA A
=

Soln.: P=IR
dp dk=201 0-2
P I R 2 100
2 x 0.005 + 0.002 = 0.01 + 0.002 0.012

T31 =x100% =0-012x100 1.29%

Two resistors of resistances R= (100 + 3) 2 and R, =

(200 4) Q are
Example-8.
connected (i) in series (ii) in parallel. Find the equivalent resistance with
error limits for both the combination.
Soln.: (i) The equivalent resistance of series combination.
R =R, + R, = (100 + 3) N + (200 + 4) 2 = (300 + 7) Q
Physienl World, Units, Dimension & Measurement (21)
(7) In parallel combination, If R' be the equivalent resistance, then-

ENGIA

eINE RING
) UTE OF
R' R, R,
L1BRARY
Acc.No.-

R RR 200
= 66:72 P582

R,+R, 3 Bishnupur
Bankura
CHNIC
Then, from
R' R
ndONHS
S18

Differentiating. RAR AR, AR,

RR,
AR 3 4 or, A R (100)
'=3 4
(200*(667)' =182
or,
R2 (100) (200)
R'=667t182

Dimensions of physical quantity:

Definition: The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the
fundamental units of mass (M), length L), Time (T), kelvin (K), Electric current (A) have to
be raised in order to represent that physical quantity.
Example: Force= mass x acceleration = Mx LT? = [MLT]
Work Force x displacement MLT? xL= [ML2T]

Principle of dimensional homogencity:

Any correct physical relations or equations can be checked by the principle of homogeneity
of dimensions. According to this principle, the dimensions of the fundamental quantities
(Mass, length and Time) are same in each and every term on either side of the physical
relation.

Example-1. The time period of a pendulum t= 27 is to be verified with the help

of the principle of dimensional homogeneity.

Dimensional formula of L.H.S. =

[T
Dimensional formula of R.H.S. = VT = (T)

Since, the dimension of L.H.S. = Dimension of R.H.S. Therefore the above relation is

dimensionally correct.
22 Applled Physics-
Fample 2. To check the correctness of the relation

Dimensivnal formula of LHS. |LI

Dimensionalfomula of R.HS. (LT 'XT) (LTXT)=|L] |L1-|L
Since. the dimension of L.H.S. = Dimension of R.H.S. Therefore, the above relation is

dimensionally correct.
Example-A Check whether the following equations are dimensionally correct or not,

() y=a sin (ii) ysin ot

ii) y = a sin vt (v) y=sin 2 nt + cos 2n nt
where. y=displacement, a = max. displacement
V
linear speed, o angular speed
T time period, n = frequency.
Soln.: The argument of trigonometrical function i.e. angle is dimensionless. So we have to
first check whether argument is dimensionless or not. If argument is dimensionless, then
check other dimensions.
2Tt
() y=asin (correct) (ii) y=-sin ot.. (incorrect)
T
(i) y = a sin vt .. incorrect)

(iv) y=sin 27 nt +cos 27 nt].... (correct)

40
Example 4. Check the equation, p=dimensionally correct or not? Where p is the
excess pressure inside soap bubble, o be the surface tension and r is the radius of the
bubble.

Soln.: Dimension of L.H.S. = pressure ForceML-IT2

Area
Dimension of R.H.S. =MT-2= ML-'T-?
L
Since the dimension of both sides are equal, the equation is correct.
Example-5, Check whether the following equations are dimensionally correct or
not

+l
= sia (i)x dx==+c
n+1
Physieal World. Units, Dimension & Measurement 23
d
)- n (iv)
dt
where a and x are displacement, » be the angular frequency, n and c are

dimensionless constants.

Soln.: (i) Dimension of L.H.S. T -"

Dimension of R.H.S. = m°L°T° =L
L
Since the dimension of both sides are not equal, therefore the equation is incorrect. Correct

equation is

dx
=sin+c
a?- X

i) Dimension of L.H.S. = L"L = Ln+1

Dimension of R.H.S. =Ln+l
Since the dimensions are equal. So the equation is correct.

(ii) The dimension of L.H.S.

Dimension of R.H.S. =Ln-1

Since the dimensions are equal, so the equation is correct.

dx
iv)2-0*x
dt2

Dimension of L.H.S.dofd2dtdt
d LT
Dimension of R.H.S. -H L-[LT°]
Since the dimension of both sides are equal, so the equation is dimensionally correct.

Derivation of the relation between various physical quantities with the help of
dimensional analysls.
Dimensional analysis is also based on the principle of dimensional homogeneity. To derive
a physical relation, first we should know the possible factors upon which the given physical
in terms of
quantity may depend. Then we have to express all the probable physical quantities
dimensional formula. When the powers of M, L, T are equal on both sides of the
 Applled Physics-
mensional equntin, we get three equntions from whieh the vaues of three unku
CAnbe determined Nubstifuting these values in the
dinensons cquntion, the resl
real for form of the
equntion in established
ample-1. Acceleration due to gravity (g) on the nurface of the earth depends
()gravitattonal eonstnnt ((G), (0) masn of the earth (M).
(00) radius of the enrth (R).
Obtain an expression for "g', using the method of dimensional analysis.
Soln. : let
ga
G* M
R°; where n, b
e nre numerical
constants.
or,g kG* M ..
(1) : where k in the dinensionless constant of proportionality
R°
Now writing the dimensional formula for the quantities on either side of the
cquation
IM°1T]-IM '1T21° IM |L or, M I 1 - IM"b, 1.Jare,. T 2»
Comparing the dimensions on both sides of thc equation, we get
atb-0
3n t c |
2a--2
From the above relations we have,
a-1,b- 1,c--2
Now substituting the values of a, b, c in eqn. (1),
k GM
R2
where k is the dimension less constant which cannot be
determined by the method of
dimensional analysis. From other sourcc k is found to be 1.
GM
'B
R2
Example-2. The rotational encrgy (E) of a rigid body depends on
(i) Moment of inertia (I)
(ii) Angular velocity (o)
Obtain an expression for E', using the method of
dimensional analysis.
Soln. : Let E a l" ob
or, E K I" o . (1) ; where k is the dimension less constant
of proportionality.
Writing the dimensional formula on both sides.

MIPT]-ML [r-] -[M"1P-t]

Comparing the dimension on both sides of the equation.
a=1
b 2
Putting the value of a and b is eqn. (1)
E =k lo2
Physieal World, Units, Dimension & Measurement 25)
Where k is the dimensionless constant which can not be determined by the methodof
dimensional analysis. From mathematical calculation the value of k is found to be

. E-lo
Limitations of dimensional analysis
() This method is not applicable to determine the value of the constant of proportionality,
which may be a pure number or a dimensionless ratio.
(1) This method cannot be used t o derive the composite relations, such as v = u,

m max hu-Ùo etc.

(ii) This method cannot be used to derive a relation containing trigonometric or exponential
functions.
(iv) This method cannot be used to determine relations between more than three physical
quantities.
(v) Many different physical quantities (e.g. modulus of elasticity, stress, pressure) which
have the same dimensions, cannot be identified correctly with this method.

Conversion of one system of Units into another:

This is based on the fact that magnitude of a physical quantity (Q) remains the same,
whatever be the system of measurement, i.e.,
Qn,u, n,u,.. ()
where u, and u, are two units of measurement of the quantity Q and n, and n, are their
respective numerical values.
Let M, LT, be the fundamental units of mass, length and time in one system, M,, IL, T
be the fundamental units in the other system. a, b, c are the respective dimensions of the
quantity in mass, length and time on both the systems.
The units of measurement u, and u, will be

=M]and u, =[M
From equation (1), we have

n,u,nu

n,=
M LT

TEE
26) Applied Physics
and (M, L T) and a, b, c and n, we can calculate n.
Knowing (M,, L,, T,) th
numerical value of the quantity in the other system.

Example-1. Convert 1 Newton into dyne.

S.I. and dyne is absolute unit of force
Soln.: One Newton is absolute unit of force in
C.GS. system.
The dimensional formula of force is
F [MLT
1,b= 1, cm-2
of force in mass, length and time are
=
a
The dimension
As we have to convert m.k.s. into c.g.s. system, therefore,

M, hg. L, Im,T, ls
=
1 =

M, 1g, L =1 cm, T, ls
=
=
and

, 1 newton, n, (number of dynes)=?

Since, n n M

- -1 I cm
x1

=
10 x 103 dyne=10 dyne

IN =10 dyne
Alternative method: Direct conversion.
IN= 1 kg ms2 = 1000g x 100 cm x s2

=
10g cm s3 =
10 dyne.
Example-2. Convert Joule into erg
Soln.: Dimension of physical quantity of work
W ML T2

=hg Im
n ML
2

- 110cn xl = 10 x 10 10' erg

I cm

. |1=10' erg
Physienl World, Unita, imension & Measurement 27)
Direct Methnd: 1 Joule 7 erg
1 Jule-1 Nm
10' dyne 100 cm
10 dyne cm - 10' erg

Faample-3. If thermal conductivity of a matertal in 0.5 cGS unit, what will be its value
in S.I. uni?
Soln.: Since quantity of heat flow,

kA(9, 4,)1
d

Qd
k-
A(0,-0,)
k is the thermal conductivity.
unit of k in c.g.s = Cal cm- C's'
k 0.5 cal cm' °C's
=
0.5x 4.2J (10m)' k's'
=
0.5x 4.2J 10m'k's [ Since 1°C difference =lk difference ]
5 x 42 Jm's'k-l =210 Wm'k
Alternative method : (By dimensional analysis)
k 0.5 cal cm's°C- =
0.5 x 4.2J cm's°C

n=0.5x4-2

-05x4-2 E
0-5x4-2 10m 0.5 x 42 x 10?

2 1 0 Jm'sk' [ Sin 1°C difference in temp, = Ik difference in temp. ]

210 Wm"k

cTE AIT (Dimensions of physieal quantity)3

(a) ce1 V A 4 (Derived units) RC T AA (M),
(L), TR (T), MATEI (K), ATRATAT (A), T I (Mol) ayfors a siTG BAS ACO

HTR:ATUAA TAI [V]= [L']= [M°L'T®]

S
5
 30
Applied Physics

dx

(H)d
L
Soln.: (i) aea KTa7
V2-12 L
gT T1 =xM°I°T° =L

adx2Sin~24
X

fcAT =|L

(ii) aTafaea aTa =L"-L=|Ln

relation between physical quantities with the help of dimensional analysis):

(i) cATIRPAGFa 721 (0)

(iv) ufo yal (g)
Physieal World, Units, Dimension & Mensuremen 31
Sol.: N 3 1 a0*m g
or. t= ka m° g, aRITA k = MaRA

[M°L°T] = L'.M°(LT-2) : 0 a f o m T a t aMada TE47 b = 0]

= Latd M.T-24

a+d 0 a -d
C0

- 2d 1

4CT A I A , k = 2T t=27

) (m) (i) TÉA A (V) (i) z TMÝ ()

Sola. F a mv , ReTA a, b, c ATaTA L*

F kmv. (1), k > ATA E I

[MLT) =M". (LT1h. L° =M°Lb*¢T-+

a=1

b+c=1
- b =-2 or, b 2

:b+c=l.2+c =1 or, c =-1

(1) TAPTI A RI
F=k.m'v2rl
2
F=k m
r
k-97 ATA ATAfA 9PefCE TAI TU I UAITEOa, k = 1 zTaI

my
F=
 32 ie wetit Applied Physics
i) NTTARTY (p) : (ii) iITA ffdTAT D19 (E)

Soln. A a , v a pa E
V=kp®E.. (1), aRIA k MaRA |

[M°LT'] = (ML-(ML-'T-7

or, M°LT- =Matb-3a-.T-26 [ E= -MLT-2/12)

a+b 0
- 3 a - b =1

-2b - 1

V=kp 2? or, V=k

Vp

Example-4. The frequency (n) of transverse vibration of

following physical quantities a
string depends on the
)Tension (F) in the string i) Length () of the string.
(i) Mass per unit
length (m)
Establish an expression for
Soln. Let n a F P m°
frequeney (n) from dimensional analysis.
n= kFa P m°
(1), where k =dimension less constant
. .

Substituting dimensions of both side.

the proportionality.
IT]= [MLT2P. L(ML-Hy¥
M°LT-l Ma*e Latb-e T-2a
or, =
m-= ML'|
Comparing the dimensions of M, L, T, we get
atc 0
a+b-c =0
- 2a-1

a and C=-a = ''a+b- c = 0

 Physieal World. Units, Dimension &Measurement 33
orb-0 b-1
Putting the value in eqn. (1), we get,

n =k.F$-'m
m
The value of k can not be determined from dimensional analysis. But this value of k for

fundamental frequency is found to be z

2

n
2 VM
Example-5. The orbital velocity of an artificial satellite may depend on its mass
radius of the orbit (r) and on the acceleration due to gravity (g). Using the method(m),
of
dimensions obtain an expression for the orbital velocity. [w.B. Poly 2005]
Sol. Let orbital velocity be v.
where k = dimension less constant ]
vam'r°g"
V= km"r®g. . )
Now writing dimensional formula on both sides.
MLT- = M"Lh{LT-21°= M°LL"T-2« = M°Lb+"T-20
Comparing the dimension of both sides,
1
a 0, .c
2

b +C 1 b=1
-
2c -
1 a = 0

Now putting the value of a, b, c, in eqn. (1)

v=kmrg
v=k/rg where k is dimension less constant ]
This is the expression for orbital velocity.
Example-6. If force (F), Velocity (V) and time () are taken as fundamental quantities,
what would be the dimension of work?

Soln.: Let work (W) = Fa yb t . ( 1 )

Now taking dimension of both sides,

ML'T2 = (MLT-2)(LT-bT° =M°La+bT-2a-b+c
Since, according to principle of dimensional homoganeity dimensions of both sides are
cqual, therefore equating the dimension of both sides, we have,

Aplied Physics-/- 3
 34) Applied Physics
ww

a1
a +b 2
-2a b + c = - 2

Solving the three equations, we can find out a, b, c.

a
b 2-a =2- 1 = 1

c 2a + b - 2 3 -2 1
Now. putting the value of a, b, c in equn. (1), we get,
W'v'T'
W Fvt
Example-7. A jet of water of cross-sectional area A and
velocity v impinges normally
on a
stationary flat plate. If density of water be p, with the help of
dimensional analysis, find the expression for the force F exerted
water of jet against the
by the
plate.
Soln.: As F depends
on v and p, therefore
A,
FA2 p
F kAp 1)
where k is the dimensionless constant.
Now taking the dimension of both
sides,
MLT [LILTH°[ML-J = M°La+b-3eT-b
Since dimension of both sides are
equal.
Comparing dimension of M, L, T, we have
c=1
2a +b-3c = 1

-b=-2
.. b=2
Now, putting the value of c and b in
2a +b-3c = 1
equation
.. 2a +2-3 1
2a 2
a=1
Putting the value of a, b, c in equation (1),
F=kAvfp where k is a
dimension less constant.
Example-8. If the units of
force, length and time are taken as
would be the dimension of mass? fundamental units. What
Soln.: Let dimension of
mass (M)
depends of force, and length time,
Physienl World, Units, Dimension & Measureme (35
M FLT . (1)
Taking dimension of both c

M'L'T =MLT T =M'L*Ta

Since dimension of both sides are equal, therefore
a1. (2)
a+b 0. (3)
2a + c = 0 . . (4)

From eqn. (3) & (1)

a +b 0
b-a-1
From eqn.(4)
2a +c 0
-2 +c 0
C 2
Now, putting the value of a, b, c in eqn. (1)

M FL'T
*
(c)HTARAT TOA AAROI (Limitations of dimensional analysis)

(i) TOTE eM t (Composite relation)

2
Sut+ ft, =
hu-¢o RufA Aefa *1 T

Q n , u , = n,u,. .
36 Applied Physics-|
T , M, L, T,27 4 a a, 9at au34 dt M, , 1, aif t a

g RRR, n,u, n,u,

MLT
M T
D, M,
T (M,, L,, T) 4R (M, L, T) 47R a, b, c-4 TT UA KTOTE 7ITE AT

GHRR-1. IN 1 dyne- JEA PAT|

TRTTSIR N S.I. fbrE KIFA DA THT 9R dyne 7 C.GS PoE aR 54 ATT

F [MLT

a=1,b=1, c=-2

TR M,= 1 kg, L, =
1Im, T,
M, = 1g, L 1 cm, T,= 1s, n, = ?
=
1s, n, =
1

CIER ,

n, M2
10cm xl= 10
1 cm
x 10 dyne

| IN=10° dyne

IN 1 kg I ms2
Physienl World. Units, Dimension & Measurement
=
10'g 10' cm
x x s?
=
10' g cm s?
IN =10 dyne
CHIR-2. 5J = FU T1 3VI TAII

12
10'10em xl =
5 x
10 10
x 5 x
10 erg
I cm

1J=10 erg
fe : 5J = ? erg
5J = 5 Nm= 5 x 10 dyne x 100 cm = 5 x I0' erg

OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

A. Multiple Choice Type
In the following questions there are four alternative answers for each. One answer is
correct. Tick (V) the correct answer.
1. Which of the following are fundamental units or quantities.
i) (a) ms- b) Ampere c) Newton (d) Watt
Ans. (b) Ampere.
Cii) (a) Meter (b) Candela (c) Joule (d) Watt.
Ans. (a) & (b).
(ii)(a) Pressure (b) Acceleration (c) Length (d) Electric current.
Ans. (c) & (d).
2. Newton-second stands for the units of
(a) Force (b) Momentum (c) Power (d) Energy.
Ans. (b) Momentum
3. Which of the following is derived quantity?
(b) Luminus Intensity
(a) Mass
(c) Surface tension (d) Thermodynamic temperature.
Ans. (c) Surface tension.
 38 Applied Physics
4. The velocity of a partice is given by v=atbt+ct. What is the unit of e ?
(a) ms- (b) ms2 (c) ms-3 (d) ms
Ans. (c) ms3
S. If force (FE, length (L) and time (T) are measured as fundamental units. What would ha.
dimensional formula for mass.
be the
(a)[FLT] (b) [FL-IT] () [FLT-I] (d) [FLT ].
Ans. (b) [FL-T]
6. Dimensions of power are

(a)[MLT-J] b) ML2T-']i (c) [MLT2] (d) [MLT'

Ans. (a) [MLIT"]
7. If is measured in
x
Newton-sec, y in kgms and z in kgm, then which of the
relation is correct? followin
(a)X2 YZ (6) Y2 XY () 22= XY
Ans. (a) X2 = YZ.
(d) None.
8. The dimension of
Torque a r e
() [MLT-] 6) [MLT]
Ans. (a) [ML'T-2]
()[MLT3 )[MLT°)
9. The dimensional formula of Gravitational constant is
(a)[M'LT (6) [MLT- () [MLT (d) None
Ans. (6) [M-LT]
10. The dimensional formula of rigidity modulus of
(a) [MIL-'T]
elasticity (n) is-
(6) [ML-IT-2 ()[MLT] (d) None
Ans. (b) [MIL'T]
11.if specific gravity of sand is 2.5, then density
of the material in S.I. is-
(a) 2.5 units
b) 2.5x 62.5 units (c) 2.5x 1000 units
Ans. (c) 2.5 x 1000 units. (d) None
12.The percentage errors in the
measurement of mass, diameter and length are 2%, 3% and 4%
respectively. How much will be the maximum error in the estimate of
help of common balance, screw gauge &density
of a solid cylinder with the of the material
(a) 9% slide callipers.
(b) 8% (c) 12%
Ans. 12%. (d) 15%
13.The measurement of diameter of a rod
screw pitch 0.5 mm is 2-00
by screw gauge of 50 circular scale division and
cm. The
diameter is proportional and % of error in the measurement of
(a) 2000, 2 x 105%
(6) .0005, 0.05% (c) 0.005, 0.5% (d) None
Ans. (6) .0005, 0.05%
Physienl World, Units, Dimension & Measurement 39
14.The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 The specific gravity i s
(a) 1000 (b) (c) 1 (d) None
1000
Ans. (c) 1
15. The angular velocity of the second hand of a clock i s

(a) 27 rad/sec. (b) rad/s (c)rad/s (d) 1800 rad/s

Ans. (b) rad /s

30
16. Unit of latent heat is
(a) J (b) J mol- (c) Jkg (d) J kgr'molF
Ans. (c) J kg
17.N kg is the unit o f
(a) force (b) work (c) acceleration (d) none

Ans. () acceleration.
18.Which of the following is the unit of molar gas constant?
(a) Jk'mo b) Jkgr () Jmo-l (d) none
Ans. (a) Jk'mol-
19.Density of water is 1 gc.c. Its value in S.I. i s
(a) 10-3 kg m3 (b) 1 kg m3 (c) 10'kg m3 (d) 10kg m*
Ans. (c) 10 kg m-3
20.Spot odd one out
(a) Calorie b) Electron volt (c) Coulomb-volt (d) Coulomb/volt
Ans. (d) Coulomb/volt. (All others are unit of energy)
21.What is the unit of magnetic pemmeability?

(a) WbAm (b) WbA'm (c) WbAm (d) WbAm

Ans. (a) wbA m
22.Surface tension of a liquid is 50 dyne/cm. Its value in S.I.
(a) 50 x 103 N/m b) 50 N/m (c)50x10 NIm (d) none
Ans. (c) 50x10 NIm
23.Which of the following equation is dimensionally correct?
(b) Pressure = force per unit, volume
(a) Pressure =
Energy per unit area
(d) pressure = Energy per unit volume
(c) Pressure =
momentum per unit area

Ans. (d) pressure Energy per unit volume.

24.The dimension of electro motive force is-
(a) MLT-3A-I (b) AN (c) MLT-2A-1 (d) ML?T-2A2
Ans. (a) ML?T-3A-I
 Applied Physics-I

40 dimensionless constant
(h) iravitational constant
is a
25. Which of the following
constant (d Dielectric Constant
Universal gas
(a)
(c) Plank constant

Dielectric Constant
Ans. (d) dimensionless?
is not
26 Which of the following (b) Relative density
(a) Relative velocity (d) Relative permitivity
index
(c) Relative refractive
Ans. (a) Relative velocity max e r r o r s in measurements of
of T of a pendulum if
27. What is the % error in m e a s u r e m e n t
and 'g' are 2% and 4% respectively? d) 2%.
length (c) 6%
(a) 3% (b) 4%

Ans. (a) 3%
dimension?
28. Which of thepairs have same (b) Work and power
and work
(a) Moment of couple heat
Latent heat and specific
(c) Force and pressure (d)
and work.
Ans. (a) Moment of couple who made
thing about the world is that it is comprehensible"
29. "The most incomprehensible Eienstein.
(b) Newton; (c) Galileo; (d)
the above statement?-(a) Aristotle;
Ans. (d) Eienstein
used the unit of length?-(a) micron ; (b) light year;
30 Which following is
of the not as

(c)angstorm; (d) raidan.

Ans. (d) radian.
metre?-(a) impulse; (b) surface
of the following can be expressed in
newton per
31. Which
tension; (c) acceleration; (d) energy density.
Ans. (b) Surface tension
gradient;
32. Which ofthe following is unitless quantity?-(a) velocity gradient; (b) pressure
(c) displacement gradient ; (d) force gradient.
Ans. (c) displacement gradient
33. Which of the following pairs of physical quantities have the same dimensions?-(a) work
and power; (b) momentum & energy; (c) force & power; (d) work and energy.

Ans. (d) work and energy

34.
34. Surface tension of a liquid is 70 dyne. Its value in S.I. is-(a) 70 N/m; (b) 7x10-2 N/m
; (c) 7«102 N/m ; (d) 7*10* N/m.
Ans. (b) 7x10-2 N/m

Fints of Soln. : a = 70 dyne/cm. =70x10 N 70x10-3Nm =7x104N/m]

10m
Physieal World, Units, Dimension & Measurement (41)
35. SI unit of magnetie flux is-(a) gauss: (b) weber (c) oersted; (d) ampere/metre.
Ans. (b) weber
36. fenerEy (E), velocity (V) and time T are chosen as fundamental quantities the dimension
of surface tension will be represented as-
(a) EV-2T-1 (b) EV-IT-2 c) EV-2Tr2 (d) E2V-IT-3
Ans. (c) EV-2T-2
Soln of Hints a = kEaVbTe

M'LT] =
(ML2T-2) [LT-I1TC =M®L2a+bT-2a-btc
a = 1 ; 2a + b = 0 ; b = - 2 a = -

2a b + c = -2

or, c 2a +b -2 2 -2 2 -2
a Elv-2T-2 [if k = 1]

37. Which of the following is the unit of molar gas constant

(a) Jk- mo (b) J c) Jk-l (d) Jmo-l
Ans. (a) Jk'mol-
38 The dimension of magnetic permeability are-
(a) [M'L'TA] (6) [M'L?T"A*] (c) IM'L'T-A-] (d) [M'L°T-A-]
Ans. (a) [M'L'TA*]

Hints: dB fo luSin 9 4TtraB (M,TA[M'Lr4

47 2 HO idlsin
=

AL
39. Dimension of magnetic induction are
()[M'L'TA-'] (6) [M'LT) () [M'LTA-"] (d) [M°L'T2A-]
Ans. (c) [M'L°T-?A-]

[Hints: F=Bqv, B=+ MLT2 M'LTA

(AT)LT
40. The dimensions of intensity are
(a) L°M'T (b) L'M?T (c) L?M'Tr2 (d) L?M T*
[Intensity = Energy per second per unit area = [L°MT-31
Ans. (a) L'M'T"
41. The unit and dimension of impedence are-

(a) mho, MLT'Q2 (b) ohm, MLT-Q-2

(c) ohm, ML2T-2Q-1 (d) ohm mLTQ-
Ans. (6) ohm, ML'T-IQ
42. The dimensional formula of magnetic flux is
(a) [MLT2A-'] (6) [ML°THA-] (c) ML-?T?A2 (d) [MLTIA']
 42) Applied Physics
Ans. (a) [MIL:T-2A-] =
magnetic flux o = BA
=|

L1
43.
MLTE)[ML'T-2A"]
AL
Which of the following pairs does not have same dimension?
(a) Angular momentum and Planck's constant
(b) Moment of inertia and moment of force
(c) Work & torque
(d) Impulse & momentumn
Ans. Moment of inertia (MLT°) and moment of force
(ML2T-2) do not have the same
dimension.
B. Fill in the blanks
1. Pascal is the unit of .
(Pressure/Force)
2. Stress has the dimension
of (Pressure/Force)
3. Torque has the dimension of.
(Energy/Force)
4. S.I. unit
of sp. heat capacity is (Jkg'k-k.cal kg'k')
5. The unit of thermal conductivity is.
_(Wmk/Jmk')
6. The ratio between the
average value of error to the average value of the measurement
is -(Proportional error% of eror).
C. True/False Type:
1. The process of dimensional analysis gives information
no
regarding the constant of
proportionality. [T
2. The process of dimensional analysis can be used in of
even case trigonometric &
exponential function.
3. The process of dimensional analysis can not be used to derive an expression for a physical
quantity which depends upon factors more than three.
(T
4. Unit of surface tension is [MLT2].
F
5. Max absolute error in slide calliper of 10 v.s.d. coincides with 9 mm main scale div. is
0.01 cm.
[T
SHORT-TYPE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
1. If weight of a body is 5 kgwt or 5 kgf, what will be its mass and weight in
absolute S.L units?
Ans. Mass of the body 5 kg=

Absolute value of weight in S.I. =

5 x 9.8 =
49N
Physienl World, Units, Dimension & Measurement 43
2. What is the definition of standard time in S.I.?
Ans. In S.l. standard time is second. One second is defined as the duration of 9, 192, 631,
770 periods of radiation corresponding to unperturbed transition between two specific hyperfine
levels of the ground state of cesium 133 atom.
3. Give the name of four physical quantities which have no units.
Ans. (i) Strain, (i) specific gravity, (i) Co-efficient of friction and (iv) Poisson's ratio.
4. Give the name of two physical quantities which have same units.
Ans. Work and Energy.
5. Name the physical quantity whose unit is light years. What is its value in S.1.

Ans. Light year is the unit of distance. One light year means-the distance travelled by light
through vacuum in one year.
1 light year = 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3 x 10 m 9.46 x 10'm.

6. Name the physical quantity whose unit is ampere. What do you mean by one
ampere?
Ans. S.I. unit of electric current is ampere.
Definition of ampere: One ampere is the constant electric current, which when
maintained in each of the two straight parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible cross
section, held one metre apart in vacuum, shall produce a force per unit length of 2 * 10° N

m between them.
7. Define standard metre in S.l.
Ans. One metre is defined as the 1650763.73 times the wavelength of orange-red light of
wavelength 6.0578021 x 10-m emitted from kr6 in excited state.

8. Express "watt" in terms of fundamental unit in S.I

Joule Nm kgms=
Ans. Watt
Sec Sec S
kgm?s.
9. Is the magnitude of two units of length AU and Å same?
Ans. No. 1 AU = 1 astronomical unit = 1.496 x 10"m.

1 Å = 1 angstrom unit = 10-10 m.

10. Can a quantity have dimensions, but still have no units?

Ans. No, a quantity having dimensions must possess some units.
11. Can a quantity have units, but still be dimensionless?
Ans. Yes, for example, angle is dimensionless, but it has units e.g.,
12. Name three physical quantities which have same dimension.

Ans. Work, energy and torque have the same dimen sion ML°T"
 4 Applied Physics-
13. Chose the pairs of qeantities w hich have same dimensions. Impulse, foree,
o r k moement of a foree, tension. momentum.
As () Impulse and momentum have the sae dimensons MLT |
)
Foce and tension
have the same dimensans MTT
(m)Wiori and moment of a force have the same dimension [ML T|
14. 1 Cal 42J when 1J = 1 kgm's*. Suppose we employ a system of units in
whic anit of mass equals *a' kg, unit of length cquas 'b' m and the unit of
time is e's Them determine the magnitude of caloric in terms of new units.
A As new units of mass = 'a' kg.

new unit of mass = a new units of mass.

Similary Im = b new unit of length

Is =c new unit of time.

. .
I cal= 4.2J 4.2 kg m's
=
4.2 (a new unit of mass) x (b new unit of length)? (c
x new unit of time)
=
4.2 a'bc new unit of energy

SUBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. Give the names of the basis physical quantities and their S.I. unit.
2. What do you mean by "dimensions of a physical quantity" and the "Principle of
dimensional homogeneity"? Explain with examples.
3. What do you mean by proportional and percentage of errors in measurement? Explain
with examples.
4. The density of the material of a solid cylinder is measured by measuring its mass 15 gm
by common balance of minimum wt in wt box is 5 mg. The diameter of the rod is 6.5 mm
measured by a screw gauge of least count .01 mm. The length of the rod is 7.5 cm
measured by a slide calliper whose vernier constant is .002 mm. Calculate the max % of
error in the measurement of density of the material.
S. What is the importance of dimensional analysis? What is its limitation?

6. Frequency (n) of transverse vibration of stretched string depends upon its length 1, Tension
T and mass per unit length m. Obtain an expression for the frequency (n) from
dimensional analysis.
7. A gas bubble, from an explosion under water oscillates with a time priod T, such that T
a Pa d E, where p is the
pressure, d is the density of water and E is the total energy
of the explosion. Find the value of a, b and c with the help of dimensional
analysis.
8. The period of oscilltion of a simple pendulum is T=21 is about 100 cm and is
Physienl World, Units, Dinnension d Mensurement (45
known to mm accuracy. The period of oscillation is 2.00 sec. The time of 20 oscillations
measured with a wrist watch of 0. Is resolution. Find the maximum possible percentage
error in the determination of g.
9. To find area (A) of a circle f radius r- 5 cm., the readings obtained for measurement of
radius are(0)49 cm. (ii) 4.95 cm. (ii) 5.1l cm. and (iv) 5.05 cm. Find (i) maximum
percentage error and (ii) the proportional error in the measurement of area.
W.B. Ploy 2007]
Hints: Area of Circle, A = ar?

Taking log on both sides

logA logn +2logr
Taking derivative,

Absolute error in
radius, Ar =|4.9-5=|5.1-5=0.1
and Ar=4.95-5=|5.05-5=0.05
Max. absolute error, Ar=0.1

Max. proportional error in Area AAr-2=0.04

=-

Max. % error in Area = 0.04 x 100% = 4%.

2GM where M is
10. The escape velocity from the surface of the earth is given by, V=
,
the mass, R is the radius of the earth. Check the correctness of the formula.
[Ans. Correct
11. Check by the method of dimension, the height of liquid in capilary tube,
26 cos6
h
dg
where a is the surface tension, d be the density of liquid, r is radius and 0 be the angle

of contact. [Ans. Wrong]

of flow of volume of liquid (v) through pipe
a of radius (r) under pressure gradient
12. The rate
(p/) is given by
V=TPr
8n
of Check whether the formula in correct
where, n be the co-efficient of viscosity liquid.
or not?
[Ans. Correct)
upon time t, according to the equation,
13. The velocity v of a particle depends
V=a+bt +
d+t

Write the dimension of a, b, c, d, Ans. a=LT} b=[Lr3]«=[LJd-["]

 46 Applied Physics-1
2
14. Write the dimension of a/b in the relation P=
bx

where, P is pressure, x is distance and t is time. [Ans. MT

Hints Dim of a = T2

Dim of
T2 T2
b=| T- MTZ
ML-TL MT-2
Dim of-MT]
15. Calculate the dimension of surface tension (o) in terms of velocity (v), density (p) and
frequency (u) as fundamental units. [Ans. a kv-pv-']
(Hints: =kv"p°u°; k - dimension constant taking dimension of both sides, find
a-3, b= 1, cm-1]
16. If the units of force, energy and velocity are 10N, 100J and
Sms-; find the units of mass,
length and time. [Ans. 4 kg, 10 m, 2 sec.]
(Hints:MLr|=10N
MLT-10
LT-Sms
Now find M, L, T from 3 sets of equations.]
17. The value of Stefan constant in S.I. is 5.672 x 10- units. Find its value in C.GS unit.
[Ans. 5.672 x 10-5 erg S-lcm-2 oC4]
18. Can there be physical quantity which has no units and no dimensions?
[Ans. Strain, specific gravity, Poisson's ratio, etc.]
19 Can a quantity has dimensions, but still have no units? [Ans. Nal
20. Can a quantity have units, but still be dimension less? [Ans. Angle]
21. Name three physical quantities which have same dimensions.

[Ans. Work, energy and torque. MLT4)

22. Choose the pairs of quantities
which have same dimensions: Impulse, force, work,
momentum, pressure, Young's modules, moment of force, tension, specific gravity, strain.
Ans. (1) Impulse and momentum: MLT

(i) Pressure and Young's.modulus: ML-T?

(ii) work and moment

of force:MLT?
Physieal World, Units, Dimension & Measurement 47
(iv) force and tension MLT :

(v)Specific gravity and strain: MT

23. Refractive index of glass slab by pin method is observed to be 1.45, 1.55, 1.49. Calculate
(i) mean value of refractive index. (ii) mean absolute error.
(ii) proportional error. (iv) percentage error.
() express the result is tems of absolute error and % error.
1.46+1.55+149 50
Soln. :(i) Mean value =

3
(ii)Absolute errors are
AX 1.50-1.46 0.04
Ax2=1.50-1.55= -0.05
Axg 1.50-149 = 0.01

Mean absolute eror =+A+A+Ax t0.033

3
0.033
(1ii) Proportional error = 150 t0.022
iv) Percentage error = +0.022 x 100%=+2.2%

(v)Refractive index, u =1.50 0.033

and, = 1.50 + 2.2%.

24. Which of the following length, méasurement is most accurate and why?
(i) 5.00 cm (i) 0.005 mm (i) 50.00 cm.
Ax 0.01 0,002
Soln. (i) X 5.00
(Ax =0.01 is taken since error will be in 2nd decimal place)

# Ax_O.001_ 0.2
(ii)x 0.005
Ax 0.01 = 0.0002
ii) X 50.00
observation has the least proportional error, SO it is most
The last
accurate.
25. Calculate the percentage error in specific resistance p =
tr*R/, where
= radius of wire.= (0.25 t 0.02) cm.

R resistance of wire (50 + 2) 2

Ans. t 20.1%]
l= length of wire =
(80 t 0.1) cm.

Max. possible error,

 48 Applied Physics
dR ' T t { 2 , 2 , 0 1 )
Hints =2 dr
P
t 0.20125 t 20.1%]

26. Velocity of sound in a gas is given by V=. where V= velocity and 7 P

VD Cy
Pressure and D density. Show that the formula obeys the principle of dimensional
homogeneity. [W. B. Poly 2007; 20091
Soln.: Hints Dim. of L.H.S =M°LT-1

M°LOT° ML-IT-2
DIM. of R.H.S =
ML-3

= yLT-2= LT-l = LT-1 = M°LT-I

Since dimensions of both sides are equal, so it obeys the principle of dimensional
homogeneity.
27. The velocity (V) of a particle varies with time () as, v = at? + b/(t + c). Find the

dimension of a, b and c.
Soln. : According to the principle of dimensional homogencity, dimension of t and c will be
same. Since different dimensional quantity can't be added.

C]= [T]
Again [at] = [v] = LT-

la [Lr]
Now for [b/t+e)]=[v]=LT
[b] =(LT-') T= [L]

1. g1 TE7 O 5.kgwt 5 kgf a S.I aoco Telb 0? 9R 6 5 A

P0?
Ans. U =
5 kg
GA N N = 5 x 9:8 49N.

2. S.I. ocs 21 ACNA ST ?

9, 192, 631, 770 *RT PATA KÍTP PE OTT 1 GAPe I AA |

Physienl World. Units, Dimension & Mensurement49 (49
Ans. 8 , fo|

Ans. T ITV ER 43|

STT3 = 36525 x 24 x 60x 60 x 3 x 10m 9-46 x 10Sm

Ans. yeeRITRI S.I. T |

P R I (1A) F

Ans. 86 RRUTK TFA (kr36) SUM R PMI TA () = 6-0578021 x 10m)

8. S

Ans. R A, FD =

Ans. 1, 1 AU = 1 Astronomical unit 1.496 x 10'm

1 1 angstrom unit = 10-m.

Ans. P, 1 4R D¢| MTA ATEJTO HT [MLT2]

a1fef z-NIO7 (impulse), (force), N (work),

7 TFA H (moment of a

force), B (Tension) R ET (momentum)

Applied Physics--4
50
(50 k sar AppliedPhysics
Ans. (i) qTE Z 4 NMN 3 [MLT"|
UHRT
(ii) a7 g DIA 9NTT {MLT2]

14.T , 1 Cal = 4-2J, Ta 1J = 1 kg mis-1 g7 g 9TTT 9 °os 7 T

Ans. ARY S 9 9='a' kg

1 kg -=a os A |

TT, Im =b UA T 9
ls = c ACR 4

4 , 1 Cal = 42J = 4-2 kg m?s= 42 (a-l AYA 4 )

x
(b CHC AYA 4 } (c'
x
A 4)
=
4-2 ab Y 4|
 UNIT

FORCE AND MOTIOON

ww

aLAWS OF MOTION:
Introduction:
In previous chapters of rectilinear motion we have learnt about the concepts or
displacement, velocity, acceleration etc. and established relations between these quantitiesS.
We didn't learn how these motions were produced. In the present unit we shall look into
the cause of motion. A body may or may not start moving when some external force IS
applied on the body. So, in this unit we shall study the effects produced by the applied
force.
FORCE:
Force is an external effort in the form of push or pull, which (i) produces or tries to
produce motion in a body at rest or (ii) stops or tries to stop a moving body or (11)
changes or tries to change the direction of motion of the body. To know about force we
shall have some idea of the following terms of physical quantities and laws

Linear Momentum

It is defined as the total quantity of motion contained in a body and is measured as the
product of the mass of the body and its velocity.

p = mv where m be the mass v be the velocity.

S.I. unit: kg ms
Dimension [MLT-]
Nature Vector
IMPULSE
It is the product of force and the interval of time for which the force acts on the body is
called impulse.
Impulse Force x time of action
=

I =F.t
S.I. Unit: Newton . Second
Dimension: [MLT]
Nature: Vector
RELATION BETWEEN IMPULSE AND LINEAR MOMENTUM
We know, Impulse = Force x time interval

= F.t= ma . t =m xt =m(v
=
-

u) =
change in linear momentum

51
 Applied Physics-
52
IMPULSIVE FORCE for very small interval of
time is cale d
A large amount of force acting on a body
impulsive force bat.
Example (i) Striking cricket ball by
(i) Kicking of football.
(ii) Hammering on a nail.

Principle of conservation of linear momentum :

It states that if no external force acts on a system, the linear momentum of the system

remains constant.
t m, and m, be the masses of two particles and before impact u, and u, be their velocities
and after impact if v, and v, be their respective velocities, then we have

m,u +m,u, = m,V +m,V,

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION:

1st law or law of inertia: tt states that every body continues in is state of rest or
of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled by some external fore
to change that state.
2nd law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the force applied on it and the change in momentum is along the direction in which
the force acís.
3rd law: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
INERTIA: Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of which it is unable to change
its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line without the help of an
external force. More massive bodies have greater inertia. Hence mass is defined as a
quantitative measure of inertia.
Inertia may be of two kinds, viz. (1) Inertia of rest and (2) Inertia of motion.
Inertia of rest: It is the property of a body by virtue of which it is unable to
change its state of rest without the help of an external force.

IEXAMPLES OFINERTIA OF REST

1. A passenger sitting in a bus gets a backward jerk if the bus starts moving
suddenly-Why?
REASON: The reason is- the lower part of his body acquires motion with the bus
while his upper part is still at rest. This causes a backward push to his upper part.
2. If we hit a carpet with a stick the dust is removed-Why ?
REASON: It is due to the fact that the carpet comes into motion; but of
inertia of rest, the dust particles remain at rest. Due to this dust particles get removed
from the carpet.
 Foree And Motion 53
When we shnke the branch of a mango trce, the mangoes fall d o w n . - n y

RRASON Due to
shaking the branches come into motion but auc:

nangors contue to remain at rest

and get detached.
A bullet nred on a glass window makes a clean hole through it while a stone
breaks whole of it.-Why ?
REASON This is because of the fact that the bullet has a speed much greater than
that of the stone, so its time of contact with glass is small. As motion is communicated
only to a small portion of glass during small time slot, the neat hole is formed As
time of contact with stone with glass is very large, during this time motion could be

communicated to whole of the glass window causing a damage of the whole glas
window.

Inertia of motion: lt is the property of the body by virtue of which it is not able to
change its speed without the help of an external force.

EXAMPLES OF INERTIA OF MOTION:

A man jumping from a running bus falls with his head towards the motion of the
engine.-Why ?
REASON: This is due to the fact that the lower part of his body comes to rest along
with the ground while the upeer part is still in motion. Due to the property of inertia
of motion, he falls forward.

2 A person sitting in a bus gets a forward jerk as it suddenly stops.-Why ?

REASON : Same as question no. 1.
3. If a person on a uniformly moving vehicle throws a ball vertically upwards, it
again comes back to his hand after a short interval of time-Why ?
REASON: Though the person has meanwhile advanced through certain distance, the
ball also retains the same forward speed due to inertia of motion and thus the bal
ultimately comes down to his hand. But this will not happen, if the vehicle accelerates
the ball drops behind him and it drops front of him if the vehicle is retarded.
Definition of force from Newton's 1st law of motion: Force is that physical
quantity which when applied on a body externally it changes or tends to change the
state of rest or of uniform motion of a body along a straight line.
Measurement of force from 2nd law: From 2nd law of motion it is stated that the
rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the impressed
force and takes place in the direction of the force.

force, F a (Rate of change of momentum)

m)

dv Since m = constant
a m
dt
 Appllod Pl1yslew- eeeervse

F-ma which pmnduces a nit acoloraton e

chosen to be the tone
Ita unit of one is

a s s , then k
1 »

x nrevlerationn
forre mass

2nd law:
uNewtn's first law ffom
Pom 2nd law of motion, we have F -km wlhen F-0 or,má - 0

-0 m0
d =0 = constant
or,
dt
If this constant is zero, thon we can say tha
So, in absence of force, v
= constant.
On the other hand
in absence of force a body's state of rest remains unchanged.
non-zero value, then without any
force a body's state of
the constant has any
uniform motion in a straight line does not change. Therefore we can conclude tha
this is nothing but the first law of motion.

O 3rd law from 2nd law:

colliding bodies A and B and only the action and
If no extermal force is applied on two

and be the momentum of two

reaction FAB and FBA present in the system. If P, P2
bodies, then we can write from 2nd law,

Fu+ dt dt dt +P:)=0
Since external force is zero. So total momentum will be conserved. So derivative of
constant momentum will be zero.

FapFAB+FBA =0 FAB-FBA
UNITS OF FORCE

Absolute units Gravitational units

C.G.S S.I. C.G.S S.I

dyne Newton Gram Weight (g wt) Kilogram Weight (Kg wt)
(gm cm s ) (kg m s-) or gram force (gf) or kilogram force (kg )
Force And Motion (s5
acceleration
Definition of dyne: One dyne is that amount of force which produces an

cf m in a mass I g.
1 dyne =
1gxl cms2 =
1g cm s2
an
Newton: One Newton (1 kg m s-2) force is that amount of force which produces
acceleration of I ms2 in a mass of 1 kg.
1 Newton = 1 kg x I ms-2 = 1000 g x 100 cm s2 = 10 dyne.
1 Newton =
10 dyne
Kibgram weight or force : One kilogram weight or kilogram force is that
Kibgram
force which produces an acceleration of 9.8 ms-2 in a mass of 1 kg.

1 kgwt or kgf = 9.8 N

Mass is a measure of inertia-Explain:

We know, ineria of a body is the inability of a body to change by itself its state of rest or
state of uniform motion along a straight line.
To change of state of a body a force is required. It is seen that heavy body requires large force
but light body requires small force to change of its state.
Let, same force F is applied to a light body of mass m, produces acceleration a, and heavy
body of mass m, produces acceleration of a

F m,a, =m,a,
a, m
aa
m
As m is greater, acceleration is less. That means whose mass is greater, produce less
acceleration means its tendency to keep the body in initial condition. That means inertia
is greater. So, as mass increases, the inertia also increases. So we can say mass is a
measure of inertia. Since as mass increases inertia increases.
O Applications of aws of conservation of linear momentum

(a) Recoil of gun :

When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun recoils ie.,
moves a
direction opposite to the direction of the bullet. The recoil velocity of the gun can be
in
calculated from the principle of the conservation of linear momentum.
Let m = mass of the bullet
M mass of the gun
V= velocity of the bullet
V = velocity of the gun
Before firing the gun and the bullet both are at rest. Therefore, total moment before firing
= 0. Therefore, the vector sum of momentum on firing = MV + mv. According to
the principle of conservation of linear momentum, total linear momentum after firing
should also be zero.
 56 Applied Physics-
MV mv=0

mv

M
The negative sign shows that direction of recoil velocity (v) is opposite to the
direction of velocity of bullet

Explosion of bomb: When a homb falls vertically down wards its horizontai
component of velocity is zero and hence its horizontal momentum is zero. When
bomb explodes, its splinters are scattered horizontally in different directions so thar
the vector sum of momenta of these pieces becomes zero in accordance with the
law of conservation of linear momentum.

Apparent welght of a man in moving i t :

Suppose a person of mass m is standing on the floor of the lift. The weight the person feels
due to reaction (R) cxerted by the surface of contact with the floor. We shall now discuss the
variation of R related to mg in the following different situations
When the lift is accelerating upwards : Let, upward acceleration of
lift = a. Two forces are acting on the person. One upward normal reaction
R and downward weight mg.
1
a

So the equation of motion of the person i s

R mg = ma Tacceleration is in the direction of R]

R m(g+a) vmg
As R is greater than weight of the body mg, so the apparent weight of the person will be
increased.
(1) When the lit is accelerating downwards: In the case mg > R for
downward acceleration. Therefore the equation of motion is, mg -
R ma

R =m(8-)
So the apparent weight will be decreased.

(i) When the lift is at rest: mg

Since a = 0
R - mg = 0

R mg
1.e., apparent weight is equal to actual weight.

(iv) When the lit is moving with uniform velocity upwards/downwards

In both the cases, a = 0
R mg = 0
R = mg
Force And Motlon 57
No change in
i.c, 1 this CHse nlso apparent weight is equal to actual weight.
apparent welght.
(v) When the ip s falling freely (a =g)
In this case downward acceleration, a = g
.R m(g g) = 0
Therefore, for a frecly body apparent weight of a body is zero i.e., body Decomes

welghtless.
(vi) When downward acceleration ofthe1i Is greater than acceleration
d u e to gravity (a > g).
In this case, R = m(g - a)

If a> g. R becomes negative i.e., apparent weight of the person becomes R

negative. In that event, the person will rise from the floor of the lift and
stick to the ceiling of the lift. mg
u EXAMPLES OF MOTIiON OF CONNECTED BODY:
Motion of two bodles În contact & contact force:

Two masses m, and m, are placed in contact on a horizontal smooth table. When a force is F
applied parallel to the table acceleration of both the masses are 'a' and action-reaction
pair i.e., contact force R is produced between the two masses.
Now considering free body diagram, for m, mass the equation of motion is : F - R = m,a.

Similarly for m, mass the equation of motion is R = m,a

Now, adding the equations, we get,
F = (m, + m,)a
F
. la= &
F
R=m.a =- mF
RR
m1 m2
m,+m m,+m, ()
2. Motton of two bodies connected by Inextensible weightless string:
Let, two masses m, and m, are connected by inextensible light string and then kept on a
smooth horizontal table. If a horizontal force F is applied on m, it produces acceleration a of
the system and T be the tension in the string.
Then equation of motion
for m mass T = m,a
for m, mass: F - T = m,a
m2
Now adding, F = (m, + m,ja

a mF
m,+m2 Tma m,+m
.Vertical motion of two connected bodies
WO masses m, and m, connected by string are subjected by a vertical force produces upward
 Applied Physics
58
string, then the following forces act on body
acceleration 'a'. If T be the tension of
are
F
(i) F applied force upwards
) m,g weight downwards
(ii) tension T downward.
Net force on m,: F - m,g -T = m,a
mg
Similarly for m,: T m,g = m,a XT
Adding two equations, F - m,g m,g
=
(m, + m2)a

(ii) vmg,
F-(m +m,)(8+a)&T m,(8+a)
4. Motion of two connected by an inextensible string passes overafrictionless pulley
Consider two bodies of masses m, and m, (m, > m,) tied at the ends of an inextensible
string which passes over a light and frictionless pulley. The heavier body m, will move
downwards with acceleration a and the light body m, moves upward with same
acceleration. Therefore, equation of motion of two bodies as follows
For m, body, T - m,g = m,a . . (1)
For m, body, m^g -T= m,a ..(2) R
Adding, we get, (m, - m,)g = (m, + m,ja

m,-m, g
T
m+m, T

Putting the value a in equation (1)

m,

m,-m)8 mg me
T= m,g +
m,a=m,8*" mg2
m,+m,

T 2mm,g where T be the tension in the string.

m, *m2
4m m,s
Reaction force on the rigid support, R=2T=
m,+m,
5. Motion of two connected bodies one is kept on horizontal table and another
is hanging at other end
Let m, mass is kept on horizontal table and m, mass is hanging at the other end by
a string passes over a pulley. If T be the tension in the string and a be the
acceleration of the system of two bodies, then the equation of motions of m, &mg
are,
Force And Motion 59
for m, T = m,a R
for m,: m,g- T = m,a
Adding. m,g = (m, +m,)a T
m
nm,
2
T
m, +m,

m,m,g mg
T
(i)
m,+m , mg

OMotion of rocket
fuel is burnt out
Let M be the mass of the rocket including mass of fuel. In time dt, dM mass of
and ejectod through the nozzle with a velocity u with respect to motion of rocket
d
rate of change of momentum of burnt fuel =u
dt
If F be the reactional force on the rocket, then

F--uX dM
dt
w.r.t. rocket.
where u the velocity of ejected gas
dM Rate of mass of fuel burnt out.
dt
the direction of rocket is opposite to the direction of velocity of
-ve sign indicates
ejected gas.

BENGAL VERSION
y a (Laws of motion)

O a G4T41 (Linear Momentum):

F15 T TI OR SAT (quantity of motion) T afaT oIta
A FAA

CaiR (p) T E (m) xalR =

R (V) =m
S . I . 4 : kgms-l ATT: MLT-
 Applied Physics-
60,
3
O CT TG (Impulse of a force)

F.t
C U (Impulse) UA P P
= q7x =

S.I. AOD-PRG 1 kgms-l

TT18 [MLT']

= F.t = ma . t a =1 ]

0
( xt =
m(v -

u) =
CafA

Caf T T I R®1 MT (The Principle of conservation of linear momentum):

F4 A P p IR, ATTAA FON T A, F, =-

F2

or,
dp1dp2 or,P+Pa)=0
dt dt dt

OHtt stU (Inertia of matter)

TCRa T *a e r , (i) eTE(Inertia of rest)

(ii) o T (Inertia of motion)
Force And Motion
61
o t T (Inertia of rest) : Mr9a a Tafa ae fga 54a17 fa arT 2

(EXAMPLE):

sd (Inertia of motion) MCa *AN A s 7 TTERT

R (EXAMPLE):
62 Applied Physics

RrE F a (RAT fareaa Ta)

Fa mv
dt

dv
m

a m a

F km

I PR 3T 4 7 TA| TE k =1

ma

TaF= 0, ma =0
dv
a
=0'm 0] or,=0
dt
V=

BA

dp dp
AB BA dt

FABFA=0

FABFBA
 Force And Motion
63

. .
dyne Newton Gram Weight (g wt) Kilogram Weight (Kg wt)
(gm cm s ) (kg m s) or gram or kilogram
force (g) force (kg f

1 dyne =
1gx1 s2
cm = l gcm s-2

1 Newton = 1 kg x 1 ms-2 =
1000 g x 100cm s2 = 105 dyne.
1 kgf 1 kgf 37 7U AINI 4 1kg A RG Ra T #T 9.8 m/s

l kgf = 9.8 N

t t u J AI-AUTTA fN 4 (TT TNI (Mass is a measure of inertia-

explain)

F= ma m,42

a m
. aa, 7 7, F =R
m
 64
Applied Physlcs
luws of cuuses of lne
a UTI1N * * 1 03 ANIS (Appllcatlon of
momentum)
A (9 yfei (8iy11 i 14n1 MI Sa
(a)3 1*g (Recoil of gun) : *y

(Recoil velocity) |
F AT aUPE A

AI v 4R M UAA PYA A = VI JL* 1A 1*

PAT N A, m UTA

0 = mv+ MV

mv

(b) aNT ATFtIi (Explosion of bomb) : aTAT T 7 ATE AS bs FArPta1 7

O 5TA frto afdkt (Reaction in a moving lift) :

(ii) C T a o I R

R mg = ma [ ATRY TRI , URR> mg ]

R = m(g + a) mg
Force And Motion 65

(b)
mg R = ma

R m(g-a)

L vmg
STTA, V a = 01 ToR eUI 7, R = mg

osTR- R =
m(g -

g) =0

mg

R+ mg = ma

R m(a-8)

(Super weightlessness) 1

O a 7KTG s1 (Motion ofconnected bodies)

F
F

43 m,
-R = m,a...0

TA1
RR
m1 m2
R a ** ... (i)
Applied Physic--5
 Applied Physics
S
(66
F
F = (m, + m,)a m,+m2

gRR =m,a
F
m,+m
3 PA, TA,
F
R F
m, + m,

R'> R I
9T, IRY m, > m2, TR

(i)
3, m, A TAPI 3 T =m,a ..
.. (ii)
m, TAF 3 F - T =m^a .

F-(m, +ma a
m
a
m2
F
a
m+m,
T F
F
m,+m,

TI
F - m,g- T = m,a 1)
F

T - m,g= m,a * ********(1i)

m,
F- m,g m,g = (m, +
m,)a mg
F= (m, +
m,)g T
+
(m, +
m,)a
F (m, + m,)(a + g)
a
F Cii) mg
-g
m, +m,
Force And Motion
67
T m8 +m,a

T m,8+m F-
m +m,
T m F
m,+,
) Da (T) 4 (a)
TCOA
a m, R SRI AitA m, a A At a 4R m
m,
yre DA T , T
T -m,g =m,a ( 1 ) R
7 O TAIFA Im^g -T =m,a (2)
(1) 4R (2) P 1R, m2g- m,g =(m, +m,ja a

2m m,s T
m+m, DR, m +m2| m,

mg L ma
4m m,g
,R=2T=- 1 2
R mg
m,+m,

R
T m,a . )
m
m,g T = m,a . . (1)

mg
m,g
la=- 4R0
9R DR, T =m,+m
"8
Lmg
m, +m, m,+m,|
 68 Applied Physics
O UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
When a particle moves in a circular path with a constant speed, then its motion is said
to be a Uniform Circular Motion in a plane. This motion has an acceleration whose
magnitude remains constant, but whose direction changes continuously.

Angular displacement
The angular displacement of a particle undergoing circular motion,
during a certain interval of time, is defined as the angle swept
AS
out by the radius during that interval of time

arc
404 S
angle =E
radius
The unit of angle or angular displacement is radian. If the length of the arc of a
circle is equal to the radius of the circle, then the angle subtended by the arc at the
centre of the circle is 1 radian.
Angular velocity: The rate of angular displacement undergone by a particle performing
uniform circular motion is called its angular velocity. It is denoted by o. If At is
is A6, then,
infinitesimally small and angular displacement of particle

= lim A8d6
At 0 at dt
if time for one revolution be T, then average angular velocity of the particle is

If the particle makes n revolution in 1 second, then

o 2tn n frequency
Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity
The partile covers an arc of length AS in time Al. Hence the angular displacement is

40-4S

A1 AS
rAt

If time interval be infinitesimally small At > 0

Lim A0I| Lim As

then
At0 at rAt AtJ
Lim
But At0 At=0 (instantaneous angular velocity)
Force And Motion, 69
AS
V,
an A 0A (instantaneous linear velocity).

Invector form, - o
where is the linear velocity.
angular velocity
iradus vector
S.I. unit of o = rad S-

Dimension M°L°T
Another form of unit of o
r.p.m. revolution per minute
&r.p.m. revolution per sec.
Conversion of r.p.m. to rad/sec
Example : Let o = 80 r.p.m.

80x2
or,
60
rad/sec.
Since in one, revolution angular displacement is 27. 80 revolution means angular
displacement is 80 x 27 rad.
Application of relation between o & T:

() Angular velocity of second hand of watch: a 21T

rad S
60
2T
ii) Angular velocity of minute hand of watch: 0=- rad S
60x 60
2T
ii) Angular velocity of the earth about its own axis @=- rad S
24x60x60
Relation between angular velocity (o) & linear velocity (v) :
Since linear displacement, S = r0

de
dt

Centripetal acceleration:
A particle moving in a circular path with uniform speed, possesses an accleration which is

always directed towards normal to the path of the particle i.e., towards the centre of the
Circle in which the paticle moves. This acceleration is termed the centripetal acceleration.
70 Applied Physics--I
At any instant let the particle be at some
point P
of the circular path. Its velocity is along the
tangent to
the path P and is
at
represented by the vector v.
After asmall interval At, the particle has moved to Q Av p
and its velocity vector is
v,. Since the particle is
40
moving with uniform speed v, the magnitude (i.e.,
lengths) of both v, and v, are the same being equal V
to v. But the direction of
v, and v, are slightly
different. The consequent change in the velocity
Av is found by the triangle method of
finding the difference of two vectors. The vectors
representing the velocities v, and v, are drawn from a common point o' and the triangle is
completed. From the triangle o'pq, v, +Av v, =

Hence Av V2 ¥, = -

The isosceles triangles OPQ and opq are therefore similar. Hence
considering
the
magnitudes,
P chord PQ or,
o'p PQ
The average acceleration is therefore given by,

At rAt
If At is infinitesimally small (At > 0), then

Lim
At>0
Av y Lim s
At TAt0 At

Lim
But At
0At
.

a =@'r Centripetal acceleration.

Centripetal force
Centripetal force is the force required to move a uniformly in a circle. This force acts
along the radius and towards the centre of the circle.
Since the centripetal force acts at right angles to the direction of motion, so there is
no displacement in the direction of the centripetal force; the centripetal force therefore
does not perform any work. Centripetal force is thus a no-work-force. It is a real force.
Force And Motion
The name e centripetal indicates the direction (towards the centre) of this force. Inthe
cen

nce of
absence of this
this force the circular motion is not possible. If m is the mass of the bouy

the magnitude of the centripetal force is

hen
F mass x acceleration

mv

F mo'r
Centrifugal force:
the centre of
Centrifugal force is defined as the force acting on a body away from
force is same
circular path is called the centrifugal force. The magnitude of centrifugal
as that of centripetal force.

G B,

T
aroe ea***
eapubsssep
8 string Path of the tied

undertension ball as seen by

B3
s en naeso neono uanopnorpaeu. O)
A
the person at G

Merry-go-round

at the centre of a
To understand this force let us suppose that a person is standing
outwards. The ball is stationary as
merry-go-round with a ball in his hand stretched
infront him, it is seen that
observed by him. Now the ball is placed on the platform just
the person will describe this
the ball immediately moves away and falls down. Naturally
must be acting on the ball
motion by saying that a force. Called the centrifugal force,
ball to move away.
away from the centre, which makes the
a person standing on the ground
Now consider the motion of ball as observed by
the ball in his hand. The ball is seen to
outside the merry-go-round. He sees he holding
is in his hand. The reason is that when he holds
De moving in circular path so long itforce
the ball he provides the centripetal required for circular motion. As soon as he
withdrawn and the person standing
the platform, the centripetal force is being
on line i.e., tangential to its circular path in his
uSide sees the ball moving along a straight the centrifugal force really does not
ana. So for the person standing on the itground,is considered to describe or to
understand a
force does not exist, but
This really virtual force. The centrifugal force is a
Eain motion, is called the fictitious force or
 Applied Physics
72 understand it as the force of reaction of centripetal fo
fictitious force. We should not
that of the centripetal force.
although its magnitude is same as

Force in Daily Life

Examples of Producing Centripetal
of the surface, the remaini
of Roads Horizontal component of the reaction nity
(a) Banking
For proper angle of banking,.
being still supplied by friction.
a
R cosG
of the reaction provides the necessary
this horizontal component
is then no longer necessary.
centripetal force ; frictional force
reaction R of the road
The forces acting in that case is the
and the weight W of the car directed
acting normal to the surface
of inclination of the road
vertically downwards. If 8 is the angle
bed with the horizontal, called the angle of banking, then the
horizontal component of R i.e., Rsin6 supplies the necessary
w
Rcos8 balances ******

centripetal force, while its vertical component Fig. Banking of roads

track at that
the weight. If r be the radius of curvature of the
point and m be the mass of the car having a speed v,

mv*
R sin 9 - m

Rcos = W = mg

Dividing. tan-
rg
A car moving road or a train
on moving on rails, requires a centripetal force while
taking a turn. As these vehicles are heavy the necessary centripetal force may not be
provided by friction and moveover the wheels are likely to suffer considerable wear and
tear. In this case the centripetal force is produced by slopping
down the road inwards at
than the outer
the turn. Similarly for railway tracks, the inner rail is laid slightly l6wer
turn and the
rail at turms. By doing so, the car or the train leans inwards while taking
necessary centripetal force is provided. This
force is produced by the normal reaction of
exerted
the earth or the rail. When the car leans, the total normal reaction R of the road
on the wheels makes an angle 6 with the vertical. The
vertical components Rcost
the
balances the weight mg of the car, while the horizontal component Rsin provides

necessary centripetal force Thus,

Rcos mg (1)
mv*
Rsin0 ..(2)
From (1) & (2), we get,

tan 4 V
Force And Motion
73
of the
From this formula, we can calculate 6 If h is the height AB of outer edge
road above the inner edge and b = OA is the breadth f the road, then from

OB= vOA- AB =vb? - h

AB h
tan 9=
OB b -h

h
or, tane 040
rg b2-h B
From this equation, we can calculate h, usually h < < b, therefore h is negligibly
cmall compared to b, then the above equation simplified to

tan h
rg

(b) Bending of a cyclist

A Bicycle Rider leans inwards while taking a turn on the road:
The case of a cyclist rounding a curve may also be similarly treated while taking the
turn the cyclist always leans inward instinctly the cyclist
thus presses the ground obliquely and the reaction of
Rcos
the ground, is therefore inclined to the horizontal. The
horizontal component of the reaction of the surface
remaining being still supplied by friction. For a proper --Rsin6
angle of banking this horizontal component of the
reaction provides the necessary centripetal force ; the
frictional force is then no longer necessary.
The force acting in that case is the reaction of the
road acting normal to the surface and the weight w of
the car directed vertically
downwards. s
a
of inclination of the road bed with the horizontal, called
Fig. Cyclist rounding acurve
the angle of banking, then the horizontal component of R i.e., Rsine supplies the
necessary centripetal force. While its vertical component Rcos6 balances the weight. If r
be the radius of curvature of the track at that point and m be the mass of the car having
speed v.
my
Rsin=

R cos6 = W = mg

Dividing, tan -
rg
 ( Applied Physics
Meton in a vertteal clrele
W'hen a hty tied to the string is revolved in a vertical circle, the speed of the body i
hfevent al ditforent points of the cireular
ih Therefare the centripetal force on
the Naty and the tension in the string
continuously
Let a boty of mass m tied at one
d
of a weightless string of length is
D
heing revolved in a vertical cirele In V
antioekwise direction suppose at any
stant the body is at the pointC of the conO
cine whose angular displacemont from
the lowest point B is 8. Let the velocity
a the point C be V. Let T be the tension mg cos
in the string at the point C. Two forces
B
at upon the body in the position C, (i) mg sin
weight of the body mg. vertically
downwards (ii) Tension T in the string
towards the centre of the circular path. mg
Now resolving components of the two forces we have, tangential component mgsine
and radial component mgcos6.
Therefore net radial force on the body towards the centre of the circular path is
T mg cose.
my
T-mg cos6=

T + mg cose
As the tension in the string depends on 6, the velocity at the highest point
2

TA + mg cos 180°
2
or, T -mg

T be minimum C

V, = 0 when tension in the string is zero.

T 0
0-mm

:: VA = vel
Force And Motion

T (Dynamics of Uniform Circular Motion)

radius vector

Radius vector 1 PN Z a (angular displacement)

7 s 1 , r = | Ta6 = I rad. = 57°1745"

M (Angular Velocity): aTTE U T radius vector 7 3 YE P

de
dt
S.L rad. sec
Dimension (HF41) : M°LT

e A () T (Relation between Amgular and Linear Velocity):

Calculus-47 1RT
TA , s = re ds de

: AR 1 1 a76a 7A AA T sec.

. T Sec-4 T 21r N
2Tr
TT

VxT
 76
Applied Physics
aTIM N (T) * (Relation between Angular Velocity
and
Time Period)

TT3, 1 TR YAT 2n rad qi3

2n rad 7 R T AA
I sec- AT 1

C(n) * (Relation between Angular Velocity and

O A AM
Frequency)

2tn rad
. n
2 t n

INTTOE rad/sec 9
(Unit of Angular Velocity) T
8
T ATa 4

8
T-T (Another form of its unit)
> revolutions per minute
r.p.m.
r.p.s.> revolutions per second
1 min.-9 60 7 T 7 AI
AN-60 r.p.m. q1CG AIV > TT

r.p.m. CRT rad/sec-4 3iga

T
8 0 r.p.m.
1 min-9 80 T
80
2Tx80
60
rad/sec." . sec-
60

80 2T x 80
99
rad
60 60
2T x 80
sec- rad qB
60
Force And Motlon
(1
at T AN aIM (Appleatlon of the relatlon between n and 1)

2n
(

60 rad/sec.
2
()
60 x60 rad/sec
2
12 x 60 x 60 rad/sec.

2T
24 x 60 x 60 rad/sec.
/sec.

2T
36525x 24 x 60x 60 rad/sec.

do
dt
Unit (9) -> rad/sec2
Dimension (NI1) -> M°L°T-2
VAT () TU 7 (Relation between Angular and Linear
O I (a) af
Acceleration)

Calculus-43 RITU: TYRT A, S =

r0

ds de
dt
or, v r o

dvdo
dt
f ra
F
T
Force And Motion
(79

my
mo'

O3113Te NTyA siT (Motion of a Car on Circular Road)

my
f
R
7RTE N 7R2fo , N =mg f O O
UR f= pN = umg
mg
or, umg
R

HRg

V
*Rtan0
Rg

N
N cose

mv
N sine - -

,fsine
mg
 Z
.
z
Z
Force And Motion
(81
TN N (Cirvular motion in a vertieal edrele)

R R mg UT = mg cose
Ea RIRS GTi = Te - mg cos8

HT, T-mg cosß =T,. =mv

r
O
V
C DR =T, = +mg cos6
V D V mg mg cos0

)77 = 0, 7<ARg oDT7, (T,)= +mg

2
() 77 =T, ATM5 fTT DA, T =A+mg cosn = -mg

mv,
T +mg cos 90°
mV
T

IM HEI5 RIA DA T= mvA - mg

3 Da, T =0,

m =mg

Applied Physica-l-6
 Applied Physics-
82

mv," +0
D E CATG W =sfèrf + e

Afe. aTd = mv, +mg(2r)

mrg + 2mgr mgr

CRTR A R D RTE CATO 1T FAA,

mv mgr

Srg (emife)

mv,2
L+mg
f mv,
D, T, =-mg

T-T mV +2mg. 0)

m-=me( 21)
or, m(-v)=4mgr.
(1) Re (2) TR CRTT R

T-T 41+2mg= 6mg

WORKED-OUT EXAMPLES
Ex-1. The weight of body is 19-6 newton. What is the mass of
Soln.: the body ?
Weight mass x acceleration due to gravity i.e., w
=
=
mg
.. m 19.6N
9.8m/s2=2kg
 Force And Motion 83
ind
E2
Ex-2. A force of s kgwt is applied on body of mass 4 kg for 10 second,
() acceleration of the body?
(ii) velocity after 10 second?
(ii) how far the body will travel in 10s?

Soln.: 1) F=5 kgwt = 5 x 98 =49N

Since, F = ma

F
a 12-25 ms
m

So the acceleration of the body is 12-25 ms

(i) Since we know, v = u + at = 0 + 12:25 x 10 1225 ms
The velocity of the body after 10s is 122:5 ms
(iii) Since, we know s=ul+at

s=0x10+x12-25x10= 612:5m
The body will travel 612.5m in 10 second.

Ex-3. A 60 kg man stands inside a lift. What will be the apparent weight of the man

or reactional force exerted by the floor of the lift in the following cases
Lift is at rest.
(i) Lift is moving upwards with acceleration 49 ms-2.
() Lift is moving downward with an acceleration 4-9 ms
(iv) Lift is moving upwards with retardation 4:9 ms,
Moving upwards or downwards with uniform velocity.
Soln.: ) When lift is at rest

R mg = 60 x 9-8N = kgwt=60kgwt.
9-8
Apparent weight is 60 kgwt equal to actual weight.
When lift movingg upward with acceleration 'a', apparent weight will be increased.
(i)
R =m(g+ a) = 60(98 +4:9) = 60 x 14-7N =60x14.7-kgwt =90 kgwt
9-8
Apparent weight of the man =" 90 kgwt.

(ii) When lift is moving downward with acceleration 'a',

R = m(g - a) = 60(9:8 4.9)N = 60x 4.9N =60x4.9
kgwt=30 kgwt
9.8
30 kgwt.
Apparent weight will be reduced to

iv) When lift moving upwards with retardation 4.9 ms means acceleration
4-9 ms-2
 Applied Physics
60x4.9
R m(g + a) =
60(9 8 49)= 60 x 4.9N =-
9.8 kgwt =
30
kgw
in this case also apparent weight will be reduced to 30 kgwt,

(v) When lif moves with uniform speed, a = 0

R mg = 60 x 98N= 60x98
k gkgwt
9.8
60 kgwt
w t = 60 =

So. with uniform there will be change in its

lift moving speed no
appare.
pparem
weight
Ex-4 A body of
mass 5 kg is moving with a velocity 10 ms-. How
much force
should be applicd against its motion to stop it within 20 seconds?
Soln. Given m = 5 kg, u = 10 ms, v =
0, t =
20, F = ?
Since, v
=u -

at, a > acceleration

0 = 10 - a x 20

a 10=0-5 ms2
20
We know, F =
5 0:5
ma = x =
2-5N
Therefore,
2.5N force has to be
applied.
Ex-5. From a rocket 50 kg fuel
per second is burnt out and exhausted
ejected from the nozzle with a speed 5 x 10 ms, gas is
on the rocket ? How much thrust is
acting
Soln. Thrust on the rocket = -

velocity of
ejected gas x rate of mass of fuel burnt out
=
-ux dt = -5 x 103 x 50 = -

2.5 x 10 N
Ex-6. What force is exerted
vertical wall when a horizontal on a
area of cross-section
200 cm2 moving with a jet of water of
impinges on the wall. It is given that after speed of 30 cm per second
moving parallel to the wall and striking the wall, the water is
Soln.: Area of cross section x
density of water is 1
gcm
Mass of water
velocity.
flowing per second
Area of cross section x
velocity x
density of water
=
AVp = 200 x 30 x 1 =
6000 g
Change of velocity =
(v -

0) = v
30 cms-1
rate of
change of momentum of
flowing water
=
6000 x 30 =
18 x 104 g cm s-2
Force exerted on the wall =
rate of change of momentum of
= 18 x 104
dyne Y flowing wa
 Foree And Motlon
the bat
20 ms'strikes
7. A eroket ball of mass 150g movlne with a veloelty m*", If the
a wpeed
)
and rebound back Ntralght toward the bowler wth
will be the foree exerte
time ot eontact of the b»ll with but be 0.01n, whut
by the bnt on the ball?
Seb hange of velocity of the ball20 0 ) = 50 ms
Mass of the ball 150g = 150 10' kg
wil be

Since the robounded ball changen itN direction. So velocity 30 ms

negativel
150 10x 50 kgms
Change of momentum of the ball x

Tine of impact- 0-01s

Force exerted
Change ofmomentum 150x 10x 50 750N
Time of impact 001

muzzle velocity of the bullet

Ex-8 A bullet of mass S0g is flred from a gun. If the
be 1000 ms' and the soldler lres 250 bullets
in every minute, how much
the motion of the gun :
foree should be exerted by the soldier to resist
Soln.: Mass of a bullet, m =
50g= 50 x 10 kg
No. of bullets, N= 250
Total massof N bullets= mN= 50 x 10 x 250 = 12:5 kg
1000 ms-
Velocity of each bullet, V
=

bullets 12:5 x 1000 = 12500 kgms

Change of momentum of 250
=

Duration of time, t = I min = 60s

Change of momentum12500 6 0 0 8
208.
- 3 3 N

Force or thrust=-
Time
T h r u s t exerted by soldier = 208:33N
masses 5kg and 10kg
in contact with each other arekept on a
Ex-9. Two blocks of
force of 60N is applied on a body of
frictionless horizontal table. Now
a

Skg. Find
(a) the acceleration of the system.
at the interface of contact place.
(b) the action-reaction force
same force Is appled on the body of mas 10kg
(c) the change if any, when
instead of 5kg?
of the system
=
5kg + JOkg =
15kg
Soln. (a) Total mass

Force 6 4 ms
10 kg
acceleration of the system mass 15 5skg
kg
60N
oln.: When 60N force is applied on Skg body,
(b) 4 20N.
5 x =

producing force
=

then acceleration
86 Applied Physics-|
Then, out of 60N force, 20N force is utilised to produce accleration
of st
body and remaining (60 - 20)N or 40N force acts on the 2nd body. So acti
on 2nd body = 40N. Obviously according to Newton's 3rd law reaction
on the
Ist body at the interface will be 40N. ne

Soln.: (c) If 60N force is applied on 10kg body,

similarly acceleration producing force
of 10kg body = 10x 4 40N. In this case 40N force is utilised to
acceleration of 10 kg body. So the remaining 20N force acts on the produce
the 2nd
body of mass 5kg. Therefore, action-reaction force atthe interface will be
changed to 20N.
Ex-10. A body of mass 2kg is released
freely from the top of a tower of 60m high.
The body falls on a sand bed at the bottom of
the tower and
through sand before coming to rest. Find the net average forcepenetrateon06m
body. acting the
Soln.: Let be the
v
velocity of the body just before touching sand falling from 60m
high tower.
From the equation, v =u + 2gh
We have, u =0
8 98 ms-2
h 60mm
V ?
v=0+2 x 9.8 x 60

V=v2x9.8x60 ms
During penetration of sand,
Let, a be the retardation of the
body
u=2x98x60
V 0
S 0 6m
From equation, v2 =u2 -

2as
0 2 x 9:8 x 60 -2 x ax 06
a 980 ms-2
retardationproducing force =
ma 2
980 =
1960ON x
weight of the body =
mg 2 x 9:8
=
19-6N
Net average force = ma + mg
=1960 + 196 = 1979 6N
Ex-11. A constant force acts on a
act and in next 3 body of mass 12kg. After 3 second force ceases to
second body moves 108m. What is the
acted on the body ? magnitude of force
 Force And Motion (87
108m
Soln.: Since no force acts in last 3 second, so the body has moved this distance
with uniform velocity. Therefore, final velocity of the body.

V
S108 36 ms
3
Since, during Ist 3s force acts, so let a be the acceleration and u = 0,

V 36 ms-', t = 3s
From equation, v = u + at
36 = 0+ 3a
or,
a 12 ms-2
Applied force = ma = 12 x 12 = 144N

Ex-12. A bunch of banana has kept above the high pillar. A monkey noticed that a
rope is hanging from the top of the piller. At once the 40kg monkey quickly
with óms acceleration rising up through the rope wanted to get it. If the
to get it?
rope can 600N, is it possible for the monkey
withstand tension of

Soln.: When the monkey is rising upwards with acceleration 6 ms, then

Apparent weight of monkey, R =40(98 + 6) =40 x 15-8 =632N

tension of the rope is 600N, the rope is turn out
Since maximum capacity of so
and monkey falls on the ground without getting the banana.

two ends of light inextensible

Ex-13. Two masses12kg and 8kg are connected at the a
released
When the masses are
string passing over a light, frictionless pulley.
find-
) the acceleration of masses (a)
(i) tension in the string (T)
(ii) reaction force on rigid support (R)
of 12kg mass in 0-5s lg = 10 ms-2]
(iv) the distance of falling
natural that
Soln.: Let the masses m, and m,
are8kg and 12kg respectively. So it is
with acceleration 'a and 8kg moves upwards
and
downward
12kg mass moves
T be the tension in the string LLLLLLLULINLILLZ
Now, the equation of
motion of m, is:T - m,g
=
m,a R
equation of motion of m,
is m,g -
T =m,a
two equations, we get acceleration,
Equating the above

0) a
m-m)(12-9)1040 12+8 20
ms-2
m,+m, m,g
vm,g
 88 Applsed Physics-
(11) Tension, T-
2m,m,g 2h1210
m, + m, 20

(4) Reaction force on rigid support,

R 2T= 2 x 96 = 192N
(tv) As 12kg body falls with an acceleration 2 ms for 05 s, then the distar
travelled by the body.

sut+at
2 - 0 2»(0-5)- 0 25m
Ex-14. To launch a 6000kg rocket with an upward acceleration of 20 ms, hom
much kg/s of fuel has to be hurnt out to eject burnt out gas with a velocity1
km s. Ig = 10 ms-]
dm
Soln. Let mass of burnt gas per second.
R
dm
upthrust, R=u-
dt
Now, the equation of motion is
R mg = ma

dm
or, =m(g+a)
dt
In this case, u = 1 km/s = 1000 ms-
mg
m = 6000 kg, a = 20 ms2
U

u m(g+a)= 6000(10 + 20) = 6000x 30

dt

dm
dt
6000x30
u
6000x30=180 kg/s
1000

Fuel has to be burnt out 180 kg/s.

Ex-15. Two bodies of masses 10kg and 20kg respectively kept on a smooth horizontal
table are tied to the ends of a light string. A horizontal force, F = 600N iS
applied to ) 10kg mass and (1) 20kg mass along the direction of the string
What is the tension of the string in each case ?
Soln.: (G) In this case, m, = 10 kg, m^ = 20 kg and F = 600N is applied to 10 kg mas.
Force And Motion 89

the the system in

Let, T be tension in the string and 'a' be the acceleration of
the direction of applied force. Then equations of two bodies are

m, = 20 kg
a

m=10 kg

Fig. ()
a-m

m
F

Fig. (ii)
For mass m,: F - T, =
m,a
For mass m,: T, m,a
Adding, we get, F (m,
=
+
m,)a
600 (10 20)a

a ==20 ms
30
Tension T, = m,a = 20 x 20 = 400N
(ii) In this case also, a = 20 ms-2
But tension T, = m,a = 10 x 20 200ON

So in both the cases acceleration is same but tension will be different. Tension
depends on the mass of the back side.
Ex-16. Air is thrown on a sail attached to a boat from an electric fan placed on the
boat. Will the boat start moving ?
Soln. No, when the fan pushes the sail by air, then air also pushes the fan in the
opposite direction. Since fan is placed on the boat i.e., on the same system.
action-reaction cancel each other. The boat can move only if air is blown from
external frame of reference.
17. A bird is sitting on the floor of a wire cage which is carried by a boy. The
bird starts flying in the cage. Will the boy experience any change in the
weight of the cage?
Sofn.: Yes, the cage will appear lighter than before. Because in a wire cage, air inside
is in free contact with atmospheric air. Therefore, when the bird starts flying
inside the cage just like open place the weight of the bird will not act on the
 90 Applied Physics
cage. So cage will be lighter. But instead of wire cage, if closed glass cage
taken, then there would be no change of weight in flying condition. De
18. When ball is thrown upwards, its momentum first decreases and then
a
Is conservation of linear momentum violated in this increasess.
process?
Soln.: No, the conservation of linear momentum is not
violated. This is becaut
vector sum of the linear momenta of the
ball and earth i.e., the whole
constant. system remain
19. Give the
magnitude and direction of the net force
acting on
(a) a drop of rain falling down with a constant speed.
(b) a cork of mas 10g floating on water.
(c) a kite skilfully held
stationary
in the sky.
(d) a car
moving with
a constant
velocity of 30 km/hr on a rough road.
(e) a high speed electron in space far from all gravitational
from electric and objects and fre
magnetic field.
Soln.: (a) As the rain drop is
falling with a constant [NCERT
hence net force F ma 0. = =
speed, its acceleration a =
0
(b) As the cork is floating on water, its
weight is being balanced by the upthrust
(according to Archemedi's principle, upthrust equal to weight of displaced
water). Hence net force
the is zero.
on

(c)As the kite is held

stationary, net force on the kite is zero.
(d) On a rough road force is being
But as velocity of car is applied to overcome the force of friction.
the car F ma 0.
constant, its acceleration a 0. Hence, net force =
= = on

(e) As no field is applied on the electron, net

force on it is zero.
20. A pebble of mass 0-05
kg is thrown vertically upwards. Give the
and direction of net force on
the pebble. magnitude
(a) during its
upward motion
(b) during its downward motion
()At the highest point, where it is
change if
the pebble were thrown
momentarily at rest. Do
your answer
at an
direction ? angle of 45° with the
horizontal
Soln.: (a) Magnitude of NCERT Prob. Q. 5.2)
force, F =ma =
mg =005 x 98
vertically downward. =
0:49N and direction
(b) In this case also F
0:49N
(c) At highest
=
vertically downwards.
point, though the velocity is zero, but F =
If the pebble is thrown mg 0-49N acts downward =

at any
have horizontal and vertical angle say 45° with the horizontal direction, it wil
do not affect the force component of velocity. These components of velocit)
on the
three cases. pebble. Hence, answer will be same as all the
 Force And Motion

21.
Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on
(a) a stone of mass 0.1kg just after it is dropped from the window of a
stationary train.
(b) the same stone as above just after it is dropped from the window of a
train running at a constant
velocity 36 km/hr.
(C) The same stone as above just after it is dropped from the window of a
train accelerating
with 1 ms-2,
(d)thesame stone as above lying on the floor of a train, which is accelerating
with 1 ms, the stone being at rest relative to the train.
Neglect air resistance and g = 9-8 ms2 (NCERT Prob. 5.3]
(a) In the case,
Soln. m =

Net force, F = ma = 01 x
0-1 kg, a
=+g 98 ms2
=

9-8 = 0-98N

This force acts vertically downwards.

(b) Since train runs at a constant velocity, its acceleration is zero in the horizontal
direction. Therefore, force on the stone, F = weight of stone = mg = 0:1 x 9.8 =

0.98N acts also vertically downwards.

(c)Though the train moving with acceleration 1 ms2, but once the stone is' dropped
from the train, it is free from this acceleration. The only force acts on the stone
is equal to its weight = mg = 0-1 x 9-8 = 0,98N acts vertically downward.

(d) As the stone is lying on the floor of the train, its acceleration is same as that of
the train. Since, the weight of the stone is being balanced by the normal reaction,
the net force F = ma = 0-1 x 1 = 0-1N acts along the horizontal directionof
motion of the train.

OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

A Multiple Choice type (MCQ):
Q.1. When a moving bus breaks suddenly, the passengers lean in the forward
direction. This is because of-
(b) inertia of motion of passengers
(a) inertia of motion of bus
(d) inertia of rest of the bus.
(c) large mass of the bus
Ans. (b) inertia of motion of passengers.
Q.2. When 1 kgwt force acts on a body of mass 9.8 kg, acceleration of the body i s

(a) I ms2 (b)ms

(c) 9.8 ms-2 (d) none.
Ans. (a)1 ms2
Since F= ma, hence, F = I kgwt =
9.8N, a = I ms2]
 92 Applied Physics-
.3. Measurement of foree can be determined from Newton's following laws of
motion-
(a) 1st law (b) 2nd law
(c) 3rd law (d) law of inertia.
Ans. (b) 2nd law.

Q.4. Rate of change of momentum is called-

(a) acceleration (b) work
C)pressure (d) force.
Ans. (d) force.

Q.5. A person standing in the floor of lift falling freely feels himself-
(a) more heavy (b) hight
()weightless (d) no change of its weight.
Ans. (c) weightless.
Q.6. After the switching off a moving electric fan, it continues to rotate for a while
because of
(a) Motion of air (b) residual charge
Inertia of motion of fan
(c) (d) conservation of angular nmomentum.
Ans. (c) Inertia of motion of fan.

9.7. When a body moves with uniform velocity, which of the following fact is correct?
(a)Force acts on the body to continue its motion
(b) Net force is zero
(c) No gravitational force acts on it
(d) none of the above.
Ans. (b) Net force is zero.
Q.8. A constant force of 20N acts on a body of mass 4kg for certain time. If
velocity acquired by the body at the end of this time be 50 ms-l the duration of
time is-
(a) 10s (b) 5s
(c) 20s (d) none.
F
Ans. (a) 10s. [ Hints: F = ma, a = , v = u + at, t = ?1
m

Q.9. A person standing on a moving lift feels him heavier, when

(a) lift moves downward with acceleration

b) lift moves upward with uniform velocity

C) lift moves upward with uniform acceleration

(d) lift moves upward with uniform retardation.

Ans. (c) lift moves upward with uniform acceleration.
 Force And Motion 93
Q.10. From which law of motion of Newton rce can be defined1?
(a) Ist law
(b) 2nd law
(c) 3rd law
(d) law of gravitation
Ist law.
Ans. (a)

11. Motion of rocket is based on the principle of -

(a) conservation of mass (b) conservation of energy
(c) conservation of force (d) conservation of linear momentum.

AnC. (d) conservation of linear momentum.

is
0.12.The unit of a physical quantity which is indifferent with the unit of impulse
(a) energy (b) momentum
(c) power (d) pressure.
Ans. (b) momentum.
Hints: Impulse = Fi = change of momentum)

0.13.A lift is moving upwards with an acceleration a', a man of mass 'm' will apply
a force-
(a) ma (b) mà g
C) m(g - a) (d) m(a + g).
Ans. (d) m(a + 8)

Q,14.A person is coming down with an acceleration with the help of a rope. If the
rope can withstand the tension equal to 4/5th of the weight of the person, then
minimum acceleration of the person should b e
4
(a) 8
Ans. (d)

Hints: Since R = m(g-a):R =mg=m(g-a); : a=

15. A cricket ball of 0.2 kg moving with a velocity 30 ms- hits straight to a bat
mass
and deflected back in the same path with a velocity 20 ms-, Then impulse

imparted to the bat i s

(a) 2 NS (b) 10 NS
(c) 0.2 NS (d) None.

Ans. (b) 10 NS
m{v u)
F! =
0.2/30 -

(-20)) =10 kgms- = 10 NS -

Hints Impulse = -

,because of reversed direction]

of a body is 98N. If the value of
Q.16.On the surface of the earth the weight
then mass of the body is
acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 ms,
 Applied Physics-
(a) 960.4 kg (b) 98 kg
(d) 0.1 kg
(c) 10 ke
Ans. (c) 10 kg

Hints: W = mg, m =
w
98 10 ks
9-8
particles of masses m and 4m are equals the rati
Q.17.The linear momenta of two
of their kinetic energy will be
(b) 1: 1
(a) 4:1
(c) 1:4 (d) 1:2.
Ans. (a) 4:1
4m
Hints: Since E = m v ? = m ,
2m 2 m m

Q.18.A boy sitting inside a moving bus at constant velocity throws a ball vertically
upward into the air inside it. The ball will drop-
(a) behind the body (b) in front of the boy
(c) into his hand (d) none
Ans. (c) into his hand

B. Fill in the Blanks:

1. Mass is a measure of
Ans. inertia.
2. Rate of change of momentum with respect to time is called
Ans. Force.
3. INforce dyne.
Ans. 105
4. Pseudo force is only appeared i frame of reference.
Ans. accelerated.
5. To every action there is an - and
reaction.
Ans. equal, opposite.
6. A doll is hanging in front of a driver of bus moving with acceleration deviates in
the backwards due to force acting on it.
Ans. Pseudo force or fictitous.
7. S.I. unit of impulse is
Ans. NS or kgms.
8. Newton's laws of motion valid only in frame of reference.
Ans. inertial.
Force And Motion
(95
9.
SJ. unit of gravitational unit of force is
Ans. kgwt or kgf.
A spring balance is pulling by two persons in onposite direction with a force of 19
10.
kgwt force each, then the reading of spring balance shown is-
Ans. 10 kgwt.

C. True-Fake type
:

1. Weight a body is the measure of

inertia.
Ans. False.
correct answer is mass
2. The unit of physical quantity is same with the unit of impulse is momentum.
Ans. True.

3. One kgf force is equal to IN.

Ans. False. [True value = 98N]
4 If a body is not at rest, then net force acting on the body can never be zero.
Ans. False.

5. Newton's lst law of motion is not applicable to noninertial frame of reference.

Ans. True.

6. In a system of particles total linear momentum is always conserved.

Ans. False. True is when no external force acts on it ]
7. At the centre of the earth weight of any body is zero.
Ans. True.
8. The change of momentum is proportional to impressed force.
Ans. False. (True, Rate of change of momentum]
9. Action and reaction act on the same body.
Ans. False. (True, acts on different bodies]
10. The momentum of a light body and a heavy body are equal, then kinetic energy
of heavy body is greater.
Ans. False. ITrue, Light body's velocity is greater, in k.E. velocity is square times]

SHORT-TYPE QUESTIONS &ANSWERS|

1. A metallic ball is hanging from the roof of a moving compartment of train wil
the thread be in vertical condition when
1) the train moves with uniform velocity?
i) the train moves with uniform acculeration?
Ci) the moving train suddenly applied breaks?
Ans. (i) When the train moves with uniform veloCity, both the point of suspension and
ball are in same velocity, so he thread is vertical.
 96 Applied Physics
(ii) When the train is accelerated. the point of suspension immediately gets the
eity
reased velkcity with
with respect to distant ball. As a result the thread is inclined to
res
forwand direction.
(iii) When the train applies breaks the point of suspension moves with ess veloc
that of the ball. As a resut thread is inclined to the backward direction.
2. What provides the centripetal force to satellite revolving round the earth ?
Ans. Gravitational force of attraction on the satellite due to the earth.
3. Can centripetal force produce rotation ?
Ams. No. A centripetal force can move a body along circular path but cannot produc
rotational motion. Rotational motion is produced by applying torque.
Which is greater-the angular velocity of the hour hand of a watch or
velocity of earth around its own axis.
angular
Ans. Angular velocity of the hour hand is
greater than that of earth. Because, angul
velocity of hour hand 2 x2
60x 60 ad/sec
dd/se
12 x 60x 60

But angular velocity of the earth about its own axis 2T

24xK0 x 60 rad/sec
60 x
A stone tied to the end of a string is whirled in a circle. If the string breaks
the stone flies away
tangentially. Why ?
Ans. The instantaneous
velocity in every point in the circular path in tangential to the
circle. When the string breaks, the
the stone continues its motion centripetal force ceases to act. Due to inertia
along the tangent to the circular path. That is
it flies away tangentially. why.
6. What provides the centripetal force to
taking a car
on a level road? a turn
Ans. The force of friction
between the tyres and the road
centripetal force to the car to take a turn on a level road. provides the necessan
1. What is the direction of
velocity vector of a particle in circular motion?
Ans. At every
point along tangent to the circular path.
8. Is it possíble accelerate a
to
body, if its speed is constant?
Ans. Yes, For example, when a
body moves
centripetal acceleration due toalong
a circular
it possess path with constant speed
motion. continuous change in its direction o
9. The two ends of a
will be the
spring balance are pulled each
reading of the balance? by a force of 10 kgf.
Ans. The Wha
reading of the balance will be 10
10. A kgf.
retarding
is doubled, how
force is applied to
stop motor car. If the
a
much distance will it speed of the motor ca
retarding force? cover before stopping under the san
Force And Motlon 97
20N wlhen it is ntopped, v ) . ..u 2as

N when iN ddoubled, the Car will cover a distance four times longe than
SO,
betore
on his head.
bullding with a box of weight
w
Irom the reoof of a
1.
Dncoit jumps "

What wiN be the welght of the box N experienced by the dacoit during Junp
air?
feels himself in
Weight of the box during jump, w' w(g g)0. The dacoit
Ans
weightless condition
A 5 kg body is bnlanced by spring balance and identical hody is halanced by
an
12. an upwara
physical balance. If both the balances are kept in a lift moving with
acceleration, then what will happen?
common
will be observed in
Ans. The rending ol spring balance will increase but no change
balance.Since in common balance mass is measured, so mass being
invariable there is
n
cancelled with cach other.
change of mass or it can say in both the pan effect of g
13. What is the principle of working of a rocket?
principle of conservation of linear momentum.
Ans. A rocket works on the
the horse backwards. Then explain
14. When a horse pulls a cart, the cart pulls
how the motion takes place ?
reaction are equal and opposite. They do not cancel each other
Ans. The action and
because they act on different bodies.
the horse on the
When the horse pulls the cart, the force exerted by
the reaction of this force. R is
ground is inclined at an angle 0. R is R sin6
resolved into two components. The vertical component
the horizontal component
balances the weight of the horse and cart. It
motion takes place.
R exceeds force of friction, forward
cos momentum?
15. How is impulse related to linear

force time =
F:t= x t = m(v -

u) =
change of momentum.
Ans. Impulse = x
t
direction with speed
16. Two billiard balls each of
0.05 mass kg moving in opposite
the same speed. What is the impulse imported
6 ms- collide and rebound with
to each ball due to the other ?
of the first ball
= mu
Ans. Hence, initial momentum

reversed on collision,
As the speed is
mV
Iinal momentum of 1st ball
=-

of the ball
1st ball =
change in momentum

imparted to the
Impulse
momentum
momentum
- initial
Iinal
= -mv -mu

6 =-0.6 kgms
0.05 x 6 - 0.05x
Applied Physics-I- 7
 98 Applied Physics-
17. A person is standing on a weighing machine kept on the Moor of a lift. Th
machine reads 50 kg. When the lift starts moving with uniform accelerati
the machine reads 45 kg Is the lift ascending or descending ? In either of the
case find out its acceleration. [Take g = 10 ms-]
Ans. As weight of the person decreases, so the lift is moving downward with acceleration a

Therefore, apparent weight, R = m(g - a)

In this case, R = 45 x 10 = 450N

m = 50 kg

g 10 ms-2
450 5O(10 a) = 500 50a

50a 500
a = 1 ms-2

Can a sail boat be propelled by air blown at the sails from a fan attached t
18.
the boat ?
Ans. No, when the air from fan pushes the sail, the air pushes the fan in the opposite
direction as a reaction. Since action-reaction acts on the _ame system. So the
action-reaction pair neutralises and hence boat can not be propelled.

19. Newton's 2nd law is called real law of motion?

Why
Ans. It has already been proved that 1st law and 3rd law is the consequence of 2nd
law. So 3nd law is the real law of motion.

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1 Write down Newton's laws of motion.
2. Define force from 1st law.
From Newton's 2nd law, prove that F = ma.
3.
4. Justify Newton's 2nd law is real law.

OR, Show that Newton's 2nd law contained in Ist law & 3rd
law.

5. From 2nd law of motion define unit force in S.I.

What do you mean by impulse of a force. What is the relation between impulse
6.
and change of momentum ?

upward with acceleration, what

7 A man stands in a lift. If the lift suddenly moves

does he feel about his weight ? Explain.

When a bus suddenly begins to move, passenger leans backward. Why?
8.
9. What is the difference between impulse & impulsive force?
10. Freely falling body is weightless. Explain.
Force And Motion
99

Why car cannot OVe, it

passenger pushes the fronm inside t"
W h y gun ecols at the time of firing
car
Epla
Why bind cannot tly in vacuum ?
13
14
Stat the principle ot conservation of linear momentum

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Aforce is applied on a
body of mass 2kg for five seconds and velocity
from 5 cm s to 20 cm s. Find the
its changes
magnitude of force. Ans. 60O0 dynel
1000N force is applied for 5 second on a body of mass 10 kg kept at rest. Find the
change of momentum and distance travelled by the body during that time.
IAns. 500 kgms', 125m|
A force acts on a rest body of mass 2 kg for 5 seconds and then force ceases to act

and the body moves 80 metre

during 4s. Find how much force applied on
was
the
body? TAns. 8N]
Hints when force ceases to act, body moves 80m with uniform velocity.

final velocity, v==20ms

Now, find a = ? from u = 0, v = 20 ms-, t = 5s, a = 4 ms2, F = ma = 2 x 4 = 8N]

4. Air is ejected with a velocity 5 ms from a small orifice of a rubber balloon filled
with 4g air initially. If ejected air comes out in uniform rate till completely exhausted
in 0-5S, how much force is experienced by the balloon. [Ans. 0-04N]

[ Hints : force changeinmomentum4x10x5 =

time 0-5
5. A machine gun fires 500 bullets per minute into a target. The velocity of the bullet is
600 ms- and mass of each bullet is 50g. Find the steady force experienced by the
target. [Ans. 250N
Hints: Force =N0. of bullets
=
x mass of each bullet
time
x
velocity 1
6. A bullet moving with velocity 400 cm/s can penetrate 8 cm thick wooden plank.
What will be the velocity of the bullet enabled to penetrate 125 cm thick similar
wooden plank? [Ans. 500 cm/s]
A force of .500 dyne is applied against a body of mass 50g moving with a velocity
Ims. After how much time body will come to rest and also find out the distance
travelled during this time. [Ans. 10S, Sm]
8. with velocity of 400 ms-, Find the recoil
A1O kg gun fires a bullet of mass 50g a
Ans. 2 ms] [Hints : mv * Mv = 0]
velocity of the gun.
 (100) Applied Physics-
9 A cricket hall of mass 250g moving with a velocity 60 ms straight towards a ba
and deflected in the reverse direction with a velocity 36ms, What is impulse imparte
ted
on the cricket ball? [Ans. 24 NS
Hints: Impulse = change of velocity =0 25[60-(-36)]
10.(a) Two persons holding two ends of a rope are pulling each other with aforce
of
20N in the opposite direction. What will be the tension in the string ?]
(b) If one end of the rope is fixed on a rigid wall and only one person is pulling
with a force of 20N, what will be the tension in this case.
[Ans. In both cases tension will be samel

11.A man of mass 'm' is standing on a rope ladder attached to a free balloon of mass
M hanging at rest in air. When the man starts ascending the ladder with a uniforn

relative to ladder, what will be the velocity of the balloon. | Ans. mv

velocity v
M+m
Hints: Apply principle of conservation of linear moments]

12.A ball of mass lkg is hanging vertically from the ceiling of a bus at rest. If the bus
moves with an acceleration 4.9 ms on horizontal straight road, then find the angle
between the thread with the vertical and tension in the string.[Ans. 26-56, 10.96N

T cos
Hints: T sine = ma ; T cos6 = mg

ma (pseudo force)
. an & T=ym'a' +m'g =nya?+g 1 Tsin
mgv
Force And Motion

Q.2. oa
Force And Motion (103)

m m,a, m,a,

F -F
14. AEDA foa

Q17 aste ATE AIT?

2T
- rad/s.
2T0
rad/s
24x60 60

2x0
 Applled Physics-

Ams. NKN 12 10 kgf qta|

Ams. p VLNS Tà qMI 15 R = m (g +a)Iy 1411 yTRca ad offe

Ans. URY v = u? - 2as; qA fGi erata, v = 0

u 2asI 97 T9N A 2u RT TV S'
4u 2as
7 s's' 4s

Ans. HTRIR AAN G9 W = w (g - g) = 0, U T ATT 9 TATT S I T

Q.26 60 kg TA ( ToA GATATE HIGTN uTEI fAmaT CRanferv CFTeDa TI5

i)
ii)
ii)
iv) 7 f 49 ms Ta Tfoare n
v)
Force And Motion (105)

A )
N I INT T , R =
mg =60x9SN kgwt 60kgf

R m (g+a) 60 (O8+ 40) =60

= 60x147 = kgwt =90kgwt
x 14 7N = 98

R , R = m(g-a) =60(98-49)=60x 49N =60x 49kgwt= 30kgwt

98

iv) T 49 ms i SA STO, T a = 49 ms

R = mg+a) = 60 (9.8-4.9) N = 60x4kof

98
kgf=30kgf
30kgf
=
a31 kgw
kgwt.

v) HETU5R R 6 re D, a = 0
R =
mg 60x960
=60x98N= 98
kgwt
 5 VI
EEE
Force And Motion
(107)
35. OIN

Ans.

mv
T=mg+

Fr=mv
F 2r

37. AeTi Ti1 C?

JUOTa D1, F, =
mwr, R F =
mwr,

- 1 . FFar
(108 Applied Physics

Ans. 13iDI GTA 6 TI

Ans. 3PA, UPMÝR R qTO OTRT A RC m US3 PRS TYTTE

9 9 A (mg) >W mw'rrose

m
mg mw'r cos mwr
mg mw'R cos*e [: NOA fQYTF] mg4 B
CASC = 90°, TER E GA (mg) = mg
W- E
R

-x-
 UNIT

WORK, POWER AND

3
ENERGY
WORK

defined as the dot product of force and It sealar quantty

Wo is displacement is a

W-F S-FS cos

force along the
Work is also
detined as the product of displacement and the component of the
displacement.

Special Cases
(1) Positive Work: When 0 < 0 < n/2, cos0 = +ve
work is positive.

Examples:
the
A block placed on the table and being pulled by a thread has positive work done by
)
applied force.
has positive work done by the gravitational
i) A body falling freely under the action of gravity
force.
2) Negative Work: When = n, cos6 = -ve
work is negative.
Examples:
friction and the displacement
) When a body is pulled over a horizontal rough surface, force of
are opposite to each other (6 = t). So, work done by the frictional force is negative.
work done by the gravitational force is
(i) A body is being pulled vertically upwards. The
negative.
No work: when -,cos =0
W = FS cos 90° = 0

When the force acts in a direction at right angles to the direction of displacement, no
work is done.

Examples:
) When a body rotates in a circular path, the centripetal force acting on it along the radius
and its displacement along the tangent are always mutually perpendicular to each other.
So centripetal force does no work.
(i) A person carrying a box over his head is walking on a horizontal road. The gravitational
force does no work since the force and the displacement are always perpendicular to each
other.
109
 (110 Applied Physics
Dimension of work: [ML'T]
UNITS OF WORK

Absolute 8 Gravitational

x8

C.GS S.I. C.GS S..

(Dyne cm) or erg (Newton metre) or Joule (gm-cm) (kg. metre)

1 Joule = 10' erg

1 kgm = 9.8 Joule
B

D1 gm cm =
980 erg Force
Graphical interpretation ofwork:
Work can be calculated from the force-displacement graph.
The area occupied below the force displacement graph gives o
the amount of work done. S
() Constant force: Constant force - displacement graph is
Displacement
shown in the figure.
Work done =Area OABC =OA x OC FS
(i) Variable force: Variable force- displacement graph is
shown in the figure. A small strip of thickness ds is taken
from the graph. P
Then the small amount of work done dw is represented by
the area ABCD
dw Area ABCD = AB x AD = F ds
ds is so small that area ABCD is taken as rectangle]
Displacement (s)-
w = F ds = Area below curve OPQ

So it can be concluded that area occupied below force displacement graph represents the
amount of work done.
It is to be noted that area under force-displacement curve must be added with proper sign to
obtain work done by the force.

O FRICTION
According to Newton's First Law of Motion, a body moving uniformly along straight line
would continue to do so unless an external force is applied on it. In Practice we find thing
otherwise. For example, a ball rolling over the floor stops after some time. Similarly when we
 Power
Work,Po and Energy

s t o pp a d l i n g
ur
ou
bicycle, it comes to
rest, after travelling a when
off the fan
fan, it stops after certain distance. Again v
wt Swilch o f f

isible force that

is some invis:
travelling some
rotations.
ns. All these examples show

that
enosing force is called Friction,
opposes the motion of one body over the other
This o p p o s i

e to nhodern view of friction it arrises on account of strong atomic forces

or moleculer
tion betwecn the two
o fa l t r a c t i o n rfaces at the
points of actual contact.
Types o fF r i c t i o n :

Staticfriction
() Limitting friction
i ) Kinetic friction
(iv) Roling friction

Friction:
Laws of Limiting
laws of limiting friction:
Following are the four
)The magnitude of the force of Limiting Friction (F) between any two bodies in
contact is directly proportional to the normal reaction (R) between them i.e.,
FaR
or, F= uR
where is constant of proportionality and is called the coefficient of limiting friction
between the two surfaces in contact.

R
Hence co-efficient of limiting between any two surfaces in contact is defined as the ratio

ofthe force of limitting friction and normal reaction between them, the value of depens on

) nature of the surfaces in contact

(i) material of the surfaces in contact.
the direction in
2) The direction of the force of limitting friction is always opposite to

which one body is at the verge of moving over the other.

(3) The force of limitting friction is independent of the apparent area of contact so long
as normal reaction between the two bodies in contact remains the same.

(4) The force of limiting friction between any two bodies in contact depends on the
nature of material of the surfaces in contact (i.e.,
force of adhesion) and their
roughness or smoothness.

Graph between Applied Force and Force of Friction:

(Fs) which goes on increasing with the
C part OA of the curve represents static friction
applied force.
uojouJ JO 3OJOJ
.
8l8
Work, Power and Energy 113
A
R

F O

Mg

Angle of Repose:
Definition : Angle of repose is defined as the minimum angle of inclination of a plane
with the horizontal, such that a body placed on the plane just begins to slide down. It is
represented by a.

The various forces involved are : B

) weight mg of the body.

mg
sina
F
(1i) normal reaction R L to the plane AB. mg
sina

(i) Force of friction F mg cosa

F mgsina mg
R mgcosa A C

H
Mgsina = tan a
R mgcoso

Again we know, l = tan6

tan= tana

i.e, angle of friction is equal to angle of repose.

Work done in moving up an object on rough inclined plane:

Let us suppose m is the mass of a body that has to be moved up a rough plane AB, inclined
to the horizontal at an angle 0, as shown in fig. given below. The various forces involved are:

(6) Weight (mg) of the body, acting vertically downwards,

(i) Normal reaction (R) acting L to the plane AB,
(ii) Force of friction (F) acting down the plane AB, as the body moves up the plane
The weight mg can be resolved into two rectangularcomponents: mg cosß and mg sin.
In equilibrium, R = mgcos0 and P = mgsin6 + F

Apled Paysicsl-8
11 Applied Physics-
where P is the force required to be applied up the moves through a distance S up th
the
plane. P
Since, work done = force x distance.

W P x S (mgsine+ F) S m gs i n e

(mgsine+ uR) S
where u is the co-efficient of friction between the F mg cos6
mg
two surfaces in contact.

W=mg(sin +u cos)S|
Knowing m, 6, S and . we can calculate work done in moving the body up a rough

inclined plane.
Friction is a necessary evil:
Friction is called a necessary evil. It is a necessity because we can do nothing without it. At
the same time it is an evil because it involves unnecessary waste of energy. The following

facts make the point clear

(a) Friction is a necessity (Advantages of friction):

) Walking will not be possible without friction. Our foot pressing the ground will
only slip.
(i)
(ii) No two bodies will stick other if there is no friction.
Cii) Brakes of the vehicles will not work without friction.
(iv) Nuts and bolts for holding the parts of machinery together will not work.
) Writing on black board or on a paper will also not be possible without friction.
The transfer of motion from one part of a machine to the other part through belts
(vi)
will not be possible without friction.
(vii) Adhesives will lose their purpose.
sand paper will not be possible without friction.
(vii) Cleaning with

Friction is an evil (Disadvantages of friction):

1. Friction always opposes the relative motion between any two bodies in contact. Therefore
extra energy has to be spent in overcoming friction. This friction envolves unnecessary
expense of energy. It means output is always less than the input.

2. Friction causes wear and tear of the parts of machinery in contact. Thus their life time
reduces.
3. Frictional forces result in the production of heat, which causes damage to the machiner
Hence we conclude that friction is a necessary evil.
Work, Power and Energy 1152
Some of the
a o of the ways of' reducing friction are as follows
() By polishing : Polishing makes the surfaces smoothers. Therefore friction reauce
(in) By lubrication : Lubrication like oil,
grease
etc. fill up the irregularities of surface
making
them smoother.
(ii) By proper selection of materials.
iv) By using ball bearing: As shown in fig. the
ball bearing arrangement consists of two co-
axial cylinders A and C, between which suitable
number of hard steel balls B are arranged. The
inner cylinder A is fitted on the axle and outer
cylinder.
(v) By streamlining : Friction due to air is
considerably reduced by stream lining the shape
of the body moving through the air.

Some of the ways of increasing frictions are:

On a rainy day, some sands are thrown on the slippery ground. This increases
()
friction.
(i) Similarly sand is spread on track covered with snow.
between the tyres and
(ii) Proper threading of tyres also increases the force of friction
the road.

ENERGY
defined the capacity of doing work, S.I. unit of energy: Joule
Definition: Energy is as

1 B.0.T. unit
= 1 kwh (kilowatt-hour)

1000 watt-hour
1000x3600 sec. = 3-6 x 105 Joule.
sec

Dimension: [ML2T-2]
Mechanical ( t ) (i) Heat (U1) (ii) Light ( T )
Different types ofenergles: (i)
(6¥) (vi) Electrical (CHoa) (vi) Chemical (aIPTAT)
(iv) Sound ( ) (V) Magneti
Nuclear (ACR)
(viil)Atomic (TaA9) (1:x)
interested to discuss about mechanical
above we are only
mong the energies mentioned
energy in this chapter.
 Applied Physics
IMECHANICAL ENERGY:
Mechanical energy of a body is defined as its capacity of doing work by virtue of
it
motion, configuration, position or combinations of all.
Mechanical energy is of two kinds
() Kinetic energy ( 1 )
(i) Potential energy (fo)
Kinetic energy: Kinetic energy of a moving body is defined as the energy it possesses
by virtue of its motion.

Itcan be measured by the equation K.Emv

Proof: Let us suppose that a body of mass m is initially at rest and force F is applied on
the body to displace it through ds along its own direction. Then small work done.
dw =
F.ds = F ds cos6 = F ds cos6 = F ds
According to Newton's 2nd law of motion
dv
F=ma= m.dt

dw ds dv
=
F ds =mds=mdv
dt dt

or, dw mv dv

Therefore, work done on the body in order to increase its

by velocity from 0 to v is given

W=mv dv=m- K.Em

(ii) Potential energy: The energy
possessed by a body due to change in its
configuration (shape or size) or both is called potential position or
energy.
O GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
It is the energy
possessed by a body by virtue of its position in the
Let us consider a body of mass m is lying at a
gravitational field.
vertically upwards through a heightpoint
is displaced on the surface
of the earth. If the body
against the gravitational force mg is given w h, without an acceleration then work done
This work done is stored
by =mgh.
inside the body as its
gravitational potential energy.
P.E=mgh
 Work, Power and Energy
wwN
(117
awORK-ENERGY THEOREM
THEOREM:

done by a force in displacing a body is measured by the change in kinetic energy oI the
So, according to work-energy principle, work and kinetic energy are equivalent.
Proof: To prove work-energy principle, let us suppose,
m = mass of the body
=initial velocity of the body
u
v =final velocity of the body after work is done.
F force applied on the body in the direction of motion.
ds small displacement of the body in the direction of force F
Therefore, small amount of work done by the force is
dw = F.ds = F ds cos0 = F ds
m a ds : F = ma]

m ds
dt

=m.dv
dt

m v dv

Total work done by the force in increasing the velocity of the body from u to v iss

W=mv-imu'= final k.E - initial k.E.

w=change in K.E.of the body

This proves the work energy principle which states that work done by a force is a measure of
change in kinetic energy of the body.
Relation between kinetic energy and momentum of a bodyy:

We know momentum of a particle, p = mv and kinetic energy of the particle, E=mv2

. E mv p [ p= mvj
2 m 2m

or, P=V2mE
2m
 (118 Applied Physics-
This is the relation between linear momentum and kinetic energy.
It is also analogous to rotational motion, in this case if L be the angular momentum (l

and kinetic energy, E lo*

L 21E or,

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can be converted from one form to another
The sum total of energy, in this universe remains constant.

I PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY:

In absence of any dissipating force force such as friction, Sum total of potential energy
and kinetic energy i.e. total mechanical energy is constant.
When dissipating forces are present total final mechanical energy of the system is less than of
its initial value. The dissipated energy is transferred in the form of heat energy, sound energy,
light energy etc.
Example-1. Conservation of mechanical energy of a freely falling body.
Let us consider a body of mass 'm' falling freely from A at a height h.
K.E at A = 0
P.E. at A = mgh
T o t a l energy at A = mgh B
Now, let the particle has traversed a distance x with an acceleration
due to gravity reaching at B possesses a velocity v.
Then, P.E. at B = mg(h - x)

K.E at
B-mv-m(2gx) =
mg =u +2gx, v= 2gx
Total energy at B = mg (h - x) + mgx = mgh

Energy at A =Energy at B
Therefore it can be concluded that the mechanical energy of a freely falling body is
conserved.

EXAMPLE-2. Verification of law of conservation of mechanical energy of a body

sliding down a frictionless inclined plane.
Let a body of mass m slide down an inclined plane of height h making an angle 0 with the
horizontal Let the body starts from A.
When Body at A
Work, Power and Energy 119
K.E of the body = 0
P.E. of the body = mgh
Total energy of the body at A =
mgh.
at B:
When the body
velocity acquired by distance. S
be
Let vv be
Let the the
body sliding down from A to B through
long the inclined plane and x be the corresponding vertically displacement.
a

alon

****

ms
g ine Z

mg (h-x)

Using kinematic equation.

: gsine
v= u+2fs
m
=g sine

0 + 2(g sin6).s =
2 gx sing-
K.E at B=mv=m(2gx)=2gx & P.E at B = mgch - )

T o t a l energy at B = mgx + mg(h - x) = mgh, = Total energy at A.

Therefore total energy remains constant at any point in an inclined plane.

force is said to be conservative if work done by the force on

Conservative force: A
particle that moves through any round trip, is zero.
Example: Force of gravity, electrostatics, magnetic force etc.
Non-conservative force: A force is said to be non-conservative if the work done by
the force on a that moves through any round trip is not zero i.e. dissipative. It
particle
the path taken between the points.
depends on

Example: Frictional force.

DISSIPATION OF ENERGY DUE TO FRICTION IN AN INCLINED PLANE:
inclined
Let a body of mass m starts from A to slide down a rough (co-efficient of friction, u)
plane of height h making an angle 6 with the horizontal.
 420 Applied Physics
(120
at A
When the body
P.E = mgh
K.E = 0
Total energy
=
mgh +0 =mgh
When the body at B: distanceS
from A to B through a
acquired by the body sliding down
Let v be the velocity vertical displacement.
and x be the corresponding
along the disclined plane
.

mgsin6

mg h-x)

Component of weight along the inclined plane =

mg sin6.
Normal reaction (R) = mg cos6
Frictional force (F) = uR = umg cose
Resultant force along the inclined plane = mg sin6-F.

mg sin6-FF
. Acceleration along the plane (f)=**
m
F
u 2 + 2fs =0+2 mg sin6-F)xS=2gsinß-s-2s
m

=2gx-2s sin6
m

K.E at B=mv' = mgx-FS

2
P.E at B = mg(h -x)
Total energy at B = mg(h - x) + mgx - FS = mgh - FS

Dissipative energy mgh - (mgh-FS) = FS = work done against frictional force.

POWER:
The rate of doing work is ternmed as power.

Powerork
Work
Time
 Work, Power and Energy
w ww www

the work is done at a

(121)
variable rate,
instantaneous power P is defined as,

P-LT
t-0 At -w)
- dtF dt

P-F.
Therefore instantaneous power is the dot
force is constant. It is also a scalar
product of force and velocity of body, provided the
quantity.
Dimension of Power : [ML?T]
UNITS

8
Absolute
X8
Gravitational
C.GS.
sl
EP.S S.. C.G.S. FP.S S.I.
ergs-1
fpoundal s Watt (Js-1) 9 cm s-1 ft+pounds kgm s-1
IPractical gravitational unit in EPS. is Horse Power.
1 HP. = 550 ft-lb/sec. = 550 3048
x x 453-6 gm cm/s
550 x 30-48 453-6
x x
980 erg/sec.
550x 30.48 x
453.6x980/s
10
1 H.P.= 746 Watt

BENGALI VERSION

(wORK)

(1) 4T W = F. S = FS cos6

7R0<0 <n/2, cos = +ve

 Applied Physics
122)

i)

(2) w7P T
TR, 0 T, cos6 -ve
= =

NTT, RT q FOPR NT I
(0 =
t) 180°, ATRY cos6-

(3) 7
T , 0 = n/2; cos6 = 0

FS FS cose = 0

ITa [MLT2]
IDimension of work: [MLT-2]

C.GS S.I. C.GS. S.I.

1 (CTa-ADR) (aT ) (Fa-fAD)
Conversion:
1 Joule 1 Nm =
=10 dyne x 102 cm =
10 erg
1 kgm 9.8 Joule
1 gm cm =
980 erg
Work,
Power and Energ 123

Force
F = CRa OABC = OA x OC = FS

S
Displacement-

d w = CA ABCD = ABx AD = F ds

ds TU ABCD UCY T 1U FAI RT

CNTG 7w=F ds =
OPQ TRA AT CRU
ds
OPQO. Displacement(s)

P=LTAW
w)

P-E-P dt

P
 124 Applied Physics
NO7 NIM: [MIL ?T

x8

C.GS F.P.S S.. C.GS. EPS S..

ergs- poundal s-' Watt (s-1) g cm si ft-pounds1 kgm s1

woR f i n EP.S. OR TRRT 4 Z7 PAEI (Horse Power)

1 H.P. = 550 ft-lb/sec.

550 x 30-48 x 453-6 gm cm/s

550 x 30-48 x 453-6 x 980 erg/sec.
550x30-48x 453 6x980
10 /s
1 H.P 746 watt

(Frietion)

E9R7aTen (Different Types of Friction) 7

T
T T HTRE BTAST 11
i) A (Static friction)
(i) 5M (Kinetic friction)
(ii) Td ve1 (Rolling friction)
(iv) amda 1 (Fluid friction)
Work, Power and Eneergy
www

(125

ATNT 1 (Limiting Static Friction) y 7i oAA 61 4

2. 41 T 7 a o t a Fgfo®IF a R , F = HR, AA F T7 T4

( A n g l e of friction) &1 3FE A e TET1

74-0 (u) THATT (0) «zRT

F
=
tane
T7ae R

= tan0

(Cone of Friction)
 126 Applied Physics

0 , (ii) wR 7 fUTATR 9R CPI (Semivertical angle) 7 *

f a t Cett (Angle of Repose): y T UAT TAI TOT et

RK

mg
si mg sin o

mg cos
mg

mg sin o 4R mg cos ol

F- mg sin
sino =
0
4R R mg coso =0
Fmg sino =
R mg coso
tan =4 [: F =
HR)

13, T4-CPTA (0) 71

H= tane
Work,Power andEnergy
272
F17 (Cause of
Frietional Force) : (Tme
 1 2 8 S

Applied Physics
wwww

ATIATA AC (Different Methods of Minimising Friction)

i) P f r (Lubrication) CorifATO AU7, (E7fA, CATA, a1D, 5fre

(ii) -wifaR Ta AR47 J R (Using Ball bearing and Roller bearing)

(iv) aT R 1y T (Using Antifriction Alloy) & TG 19 T-35 TTA

(v) aT A A 4T PAI 47AAN UP (Streamlined Shape due to Fluid

2 TE 141 AiS T atA (Streamlined Shape) I

O t (ENERGY)

D S.I. 4

1 B.O.T unit = 1 kwh

(kilowatt-hour) 1000 watt-hour
=

=
1000-x
Sec
3600 sec.= 3.6 x 106 Joule.
aetstE7: () Mechanical (zu) (I) Heat
(M) (V) Magnetic (1) (ii)
(T)
(vii) Atomic (TH1) (vi) Electrical (7aypfor) Light (MT) (iv) Sound
(ix) Nuclear (vii) Chemical (31T
(a
(fea)
Work, Power and Energy
129

K.E.mv

dw F-ds = F ds cos0 = F ds cos = F ds

dv ds
dw = F ds = m ds = m dv or, dw = mv dv
dt dt

K.Emv|
W=mv -m

= G6 =
mg.

37 x AA1 =
mgh.
A cU FUN =

ar = mgh
Applied Physies-I- 9
130 Applied Physics
r- ®4tI (WORK-ENERGY THEOREM)

ff =;m(v' -u') -mx2as I v = u? + 2as;.: V2. u =2a

TOA R A T F o n dw=F-ds=F ds cos0= F ds

a=-
ma ds

dv ds
mds =m.dv | V=-
dt
m v dv

W
=mv dv =m|

TT1 A , TY E= mv 4R a R EAAA, p = mv

. E-
Work,
Power and Energ 1312
E- P or, p=v2mE| a tfa zo
2m

StR 1 a =
M 9R A1 V
z =

a i = m R A = v

a RTA 7AA , p =MV = mv

2_M
T d-s MV m
2M

AT , RI = M R A = V

O = m 4R A = v

Mv- mv NI
g37 K (p) MV =

T ACA (p?) mv =

MV P2 mv
M
m

M> m, E P1 > P2

T 1 RTT1 }4 (Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy)

P 3 (disipating force) TTE TYTMTG H aI
 N
B

mg sine .

****°°°*
 Power and Energy (133
ork,

RK

m g
s i n

mg
(h-x)

APE WfgEI
mgh; s s =0; A =
mgh + 0 =mgh
AR: f =

aS7A
CNT S 71 ACB T mg sin6 A
Bo: TA TUE 7AT A RZ

mg sine F
TA AATSTI 7R T7
-

TOO 7317 T
u 2fx
(f)=mg Sin-;
;ARY v = +
313 R m

v=0+2 mg sin6-Fs=2gsinS-2S
m

2g x-2s
m
134 Applied Physics
- FS
.

mgh (mgh -FS)

= FS =
a6R RT U

At-0 At

PF
dt
) - Fdt
P-F
.PA = x A

xg

C.GS EP.S. S.L. C.GS. FPS. S.I.

ergs
ergs-1 fpoundal s Watt (Is-1) I cm s-l fpounds- kgm s-1

POT baa F.P.S. TOA TRIRT 4 z7 TO (Horse Power)

HP. =50 ft-lb/sec.
550 x 3048 x 453-6 gm cm/s
550 x 3048 x 4536 x 980 erg/sec.

550x30.48x453.6x980,
J/s
10
1H.P-746 watt
 Work Power and
Energy 135
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
e-1, What work is pertormed in dragging a block 50m horizontally when a 50N force
Eis applied by a rope making an angle of 60° with the
ground
auWe know, work (W) F.S =F.S cos6 =

60N
Hence, F = 60 N, S = 50m, 0 60°
W = F.S. cos6 =
60 x 50 x cos 60°
60 x50
=
x =
1500 Joule
S=50m
Ex-2. Find the work done by a man weighing 65 kg in carying 7 bricks of 5 kg each up
a ladder 6 metre long making an
angle 30° with the horizontal.
Solu: Let the height of the wall be h.
sin30°= -h
AB 6
Or, 6m
2 6
h 3 metre.
Total mass (m) B30 mg
= mass of the man + mass of brick
65 +7 x 5 = 65 + 35 = 100 kg.
Work done mgh 100 x 98 x 3 2940 Joule.
Ex-3. Find the power developed by the engine of a vehicle of mass 500 kg. if it moves at
a constant speed of 36 km/hr, () over a horizontal road, (i) up a gradient 1 in
25, (ii) down the same gradient. The co-efficient of friction is O-1
Solu: v = 36 km/hr =30XI000=10m/s
60x 60
() Since the engine travels with uniform velocity it develops the force which is equal to
frictional force.
0:1l 500 x 9:8 N = 490 N
Opposite force of friction (F) =
u mg = x

Since, Power of the engine force = x velocity = 490 x 10 = 4900 watt.

(i) If 0 be the inclination of the plane; then sin6= R

25
In this case upward force applied by the engine
is just to counter balance the downward force
along the plane, because the engine is moVing
with uniform velocity. bus0 mg cos
. Resultant downward force (pP mg
weight frictional force
component of +
 136) Applied Physics
mgsint) + F
g sin) + a mg cos0

500x9 8+0.1x 500x9.8x= (196 + 490)N = 686N

25
Power of the engine - Pv = 686 x 10 6860 watt.
(l) In this case since the engine moves down the
plane so the frictional force acts Unu
and component of weight mg sin0 in the downward direction. pwatd
The foree which has to be overcome by the engine (P)
F - mg sin6= u mg cos0 - mg sin6

01x 500x99.8x1-S00x9.8x 490 - 196 294N.

Power of the engine = 294 x 10 = 2940 watt.
Ex-4. A uniform iron chain 12m
long and weighing 5 kg per meter hangs vertical
Calculate the work required to wind it up.
Solu: Total mass of the chain (m) = 12 x 5 = 60
kg.
Since to lin last end of the chain is than that of the lst one. So for
greater lifting whol
chain we have to consider the whole mass is
concentrated at the centre of gravity of
the chain.

Average height (h) - = 6m

Work done =
mgh 60 x 9.8 =
x 6 360 9.8
3528 Joule. x
Ex-5. A motor pump extracts water
from 20m below the surface of the earth and
600 litres of water in one minute eject
the power of the motor in H.P.? through a nozle with a
velocity of 5 m/s. Find

Solu: Volume of water extracted 600

per sec
10 litre.
60
Mass of water
extracted per sec 10
Work done per sec in
=
kg8
rising water through a height of 20m
P.E. = mgh = 10 x 9.8 x 20 1960 J
Kinetic energy per sec for ejection through the nozle.
K.E.mv-x10x(5* J =125J
Total energy per sec =
1960 + 125 =
2085 Joule.
Power of the pump =
2085 watt =- 2083
746
H,P. 2.795
H.P. 2.795 H.P.
H.P. ==

Ex-6. A body of mass 10 kg is let

loose from
body when at the bottom of the tower. a tower 100m high. Calculate the KE. of
[W.B. Poly 06
Work,
Power and Energy
www 1372
the
From the
Solu : F r
principle of conservation of energy, the total potential energy
Soluhody is converted into Kinetic energy.
Potential energy= mgh = 10 x 9-8 x 100 = 9:8 x 10,J
K i n e t i c energy = 9:8 x 10'J
.'.

Ex-7. A body of weight 20 kgf carrying a box of weight 2-5 kgf climbed the roof ora
house 18m high in 1-5 minutes. At what rate did he work? [W.B. Poly 05]
Weight of the body = 20 kgf = 20 x 9-8N
Solu
Weight of the box = 2.5 kgf = 2:5 x 9-8N
Total weight = 22.5 x 9.8N
Displacement = 18mn

Work done = 22:5 x 98 x 18J

Power
work
time
22-5x9-8x1844.1
90
watt.
Ex-8. Show graphically the energy changes that occur when a body is allowed to fal
from rest from a height h. [W.B. Poly '06]
Solu Total energy
PE.
Energy
K.E.
h
The variation of K.E. and P.E. with height is linear. As h decreases, P.E. decreases but
K.E increases and total energy is independent of h, it is a straight line (marked dotted)
parallel to h axis. The graph is shown in the diagram.

OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Number of ergs contained in one joule is -

(a) 103 (b) 10

Cc) 107 (d) none.
Ans. (c) 10.
2. Gravitational unit of work in C.G.S. system is-
(a) Joule (b) gmwt
c) gm cm (d) dyne cm.
Ans. (c)gm cm.
3. Electron volt is a unit of -

(a) Power (6) Energy

 7.38) Applied Physics
(c) Potential (d) Force.
Ans. (b) Energy.
4. One horse power is equivalent to power of-
(a) 746 watt (b) 746 kilowatt
(c) 746 kwh (d) 1 kilowatt.
Ans. (a) 746 watt.
5. Centripetal force is called
(a) +ve work force (b) no-work force
(c)-ve work force (d) neutral work force
Ans. (b) no-work force.
6. When mass and speed are doubled, the kinetic energy increases
(a) 2 times (6) 4 times
(c) 8 times (d) 16 times.
Ans. (c) 8 times.
7. A freely falling body has its
energy
a) maximum at the highest point (b) maximum at the lowest point
(c) same at all points (d) minimum at the lowest point.
Ans. (c) same at all points.
8. The kinetic energy of a given body is doubled its momentum will be-
(a) unchanged (6) redoubled
()becomes A times (d) becomes V2 times
Ans. (d) become v2 times.
9. A light and a heavy body have the momentum which one will have greater kinetic
energy?
(a) the light body (6) the heavy body
c) both will have equal K.E.
(d) can't say.
Ans. (a) light body.
the
10.A light and a heavy body bave
equal kinetic energy has greater momentum ?
(a) the heavy body
(6) the light body
(c) both have equal momentum (d) can't say for insufficient data.
Ans. (a) the
heavy body.
11. Gravitational unit of work in C.G.S. system is
(a) g-wt (6) dyne cm
g cm s- (d) g cm.
Ans. (d)g cm.
12. A rod of mass m and
length l is lying on a horizontal table. Work done in
stand on one end will be- making
(a) mgl
Ans. (b) mgl.
(b)mg! ()mg (d) 2mg.
Work, ower and Energy

13. A 4Ake mass and T kg mass

(139
are
theirmomenta is moving with equal kinetic
(a) 1:2
energies. The
rat
(c)2:1 (b)1:1
(d) 4:1
Ans. (c)2 :1.
A force of 20N acts on a
14.
by the
body of mass 3 kg along a distance of 2m. The K.E.
acquired body is-
(a) 120J
c) 40J (b) 1200J
(d) 80J.
As. (C) 40.

15. Two spheres of the same diameter, one of mass 5 1 kg

dropped at the same time from the top of a tower. kg
When are lmof above
the other
and they are
the
ground the two spheres have thesame:
(a) momentum
(6) kinetic energy
(c) Potential energy (d) acceleration
Ans. (d) acceleration.

16. What is the shape of the graph between the speed and kinetic energy of a body?
(a) Straight line (b) hyperbola
(c) Parabola (d) exponential
Ans. (c) Parabola.
A bullet and gets embeded in a solid block resting horizontal frictionless
17. hits
table. What is conserved ?
on a

(a) Momentum and kinetic energy (b) Kinetic energy alone

Kinetic energy
) Momentum alone (d) Neither momentum nor

Ans. (c) Momentum alone.

18. 1 kg-m is equal to how much Joule ?

(b) 9-8J (c) 1000J (d) 10 Joule

Ans. (b) 9.8J

19. Name the smallest practical unit of energy. (b) Kilowatt hour
(a) Joule
(C) electron volt (d) erg
Ans. (c) electron volt.
potential energy
-

its
20. When an air bubble rises in water, (b) increases
(a) decreases
C) remain constant
(d) zero.
Ans. (a) decreases.
21. In uniform circular motion does not change
m o m e n t u m changes
but kinetic energy
(a) K.E. changes
m o m e n t u m and
(b) both
 Applied Physics
(140 not
momentum
does
Kinetic energy
changes but
(C) and K.E. do
not change
does not change.
momentum

(d) both
changes but
kinetic energy
percentage change
in kine
netie
50%, the
momentum
Ans. (a) increased by
momentum of a body is
22.
22. The
energy is (b) 100%
(a) 50% (d) 25%
(c) 125%
Ans. (c) 125%
3
time.
[Hints: velocity becomes

becomes times x 100 225%

Energy
increase =
225 - 100 = 125]
FRICTION
SHORT ANSWER-TYPE QUESTION ON
than those with iron
wheels-Why.
Carts with rubber tyre are easier to ply
1. is much smaller
co-efficient of friction between rubber tyres and road
Ans. This is because road.
between the iron wheels and the
than the co-efficient of friction
a level road, what
is the direction of frictional force
2. When a wheel is rolling on

between the wheel and the road?

of the wheel in contact with the road moves
Ans. As the wheel is moving forward the portion along the
backward. Hence the force of friction must
be acting in the forward direction,
road and the wheel in contact.
tangent to the surfacee of the
more effective than a small one? Explain.
3. Is large brake on a bicycle wheel because
more effective than a small one
Ans. No the large brake on a bicycle wheel is not brakes
area of contact. Therefore large
the force of friction is independent of the surface
are prefered.
Why has a horse to pull a cart.
horse has to pull a cart harder, because the
Ans. During the first few steps of his motion the
the motion starts, the
horse has to work against the limitting friction. Where as once
the limitting friction.
horse has to work against the dynamic friction which is less than
5. For uniform cireular motion, does the direction of the centripetal force depend
upon the sense of rotation?
Ans. No direction of centripetal force does not depend upon the sense of rotation. It is fixed,
being along the radius and towards the centre of the circular path.
6. Why does a pilot not fall down, when his aeroplane loops a vertieal loop?
Ans. This is because at the highest point of the vertical loop, weight of the pilot is spent
providing the necessary centripetal force.
 and Energy (141)
work, Power
in dependent of actual area of contact?
Is friction
of friction does not depend upon actual area of contact.
A forve
Yes tone

Can a body ore on a curved path without having acceleration?

Can
(which is
so because while moving on a curved path, the velocity of the body
No. t is
ARs
represented by tangent to the curved path at a point) changes with time.
repre
nature of its
A body is moving on a curved path with a constant speed. What is the
acceleration?

be
curved path with a constant speed, its acceleration must
a
When a body moving on
is
A
the direction centripetal acceleration.
of motion, which is called radial acceleration or are
to doubled, what will
the speed of a body and a radius of its circular path
I f both acceleration?
happen to the centripetal

Since centripetal
acceleration a=-
AIS
2r
when 2v and r
then a' 2a
(2r
is a vector quantity? Justify?
s angular displacement
11. 0 is smal because the
displacement is a vector quantity provided angle
ARS. Angular
0, 0, +0, but A6, A6, A6, A.
+ + =

commutative law is valid. ie., 0,

+
fill a tank of
pump
floor of a up water to
building can
12. A pump on the ground and the efficiency
volume 30 m in 15 minute.
If the tank is 40m above the ground,
consumed by the pump?
Take density
is 30%, how much electric power is
of pump
of water to be 10* kg m
and g = 98 ms
volume x density 30 m3 x 10" kgm =

be pumped up is m =

Ans. The mass of water to = 3x 104 kg.

of 40m is
this water to a height
The work required in pumping up x 40m
(3 x 104 kg) 9-8 ms
x
W= mgh
= 1176 x 10J
is
minutes. The power required
This work is done in 15

W_117-6x10°13.1 kw
t15x60°
the power consumed by the pump is
30%. Hence
The efficiency of the pump is only

100 43-6kw
13-1x
 Applied Physics
SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
IDefine work. State with exanmples of (1) +ve work (ii) negative work and (iii)
ho.
work fone.

2 Show that the kinetic energy of a body of mass m moving with a velocity v is s m

3Show that the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of a body falling freely f
certain height is always constant.

Deduce an expression for the dissipation of energy of a body sliding down a rough
inclined plane.

5. Define power. Deduce co-relation between Horse power and Wat.

6. A body of mass 5 kg is raised from ground to a height 20m. How much work is done
against gravity? Ans. 980
Calculate the power required to raise 300 litre of water per minute through a vertical
height of 6m and then to deliver it through a nozle of diametre 24 cm. [Ans. 600 wati

8. The human heart suppliers 60 c.c. of blood at each heart against an average pressure of
120 mm of mercury. If the pulse frequency is 72 per minute. Calculate the power of the
heart in watt. Density of mercury = 136 gm/c.c.). [Ans. 1-15 wai

9. Find the power developed by the engine of a vehicle of mass 1 ton, if it moves at a
constant speed of 36 km/hr (a) over a horizontal road (b) up an inclined plane of gradien
1 in 20 (c) down an-inclined plane with same gradient. The co-efficient of friction is 0-07
[Ans. 9.(a) 6-86 kw: (b) 11-76 hw; (c) 196 kw
10. Calculate the difference in temperature between the water at the top and that at the bottom
of waterfall which is 200m high assuming that 75% of the heat generated remains in
water (S.I. method of solution only). W. B.Poly '071
Sol Hints: Effective potential energy = mgh x J o u l e 75
100
If 0 be the rise in temperature of water, then heat absorbed by water = m x 4200 x 6

. mx 42000 = mgh x 0.75

75x9.8x 2000.35k 0.35°C

4200
 ork, Power
and Energy 143
iron buliet aveng with a speed of 100 m/s is brought to rest after heatng a
find
bullet itself,
suming that 80%
target. A s s u of the K.E is converted intoheat in the
420 J kg
the rise
in temperatur of the bullet after impact: ven sp. heat
of iron
=

Ans. 952°C}

80
Sol. Hints:, mv'x 100 ms 6
=

17. State and explain work-energy theorem.

6 FS
7ARTC PN 3 TAi TN TA T I S I , PUPw F S= FS cos
=
= cos

Ans. H P3, T7 AT 1 , p,= mv

anfesfs, E, = mv

E,= 2m 2mv
2mv
ACR1 100% g A EYTU CT1, P, 2p=
: fbfs, E, ==2m2m
,E, p4mV= 2mv
 (144) Applied Physics
2mv mv2 x 100%
b T , "ErI qba 2 E
100-
=

mv

mvx 100% = 300%

mv
5

Ams. AR, Tss, E = 5mv'

3 1, p = mv

A d p? =2mE,
p P 2mE

g e e f T1, p, = 2mE

fo1009% COa, EyTY o E , =2E,

FTE ERT1, P, = 2mE, = 2mx2E, = 4mE,

= =2
P V2mE
=
141

P2-P-41-1 041
Pi 1

GHTSCOTAMAI = 2 x 100% = 041x100% = 41%.

P1
6.

Ans. ae TA FEAN * I774, UTA , FEPR W =FS cos 01 4 ut

7.
Ans. A JPAI 7 9TR IIA,
a7 C , v = u' 2fs,, 0 -
= u?- 2fs
u
s,2f
2u=44,
2f 2f
 ork, Power and nergy (145
.

AS
1x 11
ma
UA 41F
=

= Pv = nav
a = T%

2
2S
V=

P = mav = m

S2
P 2m or, or, or, S a t" Sat?

9.

10.

Applied Paysic-l- 10
E
E
Work Power and Energy
4

18. 3kg 4 ATR fA aRI CA A oa 40Ts 0-51 aa 3a 8N

Ans. 1 T ATI5 TAATA,

F uR umg
= 0-5 x 3 x9:8 14:7N
148
Applied Physics

OA RTTaRT R I ae 45°1 P = F.IA A

R5 (P)

V R sine V

H
HR cos 0
(cD) H)
Work,
Power and Energy 49

i (F)
A

WORKED-OUT PROBLEMS

5
Soln.: qEA 1 r F A u =
72 km/hr =
72 x
10 m/s = 20 m/s
9T41, v = 0

Hk0-2

S ?
a = ?
(150 Applied Physics
F = uR = umg = 0:2 mg

. F = - ma. ; a >

ma = 0 2 mg

a = -02 x 9:8 -196 m/s

0-(20-2x196*S S= (20 -= 102.04m

2x1-96

= 102-04 m.

R R R
mg a sa
mg
HR UF TTOR, TEAR 2F= mg
or, 24 P mg
or, 24R=mg ["F=HR]
[R= P]
mg2x9.8
2P*2x4x9.R025 :P 4kgwt, =4 x9:8 N]
3. 10g 4I V 400 m/s
FY A B 390g Aa f R JT aTs

+
m,u, m,u, =
(m, + m,)V
10
1000 400+0 = S90+10) V
1000 [oT (m) 10g
=

V
4000
40010 m/s,
IOA (M) 390g)
=
 rk, Power
and Energy
Work
Po
151)
B (E) = HR A* (M +
m)g
390+10) 400
x9:8 h" 1000 X 9.8
T000
al,
F= (M + m) a

400 400 400

1000 10004* x9:8
1000
a 4 * 9-8

1 TAT*I KUE R v =u?-

-2aS
0-(10-2 *4 * 98 x 20

100
h2x9.8x 20255 -01 . =0.255
4. 2kg 41 TC N TA 30° TH 20N (a) DRA (b) Q10

Soln.: (a) P DAI 7

R
P sin 30
P cos 30- F = mf . . ( i ) RIA F

FR T TAT 7, R +P sin 30° mg,.i) =

F HR F P cos 30°
i) CRT RR= mg- P sin 30
mg
(ii) t-9 A a3 F =
H(mg- P sin 30°)
4,6) R4F 4A TA APT I P cos 30°- H(mg-P sin 30°) =mf
THA,P 20N, H =0-4, m = 2kg, f=?

20-0-4(2 x98-20x)-2
or, 103-0-4 (19-6- 10) = 2f
or, 103-3-84 2f
.f=6.74 m/s
10sec avA,
u0,t 10, v = ?,f674 m/s
 152) Applied Physics
Vu+ ft 7

V 0+6 74 10 67-4 m/s

. 10 sec AT A = 67-4 m/s.

(b) P a T

R
P cos 30°-F =
mf...()
Pcos 30
30 P
R mg+ P sin 30°.i) -.
mg
Psin 30
=2 x98+20x 2
=
19-6+ 10 =29-6 N.
7 , F = HR = 0:4 x 29 6 11 84 N
.Pcos30°- 1184 2xf
or, 20 x
2
-

11 84 2f . f 2:74 m/s2
10 sec R V , v = u + ft = 0+2:74x 10 27-4 m/s.

D B T 10 sec 27-4 m/s

4
ITAJTT

mlg mig 4 033

6. 4341 UyT V 200 410
kg A57 RU UR FAVAIG AH FO
cN1tRCE ZA? COI ATT H, = 0.5.
Work, wer and Energy

Soln. 1C, M- 200 kg. u, = 0D.5

153
hI , F ~

A,R |R -q afem
HMg0.5 200 x 9.8N x
98ON

H eota (R) mg =

U (E) = H mg
F= ma
. ma H8 * V= 0, u =
10 m/s, s =
25m

v2 = u 2as

0 (10 - 2a x 25
0 100 2 x
Hg x 25 =
100-2 x x 9.8 x 25
A
100
=0.204
490
8. 50 kg G9R 4 D t CATTINTY TAC 9 iyG y fM 5 kg PID TAP

Soln.: AT 3A, Ped cdy17 TRT6 csBr cNTAI = x

Mu = mvV (M CNAYI ; m -> T9P07 ; V > PT9I A)

or, 50x = 5 x 10 . x==1 m/s

u = l m/s

V0
a= ?

s ?

v = u-2as
0 (1 -2 x .196 xs T , F =
umg
=
ma
 154) wApplied Physics
a ug= 0 02x9 8
2x0196
s 2.55m =0-196 m/s1
9. 0.1 s -0 f 4ft Tyf CofarTR B 2 kg 41 T fT

(i) 10 ACS TAT yTO FE (i) 10 GABTS TTA F

(ii) 10 I S TG F (iv)10 s e a fra

Soln.: A, m =
2 kg, u =0, F =
TN, H =0.1, t 10S, W =?
( F ) 7N
( ) = uR = umg = 0.1 x 2 x 9.8 = 1.96N

TG(p) ==7- 1.96 =

5.04N (-77 T4 ]
ATG (a)= =2-52 m/s

10 ATE reTE AY s , S=ut+at

or, s=0+x2.52x(10) or, s =
1.26 x 100 126m

() es 7 1 =q . = FS =7 x 126 882 J
()1-30 r =fs cos 180= -
fs [ cos 180- 1]
-
1.96 x 126 J = -

246.96 J
(ii) AiTD R r =PS = 5.04 x 126 635 J
(iv) 10 AIG AA YT AI, v
V =
u+ at =
0 + 2.52 x 10 =
25.2 m/s

pTe off =mv =x2x(25-2 =635

T O a b = (635 0)J 635 J

(a)T7-afefam (b) UUR BYTo (c) Cap (d) G7

Aps. (c) CRaT
Work Powerand Energy
(155)
2 CRO
(a)fe (b) q7
(c)f7fbana (d) afefT
Ans. (b)
3. T1T

(b) a
(a) (c) TT (d) a 97b G o
Ans. (a)

Ans. (a) [ *Ta1 AtP arst3a TC1

(d) tATDR
Ans.(b)RaTbU AI [ P 8 F aR]

(8)4,H>M
Ans. (c) 4,> 4 (PER)

Ans. (a) eR CAT HT I

(a)9.8N b) IN c) SN (d) 0.2N

Ans. (a) 9.8N
PI F = pR = umg = 0.2 x 5 x 9.8N]

(a) 0.2 kgwt (b) 0.5 kgwt (c) 2.5 kgwt (d) 5 kgwt
Ans. (c) 2.5 kgwt. P
R
1
2F 1 kgwt or, 2 x
R =

Tkgwt
 (156 Applied Physlcs
or, R 2 x 0.4*2:5kgw |

(a) q (c) opyn

Ans. (c) vf¢a TeN q |

(a) Cbt (b) 5 t Y (c) AT (d) CptatfoTe |

2 2F

Soln:
(a)
F b) ( (d) mtiDR

T U () = mv

aE uoy av, s2 =
vt =t
m

2m m Ans. (a)

(a) 250 N (b) 275 N (c) 262.5 N (d) 375 N

Soln: 5m CRT (rTA *p A7 RE A VTA-
v2= u2+ 2gh =0 + 2x 10 x 5 =
100 u = 10 ms-l

TpE ATE RT RA, NTA 10

=
=100 ms
10
O U 77 ma 2.5 x 100
= = =
250N
ayTyaGA+ TOI TI1 250+ mg =
250+ 25
=
=275N Ans.
Ans. (b) 275 N
275 N
(a) S
Ans. (d) R (d) 7 a
 Work, Power and Energy (157)

(c)T3 UTOI d) RTAT1 AUTUI

Ans. (a) sATIN AUJU

b) Aa Tt (etta

Ans.(a) T0 AT N®tG CATRITRa

(a) 4 (d) 24 (c) 3 mg

Sin
E
Soln.: F mg sin&+ umg cos8

F, =
mg sinG -

umg cose Vmg cos

OP, F = 2F,
mg
mg sin+ u mg cos6 = 2 (mg sine umgcos6)
FAHIT MEAITIT tane = 3 Ans. («) 34

(a) ug cos6 (b) g sine (c)g(sin6-ucos6) (d) utane

Ans. (C) g(sin6-ucos6)
PD AATO fR UITI CAT OO T1I|5 0.5 ; I 0N
19. 2 kg TA

(a) 5N (b) 10N (c) 4N (d) none of these

Ans. (c) 4N
20. TAUT3TRT 25- ms RU AA RUE 20 kg US 44 TOR R1 CY CITATSIO ATBT 4

(a) 78-13 N (b) 10 N (c) 100-25N (d) 5825

Soln.: v = u2 -

2as, u = 25ms, s = 80m, v = 0

2 xax80 =625 a=-

625
160

f=ma =20x-625 78-1 Ans. (a) 78:13 N

160
Ans. (c) TATAI
X

G
 UNIT

4 ROTATIONAL MOTION
asaaaadaakaasaaic
a ROTATIONAL MOTION

eseribing a circular path

A body de
or
rotating about a fixed axis perpendicular to the plane
said to
said to H
have rotatory or circular motion.
tion is
Angular displacement (0)
slar displa
The angular displacement of a particle undergoing circular motion, during certain interval o
The
time,
defined
defined as the angle swept out by the radius vector during that interval.
the angle in radian, S be the arc traversed by the particle and r be the radius vector
fe be
then, we h a v e

S ro9 . 0=

S.I. unit of angular displacement Radian

Dimension: M°L°T°
Angular velocity (o):
The rate of change of angular displacement (®) w.r.1. time is called angular velocity.

d
dt
S . I . Unit : rad S-1
Dimension : M°L°T-1
I Relation between angular vel ocity (o) and time period (T):
Time period is defined as the time taken by body to complete one revolution. in one revolution
angular displacement = 2t.

In T secs angular displacement =

2
1 secs angular displacement

Another form of unit of o:

T.p.m. revolution per minute
p.s.> revolution per sec.
Conversion of r.p.m. to rad/sec.
EXample : Let o = 80 r.p.m.
159
160 Applied Physics
S0x 2
or, radsocrad sec m ne mwwatiom angwlar displaaremema
60
rwutiom mmeans angular dispvacement is x

relation between o d T:
Application of the
Angular velocity of second hand of watch =rad/s.
( 60

(ii) Angular velocity of minute hand of watch: rad/s.

60x 60

2
(ii) Angular velocity of an hour hand of watch 1260x60 s

its axis
2 rad/s.
(iv) Angular velocity of the earth adout own :
24 x 60x 60

(v) Angular velocity of the earth around the sun; 365.25

2
x 24x60x 60 rad/s
Relation between angular velocity (») and linear velocity (v)
Since, S = re

y=ro
acceleration (a) :
Angular
The angular acceleration of a rotating body is defined as the rate of change of angl
velocity w.r.t. time.

do
dt
S.I. Unit: rad s-2 Dimension: M°L°T
Relation between linear acceleration () and angular acceleration (a):
Since, v ro

dt
f=rx
D CENTRIPETAL FORCE:
Defintion: Centripetal force is defined as the constant force which is contin
needed to move a particle in a circular path with a constant angular speed and wn
ofth
always directed towards the centre and perpendicular to the direction of motion
particle is called centripetal force.
 Rotational Motion
If v be the linear
be the
velocity at any instant of time and r be the radius of
the circular path and
161)
m mass of the particle, then the
magnitude of centripetal force (F) can be expressed as.

my2

F= = mø°r
where he the
o
angular speed.
S.I. Unit : Newton.
Dimension [MLT-2]
Centripetal force is a no-work force. Why 7
Ans. As direction of
centripetal force is perpendicular to the motion of the particle, the
displacement vector and force are
mutually perpendicular to each other.
so

work =
F-` =
FS 90°
cos = 0
O CENTRIFUGAL FORCE:
Definition: Centrifugal force is defined as the fictitious or
and pseudo force
opposite to the centripetal force, acting radially outwards which is equal
body kept on a rotating frame of reference moving with uniform away from the centre of a

The magnitude of the

velocity.
centrifugal force acting on a body of mass m moving with velocity v
along a circular path of radius ris same as that of the
body along the circular path. Hence, centrifugal force cancentripetal force required to move the
be mathematically
expressed as,
mv
F=- mo'r
S.I.S.I. unit: Newton
Dimension: [MLT-2
Uses of circular motion:
(a) Wheels in car and machine. m,-r
(b) Motor, Fan, Grinder etc.
(c) Motions of planets, stars, Glaxies, artificial satellites.
(d) Tape, Hard disc, CD etc. In every field there is an extensive uses
of circular motion.
MOMENT OF INERTIA ()
Definition: Moment of inertia of a body about a given axis may be defined as the sum
of the products of masses of all the
particles of the body and squares of their respective
perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation.
I =
m+ mr, +
m = Emr2
S.I. unit
kgm2 Dimension of M.I. {ML]] =

Value ofI depends on: (i) Mass (i) position of axis of rotation, (ii) orientation of the axis
of rotation (iv)
shape of the body (v) Size of the body (vi) distribution of mass of the body
about the axis of rotation scalar quantity. (vii) Scalar
quantity.
Applied Physics-I- 11
(162 Applied Physics
PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF MOMENT OF INERTIA :
In case of linear motion mass is the measure of
inertia.
That means force is requiree
ired
change the inertial nertial state of the body. As mass is more, more force is required
produce same acceleration. Similarly Torque is required to change the inertial state of rotati
body and produce angular acceleration. Like force (mass x linear acceleration) of inertia
angular acceleration. Hence we conclude that moment of inertia (T) plays the same role
rotational motion as mass (m)
quantities are given below
plays in linear motion and rotational motion of some phys
Linear motion Rotational motíon
(a) Linear displacement (S). (a) Angular displacement (9).
ds de
V=
(b) Lincar velocity dt
(b) Angular velocity::o= dt
dv
(c) Linear acceleration: a= C) Angular acceleration : a =
dt dt
(d) Mass m. (d) Moment of inertia: I = Zmr

(e) Linear momentum p= mv. (e) Angular momentum L = Io

dL
( Force : F=ma =dp T o r q u e : t= la =
dt
dt

(8) Translationl k.E =2 mv2 =P

2m
()Rotational k.E lo?= 21
F. S. (h) Work done = .
(h) Work done: W =

() Power: P=FV= () Power: P=-= to.

t
t

G) V = u t at 0) 2 =@ +at

(k)v2=u2 2as (k) ot+at

1) 2 2 =o +2 a
()sut a 2

O RADIUS OF GYRATION
The radius of gyration of a body about a given axis of rotation is the perpendicular distansuch
from the axis to the point where whole mass of the body is assumed to be concentrated s
mass. The
that the body shall have the same of inertia as it has with the actual distribution of
distance is represented by K called radius of gyration.
Rotational Motion (163)
1 MK.k> radius of gy gvration
Example: Radius of gyration of solid sphere diameter as axis.

Moment ofinertia MR2

2
MK MR, K=R
bodies
Some examples of Moment of inertia of regular rigit
Rigid body Axis Diagramn Moment of inertia

Uniform and of Perpendicular to rod

1. ML
length L and mass through the centre.
12
M
2. Uniform circular Perpendicular to its I = MR

ring of radius R. plane and through

the centre.

3. Uniform circular Perpendicular to its

disc of radius R. plane and through IMR
the centre.

4. Solid sphere of
radius R.
Diameter IMR

SOLUTION OF MOMENT OF INERTIA OF SOME REGULAR BODIES

a thin
1. Moment of inertia of a thin uniform rod: Let us consider M be the mass of
an axis
uniform rod of length L. We have to calculate moment of inertia of thin rod about
YY passing through the centre O of the rod and perpendicular to its length.

mass per unit length of the rod (p) = Y

Let consider a small element of length dx of the

us
rod at a distance x from the centre.
M
mass of the element (dm) = p dx =dx
L
Since moment of inertia of this element about the
gIven axIS

M
mass x (distance)? =dm x* ="x
L
dx

Moment of inertia of the whole rod can be found out by the process of integration.
 Applied Physics
M MI
- dx dL 12
2. Moment of Inertla of a uniform hollow sphere about a diameter: Let M be the
and R be the radius of a hollow sphere with centre 0. We have to calculate M.I. ofmasn
sphere about diamcter YOY' of the sphere. As the sphere is hollow, so the mass
of
sphered uniformly over its surface.
Surface area =
4nR
M
mass per unit area of the sphere, p="
4TR2
Let us consider a small element of the hollow sphere in the
form of a ring of radius x and width dx.
O

Since, sin 9=.

R
XR sin 9 =radius of the elementary.
circumference elementary ring = 2tx = 2nR sine

and width of ring = AB = dx = Rde

Mass of the elementary ring = p(2TR sinê)R de

m M sin6)R de = sin de
4TR
M.l. of elementary ring about YOY' = mx*

d-in
2
de(Rsin9Rsinee
Now integrating over the whole spherical surtace, we ger, a0t

IMsin?0 sine de= 1-cos sin@ de

MI-(1-cos eJa(cose) =- MR os8 C o s - C o s e

2 3
J0

cosT-cos0-(cos T-cosi --M

=MR
Rotational Motion
taMoment of inertia ofa uniform solid
(165)
dlameter Let M be the
Lel M mass and R
sphere about a
be the radius of
i
unilorm s o l isolid sphere with centre O.
We have to
inertia of this sphere about its diameter
calculate
m o m

YOY"
per unit volume of the solid sphere,
M
Now
mass
p= -

mR
o
Letus consider thin hollow spherical shell in between radius x
.

andx+ dx.

ofthe elementary hollow spherical shall 4tx'dx

olume =

Mass of the elementary

hollow spherical shell (m)
p(4mx* dx) =

3M
m 4TR3
d)-d
Moment of inertia of the elementary hollow spherical shell

Now integrating over the whole solid sphere from O to R,

-ja-
MOMENT OF A FORCE OR TORQUE:
Dejinition: The torque or moment of a force about a fixed axis is defined as the turning
effect produced by the force and is measured by the product of force and the perpendicular
distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the force. The direction of
torque will be perpendicular to the plane containing line of action of force and distance
vector.

DIRECTION OFMOMENT OFAFORCE:

fthe rotation is clockwise then the moment is taken as negative and
lordirection
anticlockwise rotation, the moment is taken positive. And
as
90°
torque is L to the plane of paper. When the force F is
Perpendicularto the line OA, then torque tis given by t= OA. F=

But when the force F is directed at an angle 0 with the line OA, then-
Torque, t = OA x F sin 0 = rxF sin

T rF sin F sin 6

n vector form torque may be written as, |i fxF|

=

F cos 6
 Applied Physics
Sinm and an' vectorN and theit mulet f is also a vector. So it is written

Units and Dimensiom: S.. unit Nm

Dimension : M.T'1. = {M"T'1
Though the dinensim of tonque is same with the dimension of work.
But the twe physical quantities ae not same. Torquue is vector but work is scaler
quantity
COUPLE
Definition: When two cqual nlike parallel forees act on a body at two different p
constitute a couple which produces turning effect like torque.
Moment of the coupe:
FA
The moment of the couple about any point in its plane is equal to the
prauct of one of the forces forming the couple and the perpendicular
distanee between the two forces.

when the parallel unlike forces makes an angle 0 with radius vector f, then
Moment of couple, t = rF sin0

In vector form:
t=ix
o UNITS AND DIMENSION IS SAME AS TORQUE OR MOMENT OF FORCE
Angular Momentum (lo):
Definition : The angular momentum (L) of a body about an axis is the product ofis
moment of inertia (1) about the axis and its angular velocity (o).

S.I. units: kg m's-

Dimension : [MLT-I]
Nature: Angular momentum is a vector quantity. It has magnitude and direction alon
the axis of rotation.

ORelation between linear and angular momentum (p and L):

As moment of force is called torque, similarly angular momentum (L) is defined as
moment of linear monientum (p).

L=ixp =rxmv|
L = i x mv = mvr
sin0 n
where i s the angle between radius vector and linear momentum and is the unit
perpendicular to the plane containing f and mv.
Rotational Motion (167
when 9 . L=mvr
oRELATION BETWEEN TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM:
Since torque
We know from Newton's 2nd law, Force rate of change of linear momentum.
=

of linear momen-
is rotational analogue of force and angular momentum is rotational analogue
tum, therefore we can write,

dL
dt
Proof: Since, t = Ia = 1
dt

d dL
T(l
dt dt
of torque and
Work done by the torque: Work done by the torque is the product
displacement.
W Te
Power
dw de
= t=tw|
dt dt
with uniform
kinetic energy: When a body of moment inertia (1)
rotates
Rotational
angular speed (o), the kinetic energy of rotation is given by,

kE-lo
ON HORIZONTAL PLANE SURFACE:
BODY MOVING
OKINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATIONAL
centre of mass and
this case two
In of motion exists--one is translational motion of
types
rotational motion. Therefore total energy of the body is given by,

Total k.E=mv+

and radius r rolls down from the top of an

PROBLEM: If a solid cylinder of mass m
of the cylinder when it reaches the bottom.
inclined plane of height h, find the velocity
we know-
Ans. From the principle of conservation of energy,
Total k.E. of rolling cylinder potential
= energy

mv l mgh
68 Applied Physics-
or. mv;iy-mgh

or,
vm|=2mgh or,
v|1 2gh
h
2gh
mr

For cylinder, 1=mr 4

. v=gh

For pure translational motion, I = 0 V=/2gh

O Principle of conservation of angular momentum :
According to this principle,
when no external torque acts on a
body or
system of particles
then the total
angular momentum of the system remains constant.
Ifexternal torque, t =0

0 . L = L= constant or, Io = constant ie., |Io,=1,0,

O TWO IMPORTANT
THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA
Parallel Axis Theorem
The moment of inertia of a
inertia of the body about a
body about any axis is equal to the sum of the moment
of
parallel axis passing
through the centre of mass and the
product of its mass and the square of the distance between
the two parallel axes."
I=le +Mh2
Where I the M.I. of any axis.
I M.I. of the body
passing through the centre of mass.
hdistance between two parallel axes.
M Mass of the
body.
EXAMPLE: Find the M.l. of a thin rod about an axis
perpendicular to the
length of the rod. passing thorugh one end and
SOLUTION If mass and
length of the rod be M and L,
then we know M.I. of rod about an axis
a
passing through the centre and
to the rod is- parpendicular
h

ML
I=l+ Mh2ML ML?
12
12 ML ML
12 4 3
 Rotational Motion
169
PERPENDICULAR AXES THEOREM:

ment of inertia of a planer body (laminar) about

i s perpendicular
an axi.
to its plane is equal to the sum of
s of inerof inertia about two
its
moments
perpendicular axes con
current with
nt with perpendicular axis and lying in the
plane
of the body.

, I, +1
where,
L&1, be the M.l. of the planar body about x and y axes and I, be the M.l. o a
bodyperpendicular to the plane of the body.

XAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: If M.I. of a disc passing through the centre and perpendicular to the plane or
the disc be 2MR?, then find the M.I. about the diameter.
In this
SOLUTION case I,=1, +1,
Since I, =AMR and I, =1, =l4
Along x and y axis will be same due to symmetry.
: 2Ng =MR

lMR2
Some Problems based on Parallel & perpendicular axes theorem
1 Find the moment of inertia of a ring about the tangent to the circle of thiring.

SOLUTION: It is given only

the moment of inertia of a ring
about an axis passing through the centre and perpendicular to the
plane of the ring which is given below

first we will apply perpendicular axis theorem, to find M.I. of ring about the diameter
Since, I, =I, +1,
Since 1, = 1, -l
2 MR?
I = MR?
Now we apply parallel axis, theorem to find I
shall
Since, between two axes is R.
L=1, + MR' = hMR? + MR? = MR?
2.
Similary find the M.I. of a solid sphere about an axis tangent to the sphere.
SOLUTION: Since we know M.I. of a solid sphere about the diameler,
 Applied Physics
170
IMR R

Applying parallel axes theorem, we get

=Ie +MR MR2 +MR=MR?

SOME PRACTICAL EXAMPLES

in outstretched condition of am
Ex-1. A mancarrying hcavy weights in his hands arm.
his a r m s ?
What will happen if the man suddenly folds
When his hands were outstretched, moment of inertia was greater. But when he fol
Ans. decreases. Then according to princin
his then moment of inertia of the system
arms,
we know I@ = constant, so when I decrease
of conservation of angular momentum,
must increase.
due to folding his arms, then angular speed
A diver performs somersault by jumping from a high diving board keeping hit
Ex-2.
his body. Why ? Explain.
legsand arms outstretched first, and then curling
Due to curling his body, the moment of inertia I of his body decreases. Since from
Ans. the principle of conservation of angular momentum Io remain constant, therefore
somersault. When
» of his body increases. As a result he performs
angular velocity stretches out his limbs. As result
the diver is about to touch the surface of water, he
a

o decreases.
the moment of inertia (I) increases and hence angular velocity

BENGALI VERSION
O a sofaai (ROTATIONAL MOTION)

vector A I
AM
Radius vector 11 ZCA P T T3 I T q1 7A1 (angular displacement) 1

TAT A, qCEA CE TB (0) = _A (s)

7 s = 1, r = 1 3 7 6 = 1 rad. = 57°17'45"

A (Angular Velocity): TE TrE TEA radius vector 4

( 7AG ZT

de
dt
Rotational Motion

S.I. 9 rad. sec-

Dimension ( ) & M°LOT-I

a afT GOS (V) ¥CU T (Relation between angular and linear velocity):
Cakulus- IRIU
, S = re
o

d-,
dt dt

V Or
AT STO ATRI 313 uÓ AT sec.

T Sec- 27r 39
2tr
1
T

O $M OAA ATM INPMTA TT (Relation between angular velocity and

timeperiod):
713, 1 33 3 2T rad P 3 NI
2T rad 13 T TACR

.0

AU AC iC n 7* (Relation between angular velocity and

frequency)
1 37 27 rad 3 WI
2tn rad 99

2tn
*
Ata 444 (Unit of angular velocity)
R IKTRE rad/sec g M |
9 44 (Anotherform of its unit)
r.p.m.> revolutions per minute
72 Applied Physics
r.p.s. revolutions per second
ANA-60 r.p.m. 7ATU ANN-> ZiBI min.-9 60 1 6 3I

rp.m. (eG rad/sec-4 3°G I

80 r.p.m. min- 80 A TÉA A

2mx 80 80
60
rad/sec. sec-
60

80 2T x80
"
rad 99 99

60 60
2Tx 80
1 sec- 21X rad 3
60
0 4 T-43 r ataN (Application ofthe relation between o and T

21t
60x 60
rad/sec.
27
12x60x60 rad/sec

27t
24x60x60 rad/sec.

1lt2
365.25x 24x 60x 60 rad/sec.

do
dt
Unit (4) > 21
rad/sec2
Dimension (ATM|) -> M°L°T-2
Rotational Motion 173
J (a) a¥e yeta (n a ys (Reketion betveen angular andinear
vdrution)
Cakuus «a MYEU NNY *, s = rtd

ds de

dt dt

dv do
dt dt

a=ra

T 4 R (MOMENT OFINERTIA)

I Emr
T 4 S.I. : kgm2

Tyata N (Physical Significance of moment of inertia):

T , Caf s CA, 37M, F = 4 x tas ya| 7efe, F = ma.

Ia
7 Applied Physics

afRe uatasi mv, t s eaas1 = lo

(a) N PE (M ML
12

I = MR

1-MR
(d) At TT IEMR
6PIO TPHTRÍ (RADIUS OF GYRATION)

a I, M 9R 53Ptoa U K A, I = MK?

kM

I=MR

Mk- MR
Rotational Motion
Motion
1752

(a) C37 T9 (a)

de
dt
(b) dt

do de9
(c)af f= d's f a =
(c) dt dt
dt dt
(d)e m (d)
(e) F=ma (e) D T = la

Zat UIA p =mv a A» L =lo

()a tE mv (8)

h) v
= u t at (h)
) = u : 2as = o +2a6

) s=ut +at G) =o,tat

OySt (CENTRIPETAL FORCE)

(Mathematical expression) m r a TSTN v

7NE
9id
v
= o'r

Inv
= mø'r
r

ra 7 (NO-WORK FORCE)

FEN = F-` = Fs cos6 = F s cos 90 = 0

(176 Applied Physics
Totcw at (Centrtfugal reaction): rebrAA YUH ZATTI, ATAM Bf

yte (Centrifugal force)

my
= mo'r

A a (MOMENT OF AFORCE OR TORQUE):

AV

a =n/2 7, T|=rF|
Rotational Motion
11)
T = |MLT2]|L] = ML'T?

(Couple):

B I aN (Moment of the couple) 1 D (Torque) : 3 A-AI ga 13

=TxF=F|F| sin9D

f NTAN (ANGULAR MOMENTUM)

i t GAACA Ntat e g o
(Dimension and units of angular momentum)
AIRY, AA, L = lo»
1 , I = Emr?

21
T
Applied Physies-J- 12
178 Applied Physics
[L] = {1] [o] = [ML]. [T'] = MLT

S . I . n f b r s L'-43 4 = kgm's'

O a s iUATATTI F*f¢ (Relation between Linear and angukar momentm

um)

L=fxp=fxm

CNURS L= mvr
NT: [L] = MLT-L =MLT1

nh
mvr =

2
A14 h a Ma = [MLT]

O GATAI UAfT Ute (Geometrical meaning of angular momentum)

L 2m.4A.dA
dt dt CTA Areal velocity.

dt 2m

a e As UaA 7 (Relation between torque and angular momenu

Rotational Motion (179)

dL
=

dt

T=d (Ia) =la|; a - AA

dt dt
f UINTA RTF (Principle of conservation of angular momentum)

ARY TR , T =
0

1, l o = 4
T, =0
dt
L=

UR tnRat (PRACTICAL EXAMPLE)

N-

T
Rotational Motion
ww w
(181)

ML
e12
TA, L > TUI TRT

M TGA U -h

ML ML ML
l M L

+Mh2-M+Ml
?

12 12 4

a R GAAU (Theorem of Perpendicular Axes)

YTA|
RITA, I, > x-WATTITF TRy

z-WPAITIT UJ |
,

ATRY, I, =I, +ly

2MR2
AICRY, I, =

y
MR=2
T AMR?
 Applied Physics
(182) & Answers:
Objective-Type Questions
is vector ?
1. Which of the following quantity
(b) moment of inertia
(a) Torque (d) work
(c) rotational kinetic energy

Ans. (a) Torque

quantity is scalar ?
2. Which of the following
(a) Angular momentum (b) Torque
(c) angular speed (d) moment of inertia.
Ans.
Ans. (d) moment of inertia.
Moment of inertia of a disc about an axis passing through the centre and perpen-
3.
dicular to the plane of the disc is

(a) MR2 b)MR (c)MR2 (d)MR

3

Ans. (b)MR?
4. Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder about an axis passing through the axis of
the cylinder is

(a) MR2 0b)MR (e)MR2 (d) MR2

Ans. (a) MR?
5. Which of the following moment inertia is the moment of inertia of a solid sphere
about an axis passess through its diameter ?

(a) MR2
(b)MR (c)MR (d)MR
Ans. (c) MR2
6. The angular speed of second hand of a clock is
(a) 27 rad/s (b)rad/s
() rad/s (d)
(d) 1800rad/s,
Ans. (c) rad/s

When milk is charred, cream separates out because of .

(a) cohesive force (b) gravitational force
(c) viscous force (d) centrifugal force.
Ans. fd) centrifugal force.
Rotational Motion 183
30 rpm can be expressed in rad/s as
8. The angularspeed
1800
(a) (b) 301 (d) R00

Ans. (a) T Since 30 rp.m.= 30x 260

The magnitude of centripetal force with usual notations can be expressed ass

(d) mr
mv

(a) mv'r (b)

Ans. (c) mv
r

10. When a particle moves in a circle with uniform speed

(a) Its velocity and acceleration are both constant
(b) Its velocity is constant but the acceleration changes C
(c) Its acceleration is constant but velocity changes
(d) Its velocity and acceleration both change
Ans. (d) Its velocity and acceleration both change.
[Since direction changes for both]
Two cars having masses m, and m, move in circular path of radii r, and r, respec-
11.
and the circular
complete in equal time, the ratio of their angular speed
path
tively
, is
m
(d) 1:1
(a) b) m,
Since w= and Tis same for both
Ans. (d) 1:1|

l is connected to a and the other

particle of mass m
12. One end of a string of length
in a circle of radius r
end to a small peg on a horizontal table. If the particle moves
towards the centre is
with speed v, the net force on the particle directed

(a) T (b) T-mv (c) T+ (d) 0.

Ans. (a) T
tension is the net force ]
[ Tension is provided for centripetal acceleration, so

moving with uniform speed v along a circle of

13. The fig. shows a body of mass m

radius r. The change in speed is going from A to B is

(c) v (d) 0
(a)v b)
Ans. (d) 0
184 Applied Physics--
in going from A to B is
14. In the above question, change in velocity
(c) v (d) 0.
(a) v (b)
Ans. (a) v2
wo vectors are at right angles. So resultant wil!
Since velocity is vector so
be

15. If the radius of the circular path of a particle going around the circle i
doubled without changing its frequency of rotation, then centripetal force on it
is
(a) unchanged (b) doubled (c) halved (d) quadrupled.
Ans. (b) doubled
Since F = m@r, as w constant, so it is doubled.]
16. A particle of mass 2 kg is moving along a circular path of radius Im. If its angular

speed is 2x rad/s, the centripetal force is

(a) 4TN (b) 47 N (c) 87TN (d) 87 N.
Ans. (d) 8rN [ Since, F = mo'r ]

17. The moment of inertia of two spheres of equal masses about their diameters are
equal. If one of them is solid and other is hollow, the ratio of their radii is-

(a) 3:5 b) 3:5 (c)5: (d) 5:3.

Ans. ()5:3 SinceI solid mrand Iholkow

18. Angular speed of hour hand of a clock in rad/s is-
Tt
(a) 30 (b) 1800 c) 21600 (d) 43200
T 21t
2 2T
Ans.
Ans. ) 21600 Since, o=T
T 12x60x 60
19. Vector form of angular momentum [ is

(a) L=pxf b) L=+x )L=f (d) L=p.f

Ans. (b)L=fxp
20. A particle is moving with uniform speed in a circular path. The point in a plane
with respect to which, angular momentum will be conserved is-
(a) centre of the circle (b) any point on the circumference
(c) the point within the circle (d) the point outside the circle.
Ans. (a) centre of the circle.
 otational Motion (185
ywheel ro
Oywheel
4
rotating about a fixed axis has a kinetic energy of 360 Joule when
ifs angular speed is 30 rad/s. The moment of inertia of the wheel about the axis
rotation is -

of
(a) 06 kgm b) 0 15 kgm? (c)08 kgm (d) 075 kgm
Ans. 08 kgm?

The dimension ofangular momentum is-

22.
(a) [ML-"TJ (b) [MLT] ()[ML'T (d)(MLT1
AS. (d) [ML'T-1]

13. The vector form of torque is-

(a) = Fxf (b) =ixF (c) =ixpP (d) =pF
ARS.b)f=YxF
24 The rotational k.E. of two bodies of moment of inertia 9 kgm2 and 1 kgm2 are

same. The ratio oftheir angular momentum is

(a) 1:3 (b) 1:9 C) 9:1 (d) 3:1
Ans. (d) 3 :1

Since, E
On an unbanked road, a cyclist negotiating a bend of radius r at velocity v leans inwards
25
by an angle.

(a) tan (b) tan (d) tan

2g
Ans. (b) tan

26. Moment of inertia of a solid sphere about an axis tangential t its surface i s

(a) MR2 6)MR2 (c)MR2 (d) MR2

Ans (c) MR2

Hints: using the theorem of parallel all =lc +MR^ =MR+ MR2-{MR?|
 (186) Applied Physles
27. A mass is attached to the end of a rod of length 1. The mass goes along a verticle
Ocity ofof ththe m
path the other end hinghed at its centre. What should be the minimum velocity
that the the circle?
completes
at the bottom of the circle so mass

(b) 2g (c) 3g (d) 4g

Ans. (d) [ Hints: As the mass is attached to the end of a rod. Which does not slac.

therefore, taking v =
0 at the highest point, from acken
u2 u2 + 2as
or, 0 u2 2 (-g 1

or, u=4g
28. The reduced mass of the system of two particle of masses M and 2M will be-
(a) M/2 (b) 2M (c) 2M/3 (d) 3M/2

Hmm2 M(2M)
(c) 2M/3H m +m2
=
Ans.
(M+2M) 3
29. A body of moment of inertia I has an angular momentum L. The rotational K.E. ofthe
body is-

(d)
a) (b)
(2
Ans. (Hints: Lor,
Iw W=
30. A solid sphere of radius R has moment of inertia = I about its diameter. What willbe
moment of enertia of a shell or same mass and same radius.

Ans. Hints: I-MR For spherical shell

r=MR MR=
31.
A body rolls without slipping. If R is the radius
ofthe body and k is radius of gyrationof
the body then the ratio of rotational K.E. to translational K.E. would be
(a) (k2 +R2 b) k/(k3+ R) () R/ (k + R) (d) k2/ R2
Ans. (d) k2/ R2

Rotational K.E. Io mko k2

Hints TranslationalK.E.
m (Ro)? R2
2
Rotational Motion 187
www

he rotational K.E. of two bodies of moment of inertia 9kgm and 1kgm are same. The
The rotational
32.
ratio of their angular momenta is-

(a)1:3 (6)1:9 (c) 9:1 (d) 3:1

As. (d)3:1

Hints: Ab =l4o or,

L o-2,=3:1
L2 I202

SHORT QUESTION-ANSWER

1. As mass of a particular body is constant, is moment of inertia of a body fixed ?

Ans. No, moment of inertia of a particular body is not fixed. Because moment of inertia
of a body depends on mass, position of axis of rotation and distribution of mass
from axis of rotation.

2. If the ice on the polar caps of the earth melts, how will it affect the duration of
the day? Explain.
Ans. Earth rotates about its polar axis. When ice of polar caps of earth melts, mass
concentrated near the axis of rotation spreads out to the equitorial region. There-
fore moment of inertia () increases.
As no external torque acts, acording to principle of conservation of angular
momentum,
L= lo= Constant

As I increases o decreases. Since @=, so T increases i.e., length of the day wil
increase.
3. For a given mass and size, moment of inertia of a solid disc is smaller than that
of a ring. Why?
Ans. This is because entire mass of ring is at its periphery ie., at maximum distance
from the centre. So the radius of gyration i.e., moment of inertia is greater. Whereas
in case of disc mass is uniformly distributed from the axis to periphery. So its
value is lower than that of ring.
4, The moment of inertia of two rotating bodies are I, and I, (,> 1) and their
angular momentum are equal. Which one has greater kinetic energy?
Ans. We know, angular momentum, L lo and kinetic energy
=
E=lo
E'o_1?
21 21
Since L =
constant, . Ea
 Applied
188
Physics
As 1,>1,
E,> E,
So whose moment of inertia is less, kinetic energy is greater for bodies of sama

momentum. mguar
5. How will you distinguish between a hard boiled egg and a raw egg h
egg by spinning
each on a table top ?
Ans. To distinguish between a hard boiled egg and a raw egE, we apPPly same torque n
both
the eggs on the table top. The egg which spins at a slower rate shall be a raw ean
Is because in a raw egg, liquid matter inside to
Cgg res get away trom the ati
rotation to the peripheral region due to centrifugal force. Therefore, its momen
inertia I increases. As, torque t = la = constant, therefore a decreases i.e., raw epo
spin with smaller angular acceleration, so it will come to rest early. Whereas for k
boiled egg which will rotate more or less like a rigid body and its moment ofinertihard
less. So the angular acceleration is greater and spins with longer time before comina
to
rest.

6. If the earth contracts to half of its radius, what would be the length of the day?
Ans. From the principle of conservation of angular momentum,

we know, I,o, =1,0

where, I = Initial moment of inertia of the earth =MR
5
2TT
o, Initial angular speed =rad/hr
24

L Final moment of inertia =

T be the new time period of the earth.

EMRx2_2R2
4T 24 T 6 hr.
So the duration of the day will be 6 hour instead of 24-hour.
7. What is the rotational analogue of (i) mass, (ii) momentum, (i)
k.E. in linear motion ?
force and
Ans. (i) Rotational analogue of mass is Moment of Inertia (1)
(ii) Rotational analogue of linear momentum is moment of linear momentu
of

angular momentum (l).

(ii) Rotational analogue of force is torque (t)

(iv) Rotational analogue of k.E =lo*

Rotational Motion
If the angular momentum of a rotating body is increased by 50%, what will be
189
the percentage increase of rotational kinetic energy of that body ?
W e know rotational kinetic energy of a body of moment of inertia I and angular
speed o,

LE(E)= lo 21
L angular momentum
IfL is increased by SO%, then new value L' = 1:5L

kinetic energy, E'=SL_2.25L2

21 21

2:25 E-E 2 25-=125

E or, E

percentage increase in k.E. = 1-25 x 100% = 125%.

99. If a hollow sphere and a solid sphere of same mass and same radius are released
from the top of an inclined plane, which will reach the ground early ?
Ans. Solid sphere will reach the ground early. Because moment of inertia of solid sphere is
less than that of hollow sphere. As mass distribution of hollow sphere is on the periph-
eral region which is far away from the axis of rotation. So moment of inertia of hollow
sphere is greater than solid sphere where mass is uniformly distributed from the axis to
the peripheral region. Therefore, as moment of inertia of solid sphere is less than hollow
sphere, angular acceleration of solid sphere will be greater and hence linear acceleration
of centre of mass of solid sphere is also greater. That is why solid sphere will reach
early.
10. Can the mass of body be taken to be concentrated at its centre of mass for the
purpose of calculating its moment of inertia?
Ans. No, The moment of inertia greatly depends on the distribution of mass about the axis of
rotation.
11. About which axis of rotation, the moment of inertia of a body is minimum ?
Ans. The moment of inertia of a body is minimum about an axis passing through its
centre of mass.
12. Two solid spheres of the same mass are made of different densities. Which of them
has a larger moment of inertia about a diameter?
Ans. The spheres of metal with smaller density shall be bigger in size and hence it will
have larger moment of inertia.
13. What are the factors on which moment of inertia of a body depend?
Ans. Moment of inertia of a body depends on following factors
() Mass of the body
(ii) Position and orientation of the axis of rotation
ii) Shape and size of the body
(iv) Distribution of mass of the body about the given axis.
 Applied Physics
(190 momentum?
Can a body is translating motion has angular
Ams. Yes. translatory motion always has an angular momementum. unles
a particle in
calculated. lies on the line ofmortion
pOint about which angular momentum is
15. Is radius of gyration of a body constant quantity
ARS. No. radius of gyration of a body depends on axis of rotation and also on distributio

mass of the body about the axis

16. there are two propellers in a helicopter
If the helicopter had only one propeller. then
due to conservation of angular momen
As the helicopter itself would tun in the opposite direction. So two propellers are used
ntum
conservation of angular momentum.
with a uniform a n
17. A person sits edge
near of a circular platform revolving
the ang
lar speed. What will be the change in the motion of the platform, if the pernon
centre of the platform ?
starts moving from the edge towards the
As. As he person starts moving from the edge towards the centre of the platform. its
moment of inertia is continuously decreasing. As we know from principle of conserva
tion of angular momentum, lo = constant, I decreases, so angular speed of the platíonm

increases.

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Define angular speed, angular acceleration, centripetal force and centrifugal force
1.
Give their S.I. units.
2.
2. What are the relations between
)linear velocity and angular velocity
acceleration
(i) linear acceleration and angular
(ii) torque and angular momentum
momentum.
(iv) I inear momentum and angular
momentum.
3. State the principle of conservation of angular
What is the relation and state their S.I. units.
4. Define torque and angular momentum.
S.
named like moment of force. What is its
5. Define moment of inertia. Why it is so

moment of inertia.
unit ? Mention the linear analogue of

centripetal acceleration ? Why is it called ?

so
6.6. What is

. Find the value of angular speed of

) Second hand of watch (ii) Minute hand of watch
(i) Hour hand of watch
of earth about its own axis.
(iv) Angular speed of rotation
Rotational Motion (191)
I f no external torque acts on a body, will its angular velocity remain conserved ?

IHints: l = constant, ifl vary then w willals vary]

Using expression 1or k.E. of rotation, find the value of torque.

|Hints: k.E., E= la'

do do
2l - 2 0 l l o
dt dt dt
=I a o =t) = Power

Torque t= la|
(192) Applied Physics-
(1)-

MRo, = o, a. MR* MR2 IT, ST, F *

5

i, 24 f TE7, T, =24 hr
4T 4T
T =
6 hr

a L= =l
dt

(1@)-1l

qN A , L = lo, AMA L A EAAI 4R 0 A A

394 offs, k=lo=fa

Rotational Motion
(193

L = ]

e41-11I,,>1

MM 4Tna), «feafe
k-o
klo 2121
1t1MA (L) A 50% A NA TÚ AT 71.SL
512.251?
k
21 21
.2
k 2.25
(2)).225
k'-k
T fs g =
x100%= 100% =
1:25x 100% =
125
k
. MUA 7 = 125%

Applied Physies-I- 13
194) Applied Physics

1. (M)
2. 35 7 g
3. f t c TYA
4. I C

my?
 UNIT

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

ELASTICITY
slasticity: The property, by virtue of which a body tends to recover its original
Elasticity: The
ration (shape &
configuratio size) on the
removal of the deforming forces, is called
ain : It
It is
is
elasticuy
defined as the relative change in configuration due to the application ol
Strain:
forces is called strain.
Heforming
the
be the
Let vhe
change in volume and V be the
original volume, then
volume strain =y
Ifl he the elongation and L be the initial length, then
Longitudinal strain

SI, unit of strain : No units, because it is the ratio of two same physical quantities.

Dimension: M°L'T°
Stress: It is defined as the restoring force per unit area due to which it recovers its
original configuration on the removable of deforming forces is called stres.
Restoring force
Stress
Area
S.I. unit: Nm-2

Dimension: -ML-"T°||
Elastic limit : Elastic limit is that value of load which gives maximum recoverable
Pxtension. Within elastic limit all bodies acts as a perfectly elastic.
Plasticity: It is the property of a substance by virtue of which a body remains in
the deformed state and does not even partially regain its original shape after the removal
of the deforming forces is called the plasticity of the body.

Hook's law
Within elastic limit stress is proportional to strain, stress oc strain

stress =constant.
strain
TConstant of proportionality is known as modulus of elasticity.
. 2
unit of Modulus of elasticity =
Nm".
Dimension = [ML-TZ]
195
196) Applied Physics
OStress-strain diagram of an elastic body:
In the stress-strain diagram it is seen that up to point A stress (a strain and it follows lonk
law. From A to B, stress and strain are not propor-
tional, but if the load is removed at anypoint between
O and B. the curve will be retraced and the material B
C
A
willregain its original configuration. From O to B the
material exhibits elastic behaviour and the point 3 is
called yield point. Beyond the point B say at C; the
material does not come back to its original length but
travesses the dashed line and it produces a permanent
E Strain 30%
set OE. Further increase of load beyond point C <1%
produces a large increase in strain until a point D is
reached at which fracture takes place Region B to D is known as Plastic region.

On which factors Modulus of elasticity depends?

(i) Nature of stress and strain.

(ii) Temperature
(ii) Nature of material
(iv) Nature of machining & heat treatment.

Different elastic constants

() Young's Modulus of elasticity (Y) : Within elastic limit it is the ratio of the longitudinal
stress to the longitudinal strain.

Y=Longitudinal stress F/nr?

F>force.
Longitudinal strain 81/
S.I. unit: Nm-2
Dimension : [ML-'T2]
(i) Bulk modulus of elasticity (k):
Within elastic limit it is defined as the ratio of volume stress to volume strain.

k
Volume stress ZA-
Volume strain dv dv.
V V
S.I. unit: Nm2
Dimension: [ML-IT-2]
(ii) Compressibility:
is
Compressibility of a material is the reciprocal of its bulk modulus of elasticity (k)
Av/v
(e)
Properties of Matter (197
nressibility
C
may also be defined as the volume strain per unit pressure.
the molecules of solid and liquid are closely packed in comparison with gaseous
As
ce. so the compressibility of solid and liquid is very small, but for gas its value is very
s u b s t a

large.

S.I. unitof : Pascal-or, m?N

Dimension MLTM1r]

(v) Modulus
of rigidity : (1)
Within elastic limit it is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain.
shearing stress
shearing strain
S.I. unit : Nm2
Dimension :[ML-IT
() Poisson's ratio : (o)
the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain.
Within elastic limit it is defined as

Lateral strain dr
Longitudinal strain
indicates that length increases diameter decreases.
-ve sign as

S.I. unit: unit less physical quantity.

Dimension: [M°L°T°
the statement "strain is fundamental than stress."
Justify -
more

The above statement is justified because stress depends on strain.

As stress is a function of strain, we can say strain is more fundamental than stress.
We know
a deforming force is first applied on a body and the body is deformed.
After the removal of deforming force, a restoring force per unit area i.e. stress is then
fact that strain occurs first
developed to recover its original configuration. So it is clear from the
and stress follows the amount of strain. Therefore we can conclude that strain is more
fundamental than stress.
Relation between elastic module and constants:

Y 3k(1 -20) (0)

Y 2n(1 +o). .2)
3 . 3
n 3k

3k-2 .(4)
6k + 2n
(190 Applied Physses-
whereY Yeng's moululus f elasfin ity
K lk muduls «laotiity
Mluls f igindiny
'igern'e tati
Foree conotant uf spring (k)
Trom Mok'e law we kmw tat withen «lastin limil strain 1s prnntal tr appliud .
fne 1f hu the applmd furu tm the spriny e
ie, clongation is proptional applied as
xhe elongation, then

- kx, where k is the spring nstant where unit is Nm.

Now if be the restoring force by the spring, then,

kx
Definition of spring constant : Force required to ncreae unit elongatíom of spring

S.1. unit: N/m or Nm

Stored Potential energy in a spring:
Since force is varíable and al
Work done = Average force cxtension

w.0F.1-FI
W
2 2
Stored potential cnergy per unit volume

W F IIE, strews strain

VAI 2 A

BENGALI VERSION
fefeatro1 (Elasticley)
Properties of Matter (199
Rfea a (unit of strain)

AMTaT [M°LOT"]

S.I. 4(unit): N/m2 = Nm-2

ATAT (Dimension) : -M[MLT|

E-MLT

RP (Hook's law)

S.I. 9 (unit): zoq 1T7 4 N/m? Nm2

Dimension (TET) = ML-'T2

-Rpfo TE PI IR aA Ifie a i (proportional) BR R9T TAI (elastic

200 Applied Physics

sing stress) T

B
D

-----
o K1%
E Strain 30%

Area frqT (Different elastic constants)

(a) a 17 (y) > Young's modulus
(b) A fP 1H14 (k) -> Bulk modulus
(c) yoi 2 t (n) -> Modulus of rigidity.
(d) Poisson's Ratio (o)

orR (Longitudinal or tensile strain)

y a (Longitudinal or tensile stress)

TTr
 ii
-
 Applied Physics-
202)
of rigidity)3
(d) po 291 (Modulus
U 1IFIE (shearing strain) a e r
oqi T NT4T FVA YA (shearing stress)

S.I. 9 8 Nm2 WTET[ML-T2]

dl/l

TT (Dimension): [M°LITO)
»PR1* 11 e NCT T (Relation between elastic module and
constant) 3

Y 3k (1 -20) . . . (1)
Y 2n (1 + o)..(2)

.3

3k-2n .4)
6k +2n
Properties of Matter 203)
ett (Force constant of a spring)

Fax or. F kx | MR k 7 Pt-

Restoring force) E -

F kx

S.I. S Nm-
in
-4 C TÓTAT FoN g T (Stored Potential energy

springdue to elongation):
RTR, F a x, TO3R x TTII ) T A Pa 7 I (NT 7NSTA EeÉT ZZF
TRxU ,
_0+F

W- Fxk[ F=kx]

Pt E,= kx*
Ag5 P a r (Potential energy per unit
s o r pf 4 A

volume in a stretched wire)

FR (W) =TY 7x 7A =Fl

: =AL]

x axfap
(204
Applied Physics
WORKED-OUT EXAMPLE
Problem-1. Find the tension in steel wire 2m long, 1 mm in diameter,
a
stretched I
when it .
by mm. Given Y of steel 2 x 10 N/m*.
w.B. Poly 2006s
=

Soln.: Here. Y 2 x
=

100 N/m
I- 2m =
original length
dl = I mm = 10*m

T=mm =0.5 x 10m = radius

Let. T be the tension in the steel wire

Y= or, T=Yxxr2

=2x10 x 0-sx10f N
2
T= 78.5 N.
Problem-2. If a compressive force of 3 x 10* N is exerted on the end of a 20
cm lone
bone of cross-sectional area 3.6 sq. cm. (a) will the bone break? If
(b) not, by how much
does it shorten? Given compressive
strength of bone 7.7 x 10" N/m* and Y of bone =
=
1.5x 100 N/m2.
Soln.: Here, F = 3 x 10 N Y =1.5 x 1010 N/m2.
A 3.6 cm2 =3.6 x 10-m2 Compressive strength =7.7 x 10 N/m2.
I = 20 cm = 0.2 m

(a). Stress==x10 N/m2

3.6x10
=
8-33x 10'N/m2
Since stress on the bone is less than its compressive strength, the bone will not break.
b) Let, dl be decrease in the length of the bone.

A
dl/!
3x10x0-2
or,d- AY 3-6x10x1-5x1010
olo m= 1.l1 x 10 m = 1.11 mm.

Problem-3. If Y of steel be 2 x 10" N/m3, what mass will elongate a steel wire
100 cm in length and 0.2 cm in diameter through 2.5 cm?
Soln.: Here Y =
2 x
10 N/m2, I =
100cm =
.1 m,

d! =
2.5 cm 2.5 x 102 m, r=cm=0.1lx10 m, m =?
Properties of Matter

ng/ nr
We kow, Y dl/

,m- Y n

10 3.14 (01z10 2
2 x10'x
9-8
-1600 kg- 16 quintol.
Problem-4. A light rod of length 2m is suspended from the ceiling horizontally by means
of wo vertical wires of equal length tied to its ends. One of the wire is made of steel and is
ofcros-seetion 10m* and the other is of brass of eross-setion 2 x 103 m?. Find out the
pauition along the mud at which a weight may be hung to produce equal strain in both the

wires GivenYBra10" Nm', 2 x 10" Nm.

wires.
-
teel
Soln. Here, 7 original length, dl = change of
length, F weight,
A arca of cross-section.

Brass Steel

FB
2m

Let, Fg & Fs be the tension in brass and steel wire respectively.

dl
We know, Y= F/A
i 4 AY
strain in each case is equal

F or, B o a 2 x 1 0 x10
Ag Y As Ys s 10x2 x 10
F Fs
the weight must be hung in the middle of 2m long horizontal wire.
Problem-5. The poisson's ratio of a material is 0.5. If longitudinal strain of uniform
bar made of this material be 2 x 10, what is the % change of volume of the material?
Soln. Let, volume, v ar
: = original radius
Taking log both sides Ioriginal length]
logv log n +2 logr+ log /
P06) Applied Physlcs
Diferentiating. we get,
dr r
dd 2 2 poisson's ratioa- d/
dl

- 2x10 |1-20.5)=0
d100 =0
There is no % change of volume of the material.
Problem-6. If the volume of a wire remains unchanged when subjected to a tensil
le
strain, what will be its poisson's ratio? w.B. Poly 20051
-

Soln.: Let the volume of a wire be ,

Where, r radius and / be the length

Taking derivative on both sides.

d=dr,d
Since, v = constant dv 0 2 =0
dr

dl

Poisson's ratio, o=--

or,
d

Problem-7. (a) A wire 5 cm long, is elongated so that the strain is 1%; Find elongation
(b) Cross-sectional area of the wire in the above case is 1 sq. mm. If load applied for
stretching is 10 kg. Find the stress.
(c) Show that the Young's modulus of the above wire is 98 x 108 N/m.

Solution: (a) Strain (AFo) =1%==0-01

100

or,=0-01 or,=0-01
or, Sl = 0.05 cm = 5 x 10m.

F
(b) Stress (AYA) A 10x9.8N
I mm2 10x9 8N
9 . 8 x 10' N/m2
x 10- m
Properties of Matter 207
stress 9 810
c) Y= strain 0 01
9 10 9% 10' Nm'
stecl of 2m long be stretched 10.0 mm without exceeding its
Deoblem-8. Could a wire
Pro
which is
elastic limit whi 826 10' Pascal? 'Y' for steel is 29.09 19 N/m' Show hy
mathematical calculation
W.B. Poly 2008

Longitudrnal stresm ( ; y)
Solution: We know, y-
Longitudinal strain ( z y t ngte)

Stress Y strain =20 09 10", 20 0 9 1 0 , 929

10.04510* Pascal of
excceded to stretch 10
10 Pascal, applied stress will be
mm
Aselastic limit is 8.26
the rod.
shown in figure.
wire
elongation of the steel and brass
as
Prob. 9. Calculate the net
and of brass wire 1.0m, diameter « -

Unloaded length of steel wire is 1.5m

2.0 10" Pa and that of
0.25 cm, Young's modulus of steel
=

each wire =

brass is 0.91 10 Pa.

Soln.: For steel wire

F 4 + 6 = 10 kgf= (10 9.8)N
= 1.5m 1.5m Steel
d, 0.25 cm
10 m=0-125 10 m 4.0 kg

Y, =2.0x 10 Pascal
Al, = ?
1.0m Brass
F
Since, Y , , l
6.0 kg
F (10x9.8)x1-5 = 1.49x10 4

Y 314(0-125 10 2x10
For brass wire:
F 6.0 kgf=6.0 9.8
3.14 (.125 10-2P m
areaof cross-section, a, tr,2
= =

1.0m
208 Applied Physics-
Y, =
0.91 x
10 Pa
Al, ?

Since, Y,
tr,' x Alz

(6x9-8)x1-0 = 1.3x 10m

Al, =
tr'xY 3-14x(0-125x10)x0-91x10
. Net elongation Al+ Al
= (1.49 x 104 + 1.3x 104)m
=
1.79 x
10 m
Problem-10. If 100.0 litre volume of water is compressed to 100.5 litre by the increase of
pressure of 100.0 atmosphere, find the bulk modulus and compressibility of
water. Given, 1 atm = 1.013 x 10 Pa.
Soln.: Change in volume, Av = 100.5 - 100 = 0.5L = 0.5 x 10-m3

Original volume, V =
100.0 litre =
100 x 10m3.
Increase in pressure = 100 atm = 100 x 1.013 x 10

Now, since bulk modulus,

k=P 100x1.013x10°x100x103 2.026 x 10 Pa

V
Av 0-5x103

10-9 Pa-
Compressibility(e)=-2-026x1o9 0.49 x

Problem-11. What is the density of ocean water at a depth, where the pressure is 80.0
atm, given that its density at the surface is 1.03 x 10* kgm? Compressibility

of water 45.8 x
10-1 Pa', Given 1 atm =
1.013 x 105 Pa.
Soln.: Given, p = 80.0 atm = 80 x 1.013 x 103 Pa

Compressibility (c) == 45-8x10l Pa

Density of water at surface (p)= 1.03 x 103 kgm,
Let p' be the density of water at the given depth.
If v and v' are volumes of certain mass M of ocean water at surface and at a given depth.
M
V= and

Change in volume, Av =v-v'=M

Propertiesof Matter (209
=M =1-L =11:03x10*
p'

Since Bulk modulus,

k =
Av

= pe = 80 x 1.013 x 10' x 45.8x 10- = 3.7 x 10-3

1-03x10 = 3.7x103
p'
1-03x10
or, p'= 1-3.7x10-3*034x10 kgm-3

So at depth density of water is increased by 0.001 x 103 kgm

Problem-12. How much should the pressure on a litre of water be changed to compress it
by 0.10%. Bulk modulus of elasticity of water 2.2 x 10° Nm.
Soln.: Percentage change ofvolume contraction = 0.10%

0-10 or,=103
Fractional change in volume
100
=10
If pressure on liquid = pP

Then, Bulk modulus of elasticity,

k AV
or, 2-2x10 ==10p
V

P = 2.2 x 106 Pa

Problem-13. Keeping the lower surface of a cube of side 50 cm rigidly fixed, a shearing
force 10 kg is applied tangentially to the upper surface. If upper surface
displaces 0.03 mm with respect to lower surface, then find
) Shearing stress ( )
(i) Shearing strain (FvA Ryt)
(i) Modulus of rigidity of the material of the cube (ypvi sth)

Soln.: i) Shearing stress ==10x9-8-3.92x10 Nm

A (0-5
0-003
i) Shearing strain 0==° cm-6x10*
= 6x 10
50 cm

(ii) Modulus of rigidity, Shearingstress 3.92x10= 6.53x10

53x10 Nm Nm-2
Shearing strain 6x10

Applied Physics-I- 14
 Applied Physics-
210
ANSWERS:
OBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS AND
A. Multiple Choice Type:
modulus of the material of a wire. the
In experiment for the determination of Young's
1. an
doubled. Then the Young's modulusS.
mass suspended are
length of the wire and the
(b) becomes double
(a) becomes four times
(d) becomes sixteen times.
(c) remains unchanged
Ans. (c) Remains unchanged.
in the ratio 1:2 and radii in the ratio 2:
2. Two wires of the same material have lengths in them are in the ratio.
When they are stretched by the same force, clongation produced
(c) 2:1 (d) none.
(a) 1 8 (b) 1:4

Ans. (a) 1:8.

3. Within elastic limit the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain i
3.
(a) Young's modulus (b) Bulk modulus

(c) Poisson's ratio (d) None of the above.

Ans. (c) Poisson's ratio.
The dimension ML-'T2 correspond to-
4 can

force (b) Surface tension

(a) Moment of a

(c) Modulus of elasticity (d) Co-efficient of viscosity.

Ans. (c) Modulus of elasticity.
5. As compared to liquids and solids gases possess
(a) smallest bulk modulus (b) largest rigidity modulus
() largest bulk modulus (d) small Poisson's ratio
Ans. (a) smallest bulk modulus.
6. The bulk modulus of a perfectly rigid body is equal t o
(a) infinity (b) zero
(c) some finite value (d) non-zero constant
Ans. (a) Infinity.
since FA since Av = 0, . k = a ]
Av/v
7. The shear modulus of elasticity of a liquid is
(a) infinity (b) unity
(c) some finite non zero constant (d) zero

Ans. (d) zero.

8. The reciprocal of bulk modulus of a substance is called i t s
(a) compressibility (b) rigidity
(c) visibility (d) modulus of elasticity
Ans. (a) compressibility.
propertiewof.Matte
iue an woben by apply ing a lond ot 20 pwt he force required to break the
INe the damoter ol same length and same material Is

(c) 40 kgwt (d) 80 kpwt

An. (d) RO Kgn

he Yong's mohuls of a material of the wire of length I and radius r is Y N/m. If
he length is educed to L/2 and radius 1/2, the Young's modulus will be

(a) (h) 2 (c) Y (d) 4Y

Ans. (e) Y Isince material is same, so that Young's modulus will be same|
A uniform rod of mass nm, length ., area of eross-section A and Young's modulus Y
hangs from ceiling. lts elongation under its own weight will be-
2mgl mg mgl
aAY (C) 2AY (d) zero

mgl.
Ans. (C) 2AY
Since tension in the wire is not uniform due to the weight of the rod i.e. tension at

the top is greater than that of lowest point. So average weight =- mg has been

considered through the rod.]

12. Which of the following material has the largest value of elasticity?
(a) steel (b) rubber c) gold (d) sponge
Ans. (a) steel.
13. Magnitude of Young's modulus of perfectly rigid body is-
(a) zero (b) one () infinity (d) none
Ans. (c) infinity.
14. If a spring of spring constant k is cut into three equal parts, then the spring constant
of each part will be-

(a)k b) (c) 3k (d) 9k

Ans. (c) 3k.

15. If two springs of each spring constant k are connected in series, the
equivalent spring constant i
k
(a) k (b) 2k )k (d)
Ans. (d)
 Applied Physics-
B. Fillin the blanks:
strain its
If volume of rod remains unchanged when subjected to a tensile strain its Poisson'
Poisa
ratio is
Ans 05
2 Valoe of Young's modulus for a perfectly rigid body is
Ans infinity
The value of modulus of rigidity for a liquid is -
Ams. zero.
4. The breaking force of a wire is F. If the diameter of the wire is doubie, then break
force will be
Ams 4F.

Since Y ; F=yA; FaA or, Fad

5 The three modulus of elasticity Y, k and exist in all the three
n states of matter
liquid & gas) is (solid
Ans. Bulk modulus of
elasticity (k).
6. S.IL unit of
Poisson's
ratio is-
Ans. unitless.
7. As temperature increases modulus of
Ans. decreases.
elasticity
8. Dimension of elastic stress is -
Ans. ML-T
9. Elastic Potential energy per unit volume
of a stretched string is
Ans.xstress strain.
10. Stress-strain
diagram of metals A and B is shown in the
of A and B are Y, and diagram. If Young's modulus
Ans. greater.
Y, then Y,is- than Y
C. True-False type:
. Stress, is always
2.
proportional to strain. (False)
Rubber thread is more elastic
than steel thread.
33. Plastic body does not (False)
obey Hook's law. (True)
4. Stress of steel wire
depends on surface area of the wire.
cross-section) (False) (True answer is a of
area
5. S.I. unit of stress is N.
6.
[True: N/m?] (False)
Dimension of Poisson's ratio is
M°L°T°. (True)
Properties of Matter
213)
In elastic body upto yicld point body behaves as
an
an clastic body. (Falsc)
Hints : At yield pont Plastic deformation
occurs|
ln case of an elastic body strain is more fundamental than stress. (True)
Within elastic limit ratio of lateral strain and longitudinal strain is called Poisson's
ratio. (True)

|SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

, What do you mean by young's modulus of steel 2x101 Nm:2?
Ans. Young's modulus of steel 2x 10' Nm2 means to produce unit strain in steel wire, a force
af2x10'N is required per one square metre area of cross-section.
. Why is a spring made of steel, not of copper?
Ans. A spring will be better one, if a large restoring force is set up in it due to deformation.
Again this restoring force depends on the modulus of elasticity of the materials of the spring
Since young's modulus of elasticity of steel in more than that of copper, so steel is preffered in
making springs.
3. Which is more elastic rubber or steel? Explain.
Ams. Apparently we may think rubber is more elastic. But so far as quantitative measurement
is concerned, the greater the force necessary to produce a deformation in the body, the more
elastic the substance is. In the case of rubber, a deformation may easily be produced but in case
of steel, a greater force is necessary to produce a smal deformation. In this case steel is more
elastic than that of rubber.
4. Which type of stress cannot produce change of volume but can change the shape of the

body?
Ans. Shearing stress can change only shape of the body not volume.
5. How we can differentiate between solid, liquid and gas on the basis of modulus of

elasticity?
Bulk modulus
Ans. In case of solid three types of modulus of elasticity such as young's modulus,
But in case
and modulus of rigidity all are present, because solid has length, volume and shape.
But due to
of liquid and gas they have only volume. So it has only Bulk modulus of elasticity.
more intermoducular spacing of gases, Bulk modulus of nasticity is very small in comparison
with liquid and solid. Thus knowing the value of elastic constants we can differentiate solid,

liquid and gas.

. Why temperature changes when a stretched string suddenly breaks?
Ans. A stretched string has a stored potential due to elongation. When it breaks, this potential

Energy is converted into heat energy due to which temperature rises.

 Applied Physics
1 four pieces. l be
What will be the snei
A spring having spring constant k is cut into equal spring
onstant in each piece?
increase in length bex.
Ans When F fonre is applied on the whole spring then
F
F-- F=.
then elongation isIf the
When same applied on one of the piece of the spring.
fonve F is
be k'. then
spring constant of the piece of spring

x4
Theretore spring constnat of each piece is 4k.
of elastic constants?
S. Can poison's ratio be called modulus
modulus of elasticity. Because within elastic limit it is
Ans. No. poission ratio can't be called
It is a dimensionless and unitless quantity. On
the ratio of lateral strain and longitudinal strain.
strain within elastic limit. So these
otherhand modulus ofelasticity is the ratio of stress and
difterent.
wo physical quantities are totally
9. What will be the equivalent spring constant
when two springs of springs constant k, and
in series?
joined
k,
are

Ans. Let F force is applied at the open end of the spring due to which elongation on the upper
extension, x=X, tx
springbe and lower spring be x, and total
x,
F = k xand F = k,x

x+X k,

Where k is the equivalent spring constant.

of constant k, and
10. What will be the equivalent spring constant when two springs spring
k are joined in parallel.
tox
Ans. When F force is applied the elongation of each spring will be same which is equal
But force or each spring will be say F, and F

Then F F+F2
Since. F,-k,x and F, =-k,x F
F=F,+F,=k, +k,) x=-kx
k k +k2
Where k is the equivalent spring constant.
Properties of Matter

A compressed spring is dissolved in acid. How its stored potential energy is

a15
11.
dissipated?

Ans. This stored energy inereases the Kinetic energy of acid molecules causing increase
the acid.
in temperature of
How the value of Young's modulus of a thin and thick iron wire of same length
differ in its value?
Ans. An Young's modulus of elasticity only depends on the material of the body, so the
two iron wires must have same Young's modulus of elasticity.
13. How modulus of elasticity changes with rise in temperature?
Ans. Generally modulus elasticity slightly decreases with rise in temperature.

14. What is the value of Young's modulus of water?

Ans. Zero.

15, Whose elastic limit is greater iron or diamond?

Ans. Diamond.

16. What is the value of modulus of elasticity of a perfectly rigid body?

Ans. Infinity.
17. Show that in isothermal condition of ideal gas bulk modulus of elasticity of gas is
equal to pressure of gas.
Ans. We know pressure-volume relation in isothermal condition,
pV constant
where P Pressure of gas & V> volume of gas.
Now differentiating the above equation,
p dv + v dp 0
=

. Pdvdp StressBulk
Strain modulus of elasticity of gas.
/v
18. Show that in adiabatic condition the bulk modulus of elasticity of an ideal gas is y
times the pressure gas, where y
ofthe CC
Ans. We know the pressure-volume relation of particular quantity of gas in adiabatic
condition,
pv= constant
Differentiating, we get,
vi dp 0 or, yp dv + v dp =
0
pyv7-dv + =

or, yp =- =-d _Stress

dv dv Strain
Bulk modulus of elasticity in adiabatic condition.
216 Applied Physics-
sUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. (a) State Hook's law.
(b) Define stress, strain, Young's modulus of elasticity (Y), Bullk modulus of elastie.
ity (k), modulus of rigidity (n) and Poisson's ratio (o) and also state their S
units and dimension.
2. Which one is more fundamental stress strain?
Explain. or

3. State the factors on which modulus of

elasticity depends?
4. What do you mean by Young's modulus of
elasticity of steel is 1.2 1012 N/m2 x

5. Draw stress-strain diagram of an elastic

body. From the diagram mark: Proportional
limit, elastic limit, yield point, breaking stress, elastic region and
plastic region.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. What force is
required to stretch a Cu-wire 1 cm2 in cross-section to double its length?
Y for Cu 1.25 x 10 N/m2.
=

Ans. 1.25 x 10 N.

F/A since,
Hints Y =A 8l =
1, :
.F =Y.A =1.25 x 10 x 10= 1.25 x 10'N]
2. A load of 2 kg
produces an extension of 1 mm in wire of 3m în
length and 1 mm in
diameter. Calculate Young's modulus of elasticity of wire.
3. Calculate the [Ans. 7.49x 10° Nm]
percentage increase in length of a wire of diameter 2mm stretched
force of 1 kgf. Y for the material of the by a
wire =
1.5 x 1010 Nm2. [Ans. 0.0021%)
F
Hints:x 100% AY
x100%
4. If strain of wire of
a
length 10m is 0.001%, find the
elongation of the wire. If area of
cross-section be 2 sq. mm and force applied on it due 1
wire. kgwt, find the stress of the
[Ans. 0.1mm ; 4.9 x 106 Nm ]
Soln. Strain =
= 0-001% = =|o-5
100

elongation in length (A/)=0.001

100
X1Om= .01
10 mm = 0.1 x
mm.
F
stress
A
=

2x10-6 =4.9x 10 Nm2

nerties of Matter
ww .

wire
wire
nner
copper
of 10m length
is hanging from the
roof. What will be its
217
5. A elongation due
m weight. Y for Cu is 13x
to its own
10 N/m> and density 8.9 g cm
[Ans. 0.034 mm]
Soln.: Let A
A be the area of
cross-section, then volum of the wire AL =

Weight A L p g = 10 x 8.9 x 103 x 9.8A

Since, at the lower point weight = 0

at the upper point weight = mgg

Average force =m g 1
x10x8.9x10x9 8A
2

Average stress = Average force 10x8.9x 10* 9.8 x

A
=
4.36 x 103 Nm
Since, Y= Stress
AL

stress x 4.36x 10° x 10

Al= Y 13x 1010
=
0.34 x
10 m =
0.034 mm

1. c E R OHE 2 x 101 Nm2 qAG ?

AIC A 22TRUTA CqF 7ADA 2 x 10l N &1S T0

81 Vtya (Shearing stress) 1 | PAC6

218 Applied Physics-

it

d v = 27t/r dr + Ttrdl

RR, V =
O dv =0.
2 tlrdr +trdl =0
dr/r
or, rdl = -2/dr. -2
or,
or,d2
or, G- dr/r
dl/l

TR Fek 37 k=

4k
Properties of Matter
219

F=-kX 4R F=-kxa
F

k 32ka
.
F=- kx =-k (x,tX)
F=-k F Fk++L

11,1L
kk k

Ans. R, STE 7F-9 RTA &T4 x R aa Pera TIS x 4R

TERIR, F =
F, +F2
9RR F =-
kx RTA k
; > 9T 7 - <
F-,x
F-kx
F=F, + F, 7al1 CRIT T - kx = -k,x - k,x
or, k
=k, +k. P 7-4 (k) =k, +
k2
A
Propertie of Matter
21)
SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension is the property of a liquid by virtue of whieh its free surface behaves like
etrctched membrane and supports comparatively heavier
streto
abiects placed
objects placed over it causing n slight depression on the
surface of a liquid.
Surface tension is measured in terms of foree per
length of surface tension (T).
unit
Definition of force of wurface tenslon (T): Force of
surface tension is defined as the amount of foree per unit
length on an imaginary line drawn on the lHquld surface,
acting perpendicular to it on either side at every point
and tangentially to the liquid surfaee at a partieular
temperature.
IfF' is the force acting perpendicular to an imaginary line of length " drawn on the liquid
surface, then force of surface tension is given by.
S.I. unit of T: Newton/metre or Nm-
Dimension:
MTMT
Surface Energy:
We know the free surface of a liquid always has a tendency to contract and possess minimumn
Surlace area. So to increase the surface area of the liquid, some work will have to be done. This
work done is stored in the liquid surface film as its potential energy.
Definition: The potential energy per unit area of the surface film is called surface energy.
he surface tension of a liquid is numerically cqual to its surface energy.
Dimension of Surface Energy
Potential energy of the surface film
Aren
herefore, the dimension of surfnce cnergy and surface tension be the same. So surface
tension can also be defined as the stored potential energy of the surface tiln per unit area.
222 Applied Physics-|
tension
Molecular theory of Surface
tension the basis of molecular theory. the follow ings postnlasates
Before explaining surface on

have to be considered:

Postulates:
(i) The average intermolecular distance is of the order of l107 m and exert a force r

attraction of the order of 10-iO N on each other.

obey inverse square law.

(ii) Molecular forces do not

between the molecules is due

(ii) The force of attraction
electrical interaction. The gravitational force between two molecules is negligib
small. So it has no effect.

(iv) The molecular forces are short-range forces.

The maximum distance upto which a molecule can attract another molecules is known
(v
as range of the intermolecular force.
(vi) A sphere of influence of radius equal to the range of the molecular force about a given
molecule as centre has been considered.
(vii) A thin surface film of thickness equal to the molecular range is considered responsible
for the phenomenon of surface tension.

(vii) The force of attraction between molecules of same kind is called cohesive force and
between dissimilar molecules is called adhesive force.

Explanation:
Surface tension of a liquid is essentially a molecular phenomenon.
It is due to force of cohesion which is the force of attraction between the molecules of same

substance.
Let us now consider three molecules A, B and C at different positions and the corresponding
sphere of influence taking A, B and C as centre and R
molecular range of attraction (10- m) as radius. As mol-
ecule A is well inside liquid, the molecule is attracted
equally on all sides by the surrounding molecules lying B
within the sphere of influence. So no resultant cohesive
force acts on the molecule A.
On the otherhand sphere of influence of the molecule B
and C lie partly inside and outside the liquid surface PQ.
r hal
The number of liquid molecules the upper half
on
of the sphere is less than that of low
so the net resultant force acts in the downward direction.
Now if a molecule be brought from the interior to the surface of hast
some work
liquid "
Properties of Matteer
223)
this downward cohesive force,
ainst
b e d o n e
against
thereby potential encrgy of the moleculc is
the surface of the liquid. But we know that a
ased on the
mechanical tends to have the
increasible potential energy for its stability. Hence the surface filmsystem
will always try to have
wESm potential energy and this surface film acquires by its attempt to occupy least surface
lowe
minimum potenti,

mhrder that the number of molecules in it be minimum. For this reason the free surtace
area in

atid acts as a stretched membrane creating a tension on the surface known as surface
ofa liqu

tension.

Angle of contact

Definition : Angle of contact, for a pair of solid and liquid, is defined as the angle

betwee
een the tangent to the curved liquid surface drawn at the point of contact and the solid
inside the liquid.
surface
Glass tube Glass tube

-|

Water <900 e 900

mercury

tube is dipped in a liquid, the surface

Explanation: Whenever a solid plate or a capillary
becomes curved. In case of glass tube and water the shape
of liquid near the region of contact
tube and mercury the meniscus is
convex.
of meniscus is concave glass
where as for
< 90°.
O Case (i) when angle of contact, 0
occurence is due
meniscus concave upwards. This
The liquid rises in the capillary with its adhesion between
between two molecules of liquid is less than the force of
O force of cohesion the solid
molecules will stick with
nolecules of solid and liquid. In such cases the liquid
surface.
O Case (ii) When 0> 90°

(a) The liquid does not wet the solid.

(6) Shape of meniscus is convex upwards.
solid.
The liquid is depressed in a capillary tube made of that
than the force of
due to force of cohesion is greater
,e above incidence is happened
adhesion.
24 Applied Physics--
Capillarity:
Definition: Capilarity is a phenomenon, by virtue of which the level of liquid in a capillan.
tube (means a tube of hair like bore) is different from that of outside, is called capillarity. Thi
difference of level of liquid is due to the property of surface tension.

Examples of capillarity :
Soaking water by towel from our bodies after taking bath is due to the capillary action
of porous towel.
ii) Soaking of ink by blotting paper is due to action of capillarity.
(ii) Flow of ink into the tip of a fountain pen is due to action of capilarity.
(iv) Rising of oil in the wick of a lamp is also due to action of capillarity.
(v) Damp proof of building is necessary to prevent the rise of water from the ground
through the porous bricks due to capillary action.
T cos 0 T cos 0
Rise of liquid in a capillary tube:
Principle : In equilibrium of capillary rise of liquid, T sin 0 T sin
total upwards force due to surface tension= weight of liquid
above the free surface.

Derivation:
Let, T> the surface tension acts tangentially to the
concave surface of the meniscus.
angle of contact between liquid and solid substance.
h height of risen liquid within the capillary tube from the
surface of the container to the lower edge of the meniscus.
p density of liquid.
Now, T can be resolved into two rectangular components
(i) Horizontal Components = T sin

( i ) Vertical Component = T cos

The horizontal components acting round the circumference of the hemisphere cancels out
each other and have no contribution to rise of liquid column.
Total force in the upward direction
=
(T cos6) *
(circumference)= Tcose x 2nr =
2tr T cos
weight of liquid in the tube = vPg

-rhrr-*Pg
-mr-h+mr- )Ps=|ar*h+pg=nrho
Properties of fatter
I nc q u i l i b r i u m ,
25)
2r Tcose= r| hPg

T
2 cos

la case of a fine capillary tube, can be neglected

rhpg h COse
T=
2 cos6 rpg
expression it is seen that rise of liquid (h) is-
In the above
inversely proportional to radius of the capillary tube.
) inversely proportional to density of liquid.
(üi) directly proportional to surface tension (T

(v) for positive value of cos 0 (0 < 90°) liquid will show rise.
of in
(v) for negative value of cos 6 (0> 90) liquid will show depression (Depression Hg
a glass tube).
(vi) From the expression it is seen that the liquid will never
overflow from the tube is insufficient length. The liquid adjust its curvature in such

way that equilibrium is obtained with the available length

a
of the tube since rh =

constant.
O Jurin's law: Jurin's law states that the height of capillary rise of a liquid due to
meniscus.
surface tension is inversely proportional to the radius of curvature of the
IfR be the radius of curvature of the meniscus and h be the height of the capillary rise,
then
Rh = constant
It is therefore concluded that smaller the radius of the capillary tube (r) greater is the
rise or fall of liquid column.

DGraphical representation of Jurin's law:

Ifwe draw (R h) graph. It is obvious that the h
graph will be rectangular hyperbola, since Rh =

COnstant. Nature of the graph shows that as R

increases h decreases & vice versa. R-
Derivation of Jurin's law (Optional): From the formula of capillary rise, we have
h 2 cose ....(1)
rpg
Applied Physics-I- 15
226 Applied Physics-I
where. T surtace tension of liquid
R
angle of contact
P
rradius of capillary tube
pdensity of liquid
gacceleration due to gravity
Now from the figure it is seen that if R be the radius of the meniscus, then

= cos6 r = R cose
R
Now putting the value of r in equation (1) we have,

h 2Tcose 2T . hR =2T
R cos pg Rpg PE
Now for fixed nature of liquid and material of the tube T, p, g are constant

. hR = constant

This is Jurin's law.

Some examples illustrating surface tension:

When a soap buble is formed from a soap solution and blowing is stopped, it is seen
that the buble is squized and ultimately disappears intothe tube. This is due to the force
of surface tension which tends to have minimum surface area.
(i) Rain drops are spherical in shape due to force of surface tension.
(ii) Small mercury globules are found to have spherical shape to occupy minimum surface
area due to force of surface tension.
(iv) A hair brush when dipped in water has its hair spread out; but as soon as it is taken
out, its hairs stick together. The reason is that when the brush is inside water, there is
water around its hair. As water has no free surface, the tips of the hair of the brush
remain spreaded. But when the brush is taken out of water a thin water film is embeded
between the hairs. This film of water try to contract due to surface tension and hence
the hairs are closed together.

Factors influencing Surface tension:

1. Effect of Solute: When a solute is dissolved in a liquid, the value of surface tension
changes.
Inorganic Solute : Surface tension increases when sodium chloride is dissolved in water.
Organic Solute: Surface tension decreases when soap is dissolved in water forming
soap solution.
2. Impurity: Presence of impurity (not dissolved) in water decreases its surface tension
propertiesof Matter
272
3. Temperature
Surface tension of a liquid decreases with an increase in its temperature
according to following relation
Tok(B-8-d)
here
the surface tension at a particular temperature .
T
critical temperature at which the value of surface tension is negligibly sma

d constant which depends on the nature

of the liquid.
its surface tension. Surface tension
c

4, Effect of density: Density of liquid also affccts

liquid can be expressed as.
a

T A (P-P)".
Where, p= density of liquid
density of saturated vapours of liquid.
p'
A = constant depending on the nature of liquid.

defined as the force per unit area.

Pressure: It is
Force
Pressure = -

Area
= Nm2
S.I. Unit: Pascal

Dimension:[P]-M=MLT2
with it, is called
in contact
exerted by a liquid on any surface
Thrust: The total force
thrust of liquid.
Thrust
= Pressure x Area
m a s s per unit volume is called density of the material
Density: At a particular temp. then density,
substance of mass M,
Let V be the volume of
M (Mass)
V(Volume)
4°C.
Unit: Example of density of water at
(i) In S.I., density, p 1000 kg m
(i) In C.GS., p = 1 gm/c.c.

(iii) In F.P.S., p 62.5 1b/ft3

=

1 gm/c.c. .1000 kg/m3.

=

Dimension: ML-3TO
O Specific gravity :
substance
of a given volume of that
defined the ratio of the weight
Definition : It is as

volume of water at 4°C.

to the weight of an equal
228 AppliedPhysics
or,
Specific gravity of a solid or liquid is defined as the ratio of the density of the
substane.
the density of water at 4°C. nce to

.sp. gr(S) =. density of the substance (p)

density of water at 4°C (P
S
S=P
Po P=Sxpa
Unit: It is a
pure number
Dimension: [M°L°T°]
Example: If sp. gr. of sand =
2.5, what is its density in C.G.S. and S.I. units?
Soln.: Since, p =

In
S* P
C.G.S., p 2.5 x 1 gm/c.c. 2.5 gm/c.c.
=

InS.I., p 2.5
=
x 1000 kg/m-3 =
2500 kg m3
O Pressure at a point inside liquid : a

Let us consider a
out
liquid of density p. We shall have to
find
h.
pressure (P) at a
point inside the liquid at a depth
Now, a vertical liquid column of height h and area of
cross-section A of the base is considered around the point
where the pressure of
liquid is to be calculated
. Volume of liquid column Ah. =

mass of liquid column

=Ahp Denisity of the
weight of liquid column Ahpg =

liquid
substance (p)
Since, Pressure (P)=APplied torce or weight
Area of cross-section

Ahee hp8
P-hpg
Average Pressure and Thrust on lockgate
Pressure of a liquid on the bottom of
lockgate
Pressure of a liquid on the free surface =0
at a depth 'h' =
hpg

Average Pres_ure =TPE,

Thrust on the lockgate =
Average Pressure x
Area
hpg x hl V= breadth of lockgate]
Properties of Matter

FArchimedes' Principle:
29
toment: Whenever an insoluble body is immersed,
Sta
wholly fuid
eriences an upward thrust and there is an apparent loss in weightpartly,
or in a at rest
i te x p e r i e n
equal to the weight or
displaced by its immersed part.
uid
The upward thrust which body experiences when it is immersed in a
a

is called buoyancy whose value is equal magnitude to the weight of the displaced
in
fluid.
S.I. unit of Buoyancy = Newton

Dimension = [MLT]

Factors on which buoyancy depend

) volume of immersed part of the body in fluid (v)
of fluid (p)
Gi) density
(ii) acceleration due to gravity (g).

Buoyancy =v x p * g

Condition of floatation in equilibrium:

Weight of the body = weight of displaced fluid.

i) The centre of gravity of the body and the centre of buoyancy must lie on the same
vertical line.

O Pascal's law:
Statement : The Pressure applied at any part of a confined incompressible fluid is
transmitted with undiminished magnitude in all directions and acts normally to the surface in
contact with the
fluid
Principle of multiplication of force or Thrust:
Let us consider two cylinders of different areas of cross-section connected to each other with
pipe. Let a and B be the areas of cross-section of smaller and larger piston of the cylinder.
Ine two
eylinders with pipe are completely filled with incompressible liquid.

F
W

Z
 Applied
Physics
230 croSs-sectional
area then pressure exerted
a, then pressSur
Piston of
on the smaller
lt a force F is applicd
over the liquid,

to the larger Piston of

pressure
is transmitted
cross
to Pascal's law, the same
According
sectional area B.
F

Force or thrust on larger piston (W) = Pxß=-xß

W=F.P

a
IS greater than that ofsmaller
thrust on the larger piston (W)
> a, therefore, force
or
Since. thrust.
force
of multiplication of
or
piston (F). This is the principle

BENGALI VERSION

S.L 9 Nm
NTET: [MT
(Surface energy) 8 DM 45 AR ICNT aT TE
0

It-ML?T
T- = MT-2
 of Matter
p e r t i e s

Prop

Nm = Nm
(231
m

dhesive
7 3 (Ad force) AAI AR TA aoa
T89U10m 31 10-15ID TA AAA AYTI I 1 acTa P

S
3Ta
Sphere ofinfluence)
G AEH nqita foaG uq A, B, C
T ATR JOVTA 98 7A KTA (B, C)

1 (Angle of Contact):

. -

> 90°
0<90o
232) Applied Physics-
O Casc-173a < 90

NTAI qras (cohesive) TA ATA PD e EATA uIjaa IP (adhesive force)

O Case-2 N 0 > 90

C TR 9TAeECS T (free water surface) « TA OY IT

O tefry (Capillarity)
Properties of Matter
233)

A AR * (Capillary rise):
T cos T cos e

T sin 6 T Sin 6

2 T Cose = ar-hpg

T= rhpg
2Cos
r_ r{h+5)pPg
a R RTARA TAA, T=:
22 cos
cos6
sAT FE T, 8, P, g A, th =

R (Jurin's law) :

A f s I Gás, Rh = I h

R
re a TeP aA A K GATATR (Rise of liquid in capillary tube of insufficient
height)
 Applied Physics-
34

afTI (Fluid Mechanics)

S.I. (Unit):
T 3 (Pa) = Newton. m2

TaT (Dimension)

[P]-ML= ML-'T?
L

T
T (F) = 51 x C¥AP
ropertiesofMatter
Propertic 235
( U n i t ) 3 Newton

( D
Dimension)* [F]= MLTx12 MLT-2
i
=

E (Der
T M,

T (p)=

(Unit) : TkI (9TT TA) 4°C TaroRI

inS.I. kgm' 1000 kg/m

gm/c.c. I gm/c.c.
inC.GS.
inFP.S. /b/f3 62.5 /b/ft"

TY= 1 gm/c.c. =
10 kg 1000 kg/m.
CGS.TOE A 10m
m

1000 x C.G.S. »OCG TCY AI

OCT TAC AA
=

S.I.

HT4T (Dimension): [p] =ML-3TO

MA AME UITAA
4°C ETT 33 7A
T C F E¥ (Specific gravity):

M°L'T"
RTT (Dimension): ATTA
7rI ReTI [S] =

4C aUT TA VTY (p.)

p=sX Po
 236 Applied Physics-
Example : T 18 518 = 2.5 Ta S.I. o4oTE TTY ? A G p = s*p
P
p 2.5 x 1000 kg/m

, TYTEI TIO = Ah

Ahp
G Ahpg
ARY 51i (P) =

(p )
P = hpg :A #0]
A

P=hpg

h O 7 TOVA 7TDA DICACI 51 =

hpg

TG AT1 =9*hpE_ hog

hogx h >7oa as]

O f1ercR A (Archimedes' Principle) 8

& (Buoyancy):
erties of Matteer

S.I. .1. 4 (unit) : ACDA (Newton)

(N) > MLT-2
mension

i)
(ii)T AY (p)I
(ii) e E VA (g)
&761 =v x
p xg
9PMAR HO ondition of floatation in equilibrium)

0S (Pascal's law):

sAI incompressible) T 2 (confined fluid) i 5tM aH11 GR D ATG

T g i (Multiplication of force or Thrust):

F
W

W F.
ICR, B> a, oalk, W>F.
 238) Applied Physics-

VISCOSITY
Definition of viscosity: Viscosity is the property of fluid by virtue of which an internal

force of friction comes into play when a fluid is in motion

and which opposes the relative motion between its different Surface ayer

layers.The backward dragging force called viseous drag or

viscous force, acts tangentially on the layers of the fluid in F
motion and tends to destroy its motion. increasing
- - -

velocity
Causes of viscosity: It is considered that liquid is Fixed Surface
moving slowly and steadily over a fixed horizontal surface.
Each layer moves parallel to the fixed surface. The layer in contact with the fixed surface is
at rest and the velocity of the every other layer increases uniformly upwards, as shown by

arrows of increasing lengths.

When two adjacent layers are considered, the upper fast moving layer tends to accelerate the
lower slow moving layer and the slow moving layer tends to retard to fast moving layer. As a
result a backward dragging tangential force F, called viscous drag comes into play which tends
to destroy external force has to be applied to overcome the backward viscous force.

Newton's Formula and co-efficient of viscosity

Let us consider liquid is flowing steadily in the form of parallel layers on a fixed horizontal
surface. Two layers are considered at a distance x and x + dx from the solid surface and moving
with
with velocities v and v+dv respectively. Then dx is the rate of change of velocity
distance in the direction of increasing distance and is called velocity gradient.

Area (A)

V+ dv

X+dx

Fixed Surface
 erties of Matter
Properties
According to New, ia Newton, a force of viscous
drag F acting tangentially between
239
rtional to the area A of the
two layers is
0 proportion
layers in contact
F o
A... 0)
the dv
proportional
to th
to velocity gradient between the two
() dx layers.
dv
Fo dx . .(2)
mbining the abov two laws,
C o m t

FxA P=-nAx
dx
shere n is the co-efficient of viscosity of the liquid. Negative sign indicates that the viscous
acts in a direction opposite
to the direction of motion of the
force liquid.
dy
Numerically, when A= I and=1,
dX
then

Fn
That means viscous force is equal to co-efficient of viscosity

Definition of Co-efficient of Viscosity (n):

Co-cficient of viscosity of a liquid may be defined as the tangential viscous force required
maintain a unit velocity gradient between its two parallel layers each of unit area.
Dimension of n:

LTTML'T"] MLTL-ML'T
Units of n:

C.GS. Unit:1 Poise = dyne x cm =1dyne Scm

Icm I cm S-
S.L. Unit: (Poiseuille or decapoise)
IN Im
=1 Pa-S
1 Poiseuille m Im S"T=I NS m
PRelation between Poiseuille and Poise:
IPl= 1NSm2= (10'dyne) x S x (10 cm)
10 dyne S cm2
= 10 Poise

= 1 decapoise.

Factors on which co-efficient of viscosity depend :

 240 Applied
Physics
(i) Nature of fluid
(ii) Temperature
(a) In case of liquid Co-efficient of viscosity decreases with the
he increae in
temperature.
no
n1+ at +Bt"
(b) In case
of gases: Co-cfficient of viscosity increases with temperature.
na T
(ii) Pressure :
(a) Liquid : Except water the
viscosity of liquid increases with increase in pressure
(b) Gas : The co-efficient of viscosity is
independent of pressure.
Importance of viscosity
The knowledge of the co-efficient of viscosity of different fluids has great importance
our daily life. Some of its applications are as stated below in
1. The
knowledge
of the co-efficient of
viscosity of different liquids and its variation cf
temperature helps to choice a suitable lubricant for a machine.
2. The liquid of
high viscosity are used as buffers to absorb the shock during the
of trains. shuting
3. The knowledge of the
co-efficient of viscosity of organic liquid is used in determining
the shape and molecular
weight organic molecules.
of
4. The viscous nature of air and some other
some instruments.
liquids are used for the damping of motion of
5. The activity
of human heart is affected
by the viscosity of the blood.
6. The motion of
high speed vehicle such as aeroplane, rocket, speed boat etc. are affected
due to resistance offered
by viscous force. To avoid high resistance the face of the
vehicle is made pin-pointed.

Stoke's law:
When small spherícal body moves
a
through a viscous medium at rest, the layers of the
body in contact with the medium are dragged along with it. But the
away from the layers of the medium far
body are at rest. This causes a relative motion between
medium. As a result of this, a backward different layers of
dragging foree (i.e. viscous drag) comes into
play, which opposes the motion of the body. This backward
the increase in velocity of the dragging force increases with
moving body.
Stokes' law : Stokes found that the buckward
spherical hody
dragging force F acting on a sma
of radius r, moving with velocity through a medium of co-efficient 9
viscosty n is given by

F-6nnr
Properties of Matter

This is called stokes law of viscosity.

Derivati of Stokes law by dimensional analysis :

re formula of stokes law can be derived from dimensional analysis. Stokes observed
T
viscous dragging force (F) depends on the following factors
that

(Co-efficient of viscosity (1) of the medium.

of the body.
(i) velocity (v)
) radius (t) of the spherical body.
Now, let F a n yd
F kna v°r (1)
Where a, b, c are the dimensions of F in terms of n, v and r and k is a dimensionless
constant.

Now taking the dimensions of both sides,

[MLT] = ML-ITP [LT° [L]*

= Ma L-atbte T-a-b

Applying the principle of dimensional homogeneity, we get,

a =1
-a +b+c=1
a-b =-2
Since, -a-b =-2
or, -1 -b =-2 or, b =1
Again from equation, -a +b t c =1
or, -1 + 1 +c = 1

.Cl
Hence, we have, a = ,1, b = 1, c = 1

Now putting the value of a, b, c in eqn. (1),

F knrv
The value of k was found to be 67, experimentally

F-6nr
f Importance of Stoke's law:
This law is used in the determination ofelectronic charge with the help of Millikan's
oil drop experiment.
.This law accounts the formation
of cloud.
Aplied Physics- 16
 Applied
242
3 This law helps to determine the velocity of rain drops of uniform motion in.
Physics s-1
motion instead of
large velocity attended like freely falling body.
4. This law also helps a parachutist to come down slowly.

Terminal velocity
It is maximum constant velocity acquired by a small
spherical body falls freely through a viscous medium
due to the resultant of following three forces acting on
the body becomes zero.
Thethree forces are given below
(i) weight of the body acting vertical downwards Motion

(w). Viscous
ii) upward thrust due to buoyancy equal to t liquid
weight of displaced fluid (F,).
(i) Viscous dragging force acting in the direction opposite to the motion of the bod
whose magnitude according to stoke's law is F =
6Tnrv.
Mathematical expression of Terminal velocity
From the direction of three forces, we can write,
Fy+F =W
4
or, 6amrvtr'og=r'pg or, 6rrvr (p-o)g
3

v2p-o)g
This is the expression for terminal velocity.
where,
V terminal velocity
r radius of the spherical body.
P density of the body.
G density of fluid.
n coefficient of viscosity of fluid
g acceleration due to gravity.
On what factors terminal velocity depend?
(i) Terminal velocity is directly proportional to the square of radius of the spherica
body.
(ii) Terminal velocity is directly propotional to the diference of density of the boo
and fluid.
Properties of Matter
(243)
Inversely proportion to coefficient of viscosity of fluid.
i)
Directly proportiona to acceleration due to gravity.
(iv)

BENGALI VERSION
AI (Viscosity)

F increasing
velocity
7777777777777777
Fixed Surface
= 0
gingforce) |FA N T5T TO ZA D 5 a o

Area (A)

F
A v + dv

V
X+dx

Fixed Surface
244) Applied Physics
d y

ging
(i) CAUAR o A CAPTTA (A) *ATANTO I
FaA
(ii) T A TTT ATOATAT (velocity gradient) Ta |
Fa Q
dx

dx
dv
F=-nA.
dx

RNCA n R A U (co-efficient of viscosity)I 5 Aof TE 70

d
79 A =1 =1
, F= n [*U A-]

taretc (n)

a er AUAA* I7 S, OAL To (co-efficient of viscosity)

HTaerotow ATAT (Dimension of n)

n]-M
:n2LT -ML'T

C.GS. : 1 Poise ldyne x

Icm
-T1dyne S cm2
lcm lcm S

Poise-3 K
Deppertieso fM a t t e r
245
(Poseullie decapoise)
IN Im
I Poiseuille S-TiNS m = 1 Pa- S
Im? Im
Poise-9a NTT y * * :
P

iseuille R
o i s e u i l l e

Pl 1NSmi
=
(10° dyne) x S x
(102 cm)2
=
10 dyne S cm2 =
10 Poise= 1 decapoise.

1 Poiseuille 3 { B

1. UITA p s
2. 1NI

n 1+atno+Bt

naVT

3) 51

F CCa Atara (Importance of viscosity) 3

(246 Applied Physics-j
FoR 4 (Stokes' law)

() JP (r)
i) A (U)
(iii) TM *TTTA TYD1 (n)

F 67

(i) TTAT TEU (n)

i) TEToA1 (V)

, F an^ v
. F =k n vr. (1)
TRTA, k NTA

MLT2 =
[ML-'T-'° [LT'JL
MLT =
M°L-a +b+cT-a-b

a = 1

-a + b + c = 1

9R-a -b =- 2

TATT a =
1, b = 1, c =1
g27 (1) 7* 7ATFAT, a, b, c-a TA
F knvr
T9TR, F = 6Tnvr CoRC T
 erties o f M a t t e r
472
V

r (Terminal velocity)

T s a aTY 1 aN (Torminal vclocity) a aMI

4
w=mg-r' pg

) ere t«ru |F =rr'ag

Gii) 9 a T«is AE 3 (F = 6 Tnru)

Fp+F W or,Tr'og + 67rv =Tr pg

3

or, 6yru r* (p-o)s

2(p-o)g
248 Applied Physics-
Properties of Matter
ww
249
HYDRODYNAMICS
Streamline Flow
Ceamline flow of a liquid is that flow in which
liquidevery particle of the follows
ly the path of its preceeding particle and has the same velocity in magnitude and
exactl
Airection as that
irection as that of its preceding particle while crossing through that point.

Characteristics of Streamline flow

In a streamline flow every particle of
liquid follows the path of its
velocity of all the particles crossing a particular point is the same. preceeding particle
cii) In a streamline flow, no two streamlines intersect each other.

O Turbulent flow :

When a liquid moves with a velocity greater than its critical

velocity, the motion of the
narticles of liquid becomes disorderly or irregular. Such a flow is called turbulent flows.
turbulent flow velocity of the particle varies with time.
Critical velocity :
Critical velocity is that velocity of liquid flow, upto which its flow is streamlined
and
above which its flow become turbulent.
If the value of Reynold number
(N) lies between 0 to 2000, the flows of liquid is streamn
line. For values of N, above 3000, the flow of
liquid is turbulent. For values of N,, is in
between 2000 to 3000, the flow of
liquid is unstable changing from steamline to turbulent.
Reynold Number
Reynold number is a pure number which determines the nature of flow of
Streamline or turbulent flow. The mathematical
liquid i.e.,
follows
expression of Reynold number is given as

NR Pvd Inertial force per unit area

Viscous force per/unit area
where, p > density of fluid
nco-efficient of viscosity of liquid
Vvelocity of flow
d diameter of tube
Streamline Flow N, 0 to 2000. =

Turbulent Flow N, above 3000 =

Unstable mixed Flow: 2000 <N, < 3000

 Applied Physics-
250
Equation of continuity
& non-viscous) mass of liaui
For the streamline flow of an idcal liquid (incompressible 1quid
any section of
the tuhe is constant.
crossing per second through
av constant

wherc. a - arca of cross-section of the tubc.

v velocity of liquid.
P density of liquid.
From above relation, we conclude,

va
From this relation we can say, as area of cross-section increases velocity of flowing
liquid decreases & vice-versa.

Bernoulli's equation:
an ideal liquid, the sum of pressure
This theorem states that for the streamline flow of
unit volume throughout the flow is constant.
encrgy, potential cnergy and kinetic energy per
P + p v + Pgh = cons tant
2
where, P > Pressure energy per unit volume.

Pv Kinetic energy per unit volume.

Pghgravitational potential energy per unit volume.

theorem
Applications of Bernoulli's
1. Lift of an aeroplane.
2. Atomiser or sprayer
3. Blowing off of roofs of thatched house.
4. of two boats sailing very close to each other.
Pulling
5. Action of Bunsen's burner of Gas oven burner.
6. Curved path of a spinning ball (magnus effect).

BENGALI VERSION

413TCA sa (Streamline flow)

 nerties of Matter
251

* * * *

1 B CIT v, T| R

gaS T Ca3 (Characteristic of streamline flow):

»PIT 1R (Turbulent flow) 8

II5ANTte aNta (Critical velocity) I a I A1 7ReI uoF TR TY

SPTCATSITOT o R RT ITY AR (Turbulent flow)

N,-43 0 TT 2000-47 7, aAR TA 13TARI N,-7 A 3000 TT aR RTA

T E 231 T 2000 cAT 3000-43 KTTO rz (unstable) AI uese f

eTANPOTE 7A3 (Equation of continuity)

avp R
 252 Applied Physics-|
V

A ®*MI (Bernoulli's theorem) :

P+ Ph=g

M A ATON et1 (Application of Bernoalli's theorem)

) STATTATA SCETAI
(ii) Atomiser Ce-NTU eNO

(iv)
(v)
(vi)

SURFACE TENSION, VISCOSITY & HYDRODYNAMICS

WORKED OUT EXAMPLE
Problem-1. A solid body can float in water with th of its volume above the surface. What
fraction of its volume will project if it floats in a liquid of specific gravity 1.38
[W.B. Poly, 95]
Soln.: Let, v (in c.c.) be the volume of the solid body.
Volume above the surface is
c.c.
Properties of Matter
w w W N NWWW
253
of the displaced water 5V
.Volume
=v-c.C.=.C
Weight of displaced water = gm. wt.

'
of water 1density
gm/c.c. =

Team the condition of floatation, weight of the body = weight of the displaced water

gm t.

Let, x part of the body will be out of the liquid.

volume of the displaced liquid =v (1 - x) c.c.

is 1.38.
sp. gravity of the liquid
density of the liquid is 1.38 gm/c.c.
weight ofthe displaced liquid = v (1 - x) x 1.38 gm. wi.

From the condition of floatation,

v(1-x) x 1.38
5 41
or, 1-x F :v#0 5
or, x=1-xiR x=
.6x1.38 101
Problem-2. A hollow glass stopper just sinks in water. Compare the volume of cavity
with that of the stopper. Sp. gravity of glass is 2.5. [W.B. Poly. '97]
Soln.: Let, the volume of stopper = v c.c.

Volume of hollow part = v c.c.

» glass= (v - v') c.cC.

s p . gravity of glass = 2.5. density of glass = 2.5 gm/c.c.

weight of glass ( v -v) x 2.5 gm-wt

, the displaced water = v gm-wt.

From the condition of floatation,

v-v) x 2.5 =v

or, 2.5 v'= 1.5v v1:5 3 v v=3:5

253
volume of hollow part: volume. of stopper =3:5
Problem-3. A cork of sp. gr. 0.25 is taken under water and then released. Show that it will
come up with an acceleration of 3g. [W.B. Poly. '99]
Soln,: Let, the volume of cork =V unit.

Sp. gr. of cork 0.25

density of cork =
sp. gr. of cork x
density of water
254) Applied Physics-1
=
(0-25 x
p) unit [Let, density of water =

p unit buoyancy = vpg

mass of the cork = (v x (0 25p) unit.

weight of the cork

=
0-25 vpg unit.

buoyancy or upthrust vpg unit.

=

the resultant force (upward direction)

on the cork = (vpg - 0-25 vpg) unit

= 0-75 vpg unit.

resultant force
upward acceleration =-

mass of cork weight

mg = 0.25 vpg
0-75 VPE - 3g (Provea)
0-25 vp
260N in What
gold-silver alloy weighs 280N in the air and
water.
Problem-4. A block of
is the amount of gold in alloy? Sp. gr. of gold and silver are 17.3 and 10.3 respectively.

280
Soln.: In air, mass of the alloy =-9.8gkg
260
in water 99
9-8
kg
280 260 kg 20 kg.
of the displaced water
mass
9:8 9-8 9.8
20 x10
.volume of the displaced water m°
9-8
density of water = 1000 kg/m°]

20 x
10 m3
the volume of the alloy 9.8
Let, the mass of gold in the alloy =
M kg.

the mass of silver in the alloy =

280 - M |kg

M
n
volume of gold . 17.3x 10

(280 M
volume of silver =9.8 m
10-5x10'
.volume of (gold + silver) = volume of alloy
properties of Matter
255
280
+98 M
20 x 103
M M
+ 10.5x
10 10 98
o17.3x 10
280
M
20
M 9:8 F

o17-3 10.5 9-8

280 20
ot, M17-310-5)9.8x 10.5 9.8
( - ,L28020
of. 10-5 17.3 9.8L10.5
or, M= 18.165 kg.
with water. The height of the bottle is
is completcly filled
Problem-5. A bottle with stopper
is force N is the what will be
50 cm and area of its sq. base 30 cm. Ifa on of 490 applied stopper,
thetotal thrust on the base of the bottle? The area of cross-section of the stopper is 1 sq. cm.

Soln. From multiplication of force of Pascal, we know, W=F.P.

where, W-> upward thrust on the piston off

Or, W=490x wide cylinder.
Fcylinder applied force in narrow
=
1-47x 104 N = 490 N
As the bottle is completely filled with
water, therefore, for water thrust on the a, Barea of cross-section B>a. ß =30
base of the bottle sq. cm.,
a=1 sq. cm.
=
hpg x area
[where h = 50 cm= 0.5 m, p = 103 kg/m3=
=
0-5 x 103 x 9.8 x 30 * 104
= 14-7 N. density of water]
area = 30 sq. cm= 30 x 10 sq. m.

total thrust on the base (14700 + 14.7) N = 14714-7 N.

Problem-6. The lower end of a capillary tube is dipped into water and it is seen that
water rises through 7.5 cm in the capillary. Given surface tension of water is 7.5 x 10? N/

of contact between water and glass is zero. Find the diameter of the capillary
and angle
tube. g =
10 ms2.

10 N/m z 4R B oc0° z o ATT UM 0 g = 10 ms]

Solution : Here, h = 7.5 cm = 7.5 x 102m
s = 7.5 x 102 N/m ; p = 1000 kgm

=0°, g= 10ms2
d 2r= ?
 Applied Physics
256 formula of capilary rise,
We know from the
27cos e
h
rpg
47 cos
2r= d =
hpg
4x7-5x10 cos 0 = 4x 10 m =
0.4 mm.

7 5x10x10* 10 x
liquid of density p
vessel containing a
Problem-7. A tube of 1
bore is dipped into a
of contact, 6 0°. The tuhe
mm =

10-3 N/m and angle

surface tension 49
x
8 0 0 kgm and of the height to which
the liquid can rise
held inclined to the vertical
at an angle of 60°, find
occupy in
the tube.
and the length which the liquid TTHAÍT3 4R 49 1
60° P , 800 kgm-
mm FTT 44 e qa TETT IT

Solution : Hence, r=mm=0-5x10 m

p 800 kgm3
10-3 Nm-l; 0
=
0°, h =
?
T 49 x

(a) =
60°
tube with vertical
Angle of the
0°
Since, h =2Tcos2x49x10 cos = 0.025m 2.5cm.
0-5x10x 800x9.8
rpg
in the tube, then cosa:

Let 1 be the length occupied by the liquid

l=-
h h 255 c
COsa cos 60°

evolved when 8 droplets of water (T =

7.2 x
10 Nm
Problem-8. Calculate the energy
form a single drop.
0.5 mm each combine to
of radius
) R
JCAA 8T F S R GDI (T= 7.2 x
10-2 Nm-l)>qA G
[0.5 mm

evolved =
surface tension x decrease in surface area =l
Solution: We know, Energy
x 4Tr2-4tR)...1)
8 4 r = Total aréa of eight small
x
drops.
where
4TR2 Surface area of Big drop.
Propertieso f Matter
ce. r = 0.5 mm = 0.5 x 10-3m 257)
T 7.2x 10-2 Nm-
ifh
R e the radius of big drop, then from conservation of volume,
Volume of big drop vólume of 8 small =

drops.
R =8xrr3
3
R 2r =2 x 0.S x 10-3 = 10-3m

Now putting
the values in
eqn. (1), we have
Energy evolved or released
=
7.2 x 10 x
4n(8r2 -

R2)
=
7.2 10-2 4 3.14{8 x
x x x

=
7.2 x 10-2 x 12.56 x 10-6
(0.5x 103? -(10-3}}
(2 1) -

=
90.432 x 10-J
= 9.04x 10-7J
Note: In the similar way when a
large drop is broken into number of small
energy will be absorbed that means
external energy is droplets, then
required to break large drop.
Problem-9, A soap bubble of radius r is blown
isothermal conditions. What is the energy up to form a bubble of radius 2r
under
solution be T. spent in doing so, if the surface
tension of soap

Solution: As soap bubble has

two free
in surface of soap bubble when
area surfaces, one inside and other
radius changes from r to 2r outside, so increasee
dA =
2 is,
x
[4T (2r)2 -4tr2] 24 tr2
.
Energy spent =
work done =
surface tension
=
T x dA T
x
change in area
=
x 24
tr2
Problem-10. A glass
plate of
20g in air. It is
held
length 10 cm,
breadth 4 cm and thickness
water. What will vertically with 1long side horizontal
and half the
0.4 cm, weighs
be its plate immersed in
apparent weight? Surface tension of water
Solution: Here, l=10 cm ; b =4 cm ; t 0.4 cm
=
70
dyne/cm.
m= 20g; T=
=
70 dyne cm
The Apparent weight =?
following three forces
)weight of the plate actingacting the plate, viz
on

i) Force due to vertically downward =mg 20

surface tension
=
gf
F T = vertically downwards
length of the plate in contact with
x

Applied Physics-I 17 water

 (258 Applied Physics-
T 2 (length + thickness)
-70 2 (10 + 0.4) - 70 20.8 dyne

70x 20 8
980
gf- 149 gf
Apparent weight= 20 + 1.49 8 13.49 gf.
Problem-11. Water flows through a horizontal pipe of varying cross-section at the rate of
20L per minute. Determine the velocity of water at a point where diameter is (1) 4 em and

(ii) 2 cm.

cm 9R 2 cm, s YA 7AIRI (AN AN AAI

20x 1000
Solution : Volume of water flowing per second
=
201L/min =-

60

1000
Cm/s
3
Let v, be the velocity of water at d, = 4 cm.

area of cross section a=rdi3.14x4=12.56 cm

If v, be the velocity of water at d, = 2 cm

Td Tx2=3.14 cm
4
4

From equation of continuity

V av, a,y,
1000 100026.53 cm/s
3x12.56 37 68
1000 1000
and =10616 cms
3x314 942
Problem-12. A garden hosepipe having internal diameter of 2 cm is connected to a lawn
sprinklerwhich contains 24 holes, each of 0.1 cm in diameter. If the water in the hose has
a speed of 1 ms, at what speed does it leave the sprinkler holes?

[ 1T MO AT J 2 cm 9R 3 A CTA A 1 ms-l| T 7d 0.1cm

Solution : From equation continuity, we have

A,V, A,V,
Properties of Matter
(259
2
Area of cross section of hose pipe (4)=Tn= x(2 -7 x10 m
4

Total area of sprinkler, Az = 24x Tr =

24x7 42
4

24xx(0-1 =0-067 cm =0-06x 10 m

6T x10 m2
Since, speed of water in hosepipe = Ims".

A,V, =A,V,
or, 2A,vTx10x1_10 100
Or', =16-67 ms.
67x10 6 6 3
Problem-13. A large tank containing water has a small orifice in one vertical side. If the
centre of the orifice is 4.9m below the surface level. Assuming there is no wastage of
energy.
Solution: We know from Bernoulli's theorem

P+pv+pgh =cons tant.

where, P is the pressure energy per unit volume

pvK.E
2
per unit volume.

Pghgravitational P.E/unit volume.

Consider a large tank of liquid which is so large that when water discharge from orifice
with velocity v, the water level at A goes down so slow that its velocity is taken to be
zero.

Now applying Bernulli's theorem at A and 0,

(p+0+pgh).A = at 0
when, P is the atmospheric pressure and h is the height of water level from the orifice 0.

p=pghv= 2x gh =v2x9-8x4.9=9.8 ms
This velocity of efflux is called Toricelli's theorem.
the speed of
roblem-14. An aeroplane is so designed, when it moves on the runway
low on the upper and lower surfaces of the wing are 70 ms-' and 63 ms respectively.
a t is the upthrust on the wing if area is 2.5 m2? Take the density of air is 1.3 kgm>,
(260
Applied Physics
the upper and lower surfa
Solution : Let v,, v, be the speeds
of wind
on
rfaces of the
be the pressure
on upper aha Jower Surfaces
cCs of the wn
of aeroplane, and p, and p,
using
respectively. 1.3 kgm'
Then,v 70 ms V, 63 ms'. p
From Bernoulli's theorem,
2

or.P-R-t-')-5x1:3|(70-(63)| 605.13 Nm2

the liff to the acroplane. So the upthrust .

This difference of pressure provides on
the plane
= Pressure difference x area of wing
= 605.15 x 2:5
= 1:51 x 10'N

Problem-15. A plane is in level flight at constant speed and each of its wings has an.
rea
km/hr over the lower wing and 234 km/hr over
of 25m?. If the speed of the air is 180
the plane's mass. Take air density= 1 kgm' and g=9.8 me
upper wing surface, determine ms?
[Ans. 4.4 x 10° kg]
Solution: Hints: Similar to example 4, find upthrust
As the plane is in level flight, so weight of the plane = upthrust.

i.e., mg = (P, - P,)A

m P-)A.4.4x10° kg
Problem-16. In Millikan's oil drop experiment, what is the terminal speed of a drop o
radius 2-0 x 10 and density 12x 10* kgm? Take the co-efficient of viscosity ofair be 18
x 10 Nsm. How much is the viscous force on the drop at that speed? Neglect buoyancy
of the drop due to air.
Solution: Here, r =20 x 10m; p = 12 x 10° kgm".
n = 18x 10 Nsm2; G = 0, v =? F = ?

Terminal velocity, v2{p-a)g_2(2-0x10")(1-2x10°-0)x9.8

18x10
=
5:8 x 10-12 ms-' =
5.8 cms-
Viscous foree on the drop, F = 6znrv

F 6x )-(2-0x10*}(S-8x10)
3.93 x 10-10N
Propertles of Matter
(261
OBIECTIVE TYPE QUESTION & ANSWERS
Tick the correct answer:
. A body of mass 3 kg is floating in water with th of its volume inside water. he rorce
required to submerge it fully into water is
(a) 196 N (b) 98N (c) 29.4 N (d) 2-45 N.
Ans. (b) 9.8N

2. Weight of theliquid displaced by a floating body is equal to

(a) the weight of the body
(b) the weight of the immersed portion of the body
(c) the weight of the unimmersed portion of the body
(d) none of the above.
3. Dimensional formula of the force of surface tension is
(a) MLT-2 (b) ML2T-2 (c) ML-IT-2 (d) MT-2
Ans. (d) MT-2
4. A tube of insufficient length is dipped in liquid which is supposed to rise in the tub
Choose the correct statement :
(a) liquid does not rise in the tube (b) liquid rise but does not overflow
() liquid rises and overflow out of the tube (d) liquid gets depresed.
Ans. (b) liquid rise but does not overflow.
5. When a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid the level of the liquid inside the tube rises
because of
(a) viscosity (b) osmosis (c) surface tension (d) Diffusion.
Ans. (c) Surface tension.
6. A spherical drop of radius R is divided into 8 equal droplets. If surface tension is
the work done in the process will be
(a) 21RT (b) 3mRT (c) 47RT (d) 4TRT2
Ans. (c) 4TRT.
7. In Bernoulli's theorem which of the following is conserved.
(a) mass (b) linear momentum
(c) Energy (d) Angular momentum.
Ans. (c) Energy.
8. The dimensional formula of co-efficient of viscosity is--

(a) ML IT-1 (b) MLT-2 (c) ML-IT2 (d) ML2T

Ans. (a) ML-IT
 62 Applied Physics
I n a streamline or laminar flow the velocity of flow at any point in the liquid

(a) does not vary with time

(b) may vary in direction but not in magnitude
(C) may vary in magnitude but not in direction

(d)may vary both in magnitude & direction.

Ans. (a) does not vary with time.
10. Magnus effect is caused due to-
(a) magnetic field (b) electric field

(c)Bemoulli's theorem (d) magnetic effect of current.

Ans. (c) Bernoulli's theorem.
11. The force of viscosity is
(a) Electromagnetic (b) Gravitational (c) Nuclear (d) Weak.
Ans. (a) Electromagnetic.

12. The viscous force acting between two layers of a liquid is given by - ndx This
dv
A
FA may be called-
(a) Pressure (b) Longitudinal stress
(c) Tangential stress (d) Viscous force.
Ans. (c) Tangential stress.
13. The dimension ML-IT-2 can correspond to-
(a) Moment of a force (b) Surface tension
(c) Modulus of elasticity (d) Co-efficient of viscosity.
Ans. (c) Modulus of elasticity.
14. Which of the following graph may represent the relation between the capillary rise
h and the radius r of the capillary tube?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

h h h

Ans. (b)
15. Viscosity is a property o f
(a) Liquids only (b) Solids only
(c) Solid and liquids only (d) Liquids and gases only.
Ans. (d) Liquids and gases only.
Properties of Matter 263
A thick rope of ubber of density 1 5x10 kg/m' and Young's modulus 5x10° N/m-, 8m
16 length is hung from the ceiling ofa room, the increase in its length due to its own weg

is
(a) 96 x 10 m (b) 19.2 x 1 10 m (d) 9 6m
(c)96x 10 m
(e) 9-6
x 10 m
Ans.
(Let. A be the area of cross-sectiona and I is the length of the rope, then mass O TOpe

m Alp. As the weight of the rope, acts at the mid point of the rope., so

Yg C12 or. N "gL_

Or, N= mgL Afpg8p 98x15xl0 x896x 10 m
2
A =-
A AC 2AY 2AY 2Y 2x5x10
17. The shear modulus of elasticity of a liquid is

(a) infinity (b) unity (c) finite non-zero (d) zero

Ans. (d) zero

If
18 The Young's modulus of the material of the wire of length L and radius r is Y2.
Im

the length to L/2 and radius r/2, the Young's modulas will b e

(b) Y (c) 2Y (d) 4Y

Ans. (b) Y. Young's modulus is the inherent property of the material.

A drop of oil is placed of the surface of water, which of the following statement is correct?
19
(a) It will remain on it as a sphere
(b) It will spread as a thin layer

(c) If will partly be a spherical droplet and partly a thin film

(d) It will float as a distorted drop on the water surface.
Ans. (b) It will spread as a thin layer
20. Surface tension of a liquid is due to-
force between molecules (b) electrical force between molecules
(a) gravitational
(d) cohesive force between molecules
(c) adhesive force between molecules
Ans. (d) cohesive force between molecules
21. Ina container having water filled up to height h, a hole is made in the bottom. The velocity
of the water flowing out of the hole is-
(a) independent of h (6) proportional to hl2

(c) proportional to h (d) proportional to h2

Ans. (b) proportional to h2
22. A liquid flows through a pipe of non-uniform cross-section. If A, and A, are the cross-
of the at two points, the ratio of velocities of liquid at these
pipe
section of the portion
points will be-
 (264) Applied Physlcs-
(a) ALA2 (b) AA (c)
A
(d) AA

Ans. (c) According to equation on ofcontinuity A V, A,V2 or, V,/V, A,/A,|

23 The level of water in a tank is 5m high. A hole of area lcm2 is made in the bottom of
the tank. The rate of leakage of water from the hole. Ig = 10ms 2]
(a) 10 m/s (b) 10- m/s (c) 104 m'/s (d) 10 m/s
Ans. (b) 10-3 m/s

Hints: Velocity of e flux v=gh =vx A =/2gh xh=v2x10x5x104 = 103m/S|

24. An air bubble of radius lcm rises with terminal velocity of liquid is 1-4710 kg/m' then
the value of co-efficient of viscosity of liquid ignoring the density of air will be-
(g 98 ms2)
(a) 1 52 x 103 poise (b) 1 78 x 103 poise
(c) 182 x 103 poise (d) 1.71x 104 poise
Ans. (a) 1:52 x
10 poise
[Soln Hints: When the bubble moves with terminal velocity, then

6Tnrv=Trpg

or, n 2rpg
9v

n
2x(1x10(147x10)x98 =
152 x10 decapoise 152x10* poise
=

9x0-1x10
25. The excess pressure in side a soap bubble is twice the excess
pressure inside a second
soap bubble. The volume of the first bubble is n times the volume of the second where
n is-
(a) 0 125 (b) 0-215 (c) 0-512 (d) 1-025
Ans. (a) 0-125

4s
Hints: Given=2x r,2r
2
or, ie., =nxr=nxm(2)
or, n==0125
8
Propertie of Matter
P
265)
bubble in
sOa
in vacuum
bubble hasradius of 3em, and another soap bubble in vacuum
n
h
A
aA
r a d is
u s of
o f .Acm. If two bubbles conlesce under isothermal condition then the radius of t

new bubble is
(a) 23cmn (b) 4 Sem (c) Sem (d) 7em
Ans ( c ) SCm

4
ints: Pressure inside the bubble in P=volume of the bubble V= 3

As per question x R " 8 4 . .,3

4,T
2

of. R-++4-25
which
I n Bernouli's thorem of the following is conserved.
(a) mass (b) linear momentum (c) energy (d) angular momentum
Ans. (c) cnergy.

the blanks:
B. Fill in

1. Pascal is the unit

of (Pressure/Force)
2. Angle of contact ,of water with glass surface is than 90° (less/greater).
3. Surface tension with temperature.(Increases/decreases)
4. Mercury has the greater force of (cohesion/Adhesion)
5. The viscosity of liquid decreases rapidly with of temperature. (rise fall)
Ans. rise.
6. The viscosity of all the gases increases with the in temperature. (rise /

fall)
Ans. rise.
7. Two rowing boats moving parallel to each other very closely, they are to

each other. (pulled/ pushed)

Ans. Pulled.
8. For streamline flow the value of Reynold's number is 2000. (less than /
greater than)
Ans. Less than.
9. S.I. unit of viscosity is (poise/ decapoise)
Ans. decapoise.
10. Particles of camphor move around on the surface of water due to decrease in
(surface tension / viscosity) of liquid.
Ans. Surface tension.
 266 Applied Physics-|1
C. True or False type:
A small piece of comphor dance about on the water surface due to effect of buoyancy.
F)
. A drop of liquid under no external force is always spherical in shape due to cffect of
surface tension. [T)
3. The density of ice is 917 kg m3. The fraction of the volume of a piece of ice will be
0.083 above water, when floating in fresh water. IT]
4. The value of normal atmospheric pressure is about 1.013 x 10 pa.
[T
5. The S.I. unit of surface tension and tension in string is same.
6. Surface tension inside liquid is greater than that of surface tension of free surface.
[F
7. Cohesive force between water molecules is greater than that of cohesive force between
mercury molecules. F)
8. As temperature increases, viscosity of the liquid decreases. [T
9. Viscous force belongs to the force of electromagnetic force. IT
10. Bernouli's theorem obeys laws of conservation of energy. [T

SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

1. is easier to swim in sea water than river water?
Why it
Ans. As upward thrust or buoyant force due to sea water is greater than that of river water, so it

asy to swim in sea water. Again upthrust of seawater is greater, because density of sea
an river water. Since buoyant force= volume of displaced liquid x density x
water is more
accebration due to gravity, hence as density increases the value of upthrust increases.

2. Is Pressure a sealar or vector quantity?

Ans. Pressure is a scalar quantity because at a particular level inside the liquid, the pressure is
exerted equally in all directions, which shows that a definite direction is not associated with
hydrostatic pressure and pressure does not obey addition rules of vectors.
3. What is buoyancy and centre of buoyaney?
Ans. The upward thrust acting on the body immersed in a liquid is called buoyant for or buoyancy
where magnitude is equal to weight of displaced liquid. The centre of buoyancy is the cente
of gravity of the displaced liquid by the body when immersed in a liquid and buoyant force
always acts upwards through the centre of buoyancy.
"The angle of contact of mercury with glass is obtuse ; While the water with glass is
acute." Why?
Ans. The Cohesive force between mercury molecules is greater than the adhesive force between
mercury and glass. So the surface is convex and hence the angle is obtuse. On the other
hand for water glass the adhesive force is greater, so meniscus is concave and hence angle
of contact is acute.
 p e r t i e s
of ter (267)
at i n g bod
Floating body bas no apparent weight". Explain.

W h
a body floats in liquid, in cquilibrium weight ofthe body equals to weight ofdisplacecd
e n a

d or buoyant force. So the apparent weight of the body is zero, Weight of the body 1s
liquid

ncufralised by pthrust buoyant force.

neutralised
or

made of iron can float in water but a small piece of iron sinks. Why?
Aship
u e to large volume of displaced water and hence the weight of displaced water

mrsed par ofthe ship balances the whole weight of the ship and as a result ship tloats in
er, On the other hand weight of displaced water by the piece of iron
water
is less than the
weight of iron piece and consequently it sinks.

Low Submarine floats and sinks in Sea water ?

"ACubmarine contains a large number of ballasttanks, fitted with valves or trap doors. According
to needs
tanks can be fitted up with water or water can be driven out by compressed air.
the
When the tanks are filled up with water, the weight of the submarine is heavier than
weight of displaced water and hence sinks. On the other hand, when the tank is empty or
Dartly empty then the weight of submarine is slightly less than that of displaced water and
then it floats. Thus submarine floats and sinks in sea water.
Two spheres of same volume but one hollow and other solid are immersed completely.
In which case upthrust will be greater ?

Ans. Upthrust will be same in both the cases, since upthrust depends on volume of the displaced
liquid by the immersed body.
9. A body of mass 3 kg is floating in water with 3/4th part of its body inside water. How
much additional force in newton is required to submerge it fully ?
Ans. Since 1/4th part is submerged due to weight 3 kg. Therefore, to submerge 3/4th part required
weight lkg. So additonal weight required =1 kgwt=9.8N.
10. A boat floating in water tank, is carrying a number of large stones. If the stones are
unloaded into water, what will happen to the water level?
Ans. Level of water will fal. Because when the stones are in the boat a large volume of water is
displaced by the boat in order to get sufficient buoyaney to counteract the total weight of the
boat and stone. So level ofwater in the tank is more than that of empty boat. When the stones
are unloaded, the volume ofwaterdisplaced by the boat diminishes butthe immersed stones
displace some water but very small amount due to small volume of stone. For this, level will
slightly rise for the immersed stones. But net level of water will fall.
A piece of ice is floating in a vessel
containing water at 0°C. What will be the effect
on the level of
water, when the ice melts?
Ans The level of water remains the same. It is so because for a
floating ice, the weight of ice is
equal and opposite to the weight of the water displaced by the immersed part of ice in water.
When the ice melts, the water formed must be
part of the ice.
of volume which was displaced by the immersed
 268 Applied Physics-
12. A piece of ice floating in a vessel containg water. What will be the effect on the lev
el
to 1°C ?
of water in jar. When the temperature of water fall's from 4°C
Ans. The level of water in a jar rises. when the whole ice will melt and temperature changes from
4C to 1°C. It is so because. due to anomalous expansion, the density decreases when
temperature falls from 4°C to 1C and hence volume increases. Due to which water level

rises.

13. What wil be the effect on the angle of contact of a liquid if the temperature increases?
Ans. With the increase in temperature. the surface tension of liquid decreases. Due to which the
liquid surface on the solid surface becomes more flat, consequently the angle of contact of a

liquid increases with the increase in temperature.

14. What will be the effect on the temperature, if the number of small drops of mercury
coalesce adiabatically to form a single drop?
Ans. When a large number of drops coalesce, the surface area will decrease and hence surface
will increase.
energy will be liberated. Due to adiabatic condition, its temperature
15. When a painting brush is taken out of water its hair cling together why?
Ans. Due to surface tension, the water films formed between the hairs will tend to make the
surface area minimum. As a result of which the hairs of painting brush come close to each
other.
16. When wax is rebbed on cloth, the cloth becomes water proof;why ?
Ans. The capillaries formed in threads disappear when wax is rubbed on cloth.
17. Why does the cotton wick in an oil-filled lamp keep on burning?
Ans. In the cotton wick there are very large number of capillaries in which oil continues to rise.

18. Water can rise up to a height of 10cm in a capillary tobe. If a capillary of same
diameter and same material but of length Scm is held verfically in water, will the
water over flows in the form of a fountain ? Explain.
Ans. No. Because when the rise ofthe capillary is less than the height to which the water can rise,
according to Jurin's law the radius of curvature of water meniscus adjust itself in such a way
that there is no over flowing of water but the product of height of liquid and odius of curvature
(RH=Constant) ofthe meniscus remains constant.
19. A small drop of liquid under no external force, is always spherical in shape. why ?
Ans. When there is no external force, the only force on the drop is surface tension, which tries to
make the drop to have the least surface area. Hnce the drop become spherical.
20. Particles of camphor move to and fro around the surface of water. Why?
Ans. Camphor dissolves more rapidly at some points than at other. Where it dissolves, there surface
to
tension is reduced. Thus the force due to surface tension is nonuniform all around. Due
iniquibrium condition offorces, it dances on the surface of water, depending on the direction
of resultant force.
 ties of Matter
(269
t is easier to wash clothes in hot water soap solution. Why?
Ahot water soap solution has considerably lower value of surface tension than that of plane
a t e r . Due to low vane of surlace tension, the molecule of hot soap solution pentrates the
dirty porous cloth in a better way than that of plane water. So the dirtly particles are loosened
and is cleaned.

SUBJECTIVE-TYPE QUESTIONS
(a) Obtain an expression for the pressure at a point within a liquid.
b) State Archemedi's Principle.
(c)State the condition of equilibrium of floating bodies.
() State Pascal's law. How can you apply this law for obtaining multiplication of force?

2 (a) Define surface tension. Give its S.I. unit.

6) Explain on the basis of molecular theory why free surface of a liquid behaves as a
stretched membrane having tendency to contract and occupy minimum surface area for
a given volume.
(c) What is surface energy of the free surface of a liquid? How is surface energy related
to surface tension?
(d) Explain the rise of a liquid in a capillary tube. Why mercury level in the capillary tube
of glass is depressed?
(e)What are the factors which affect the surface tension of a liquid?
3. Why is the dam of water reservoir thick at bottom?
Ans. [Hints: Pressure increases with depth ]1
4. What is the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius r and surface tension a.
Ans. Hints: work done = surface tension x increased area =G x (47r* x 2) = 8nro. in
case of soap bubble 2 surface area exist.)
.At what temperature the surface tension of liquid is zero?
Ans. Critical temperature.
6. A boat carryinig a number of large stones is floating in water tank. What will happen to
water level if the stones are unloaded into water?
S,
When the stones are unloaded into water, water level falls because the volume of the
water displaced by stone in water will be less than the volume of water displaced when
stones are in the boat.
 Applied Physic
ics-1
270 e afloating
weight of the
lake. What is the apparent
A block of wood
is floating in a
7.
block? Iy down.
block acting vertically downwards
; because weight of the
the
Ans. Apparent weight is zero
block upwards.
the buoyant force acting on the
is balanced by
in a vessel. What will ho.
containing air bubble inside it is floating the
8. A piece of ice
the ice melts?
level of water, when
level of water remains same.
Ans. The
vessel containing water. Whas
small in it is floating in a
some at
A piece of ice embeded a
99. the level of water,
when ice melts?
will be the effect on

decrease. Explanation
similar to Q. No. 6.
Ans. The level of water will

10. Deep water runs slow. Explain.

= constant where, a be the area of cross-section
on
According equation of continuity,
av
Ans. to
area of crosS-section is more, so velocin
of deep water,
and v be the velocity. In case
is less.
streamline flow, laminar flow and turbulent flow.
11. Explain
critical velocity? How it is related to Reynold's number?
12. What do you understand by
down the mathematical expression of Bernoulli's
13. State Bernoulli's theorem. Write
theorem mentioning physical meaning of symbol.
14. Write the expression for terminal velocity.
15. It is advised not to stand nearing a running train-why?
of air streams in between the
Ans. When fast moving train passes on a rail, then the velocity of
as compared to the velocity
rail and the person standing near rail will be very large
rail. According to Bernoulli's
air streams on other side of person away from the
on the back side. Due
to
theorem pressure is low in between person and train and high
towards the train and may face accident.
pressure difference, person is pushed

NUMERICALS
The density of ice is 917 kg m-, What % of the volume of a piece of ice will be above
1. [Ans. 8.3%
water, when floating in fresh water?
Soln.: Hints : Let V total volume of ice.
Vvolume outside water
Applying Archemedis Principle, V x 917 x g= (V-v) x 1000 x g
 perties of Matter
(271)
Find
x100%=?
V

Piece of pure gold ot density 19.3

Piece
A
air and 36-| gm in
in air gm/c.c. is suspected to be hollow inside. It
m in
386 gm water. Calculate the volume of the hollow weigns
gold, if any. portion in ue
[Ans. 05 c.c.]
hody
A body weighs 25 gf in air and 20 gf in water. What
density 0-8 gm/c.c.? would be its weight in a liquid or
Ans. 21 gt
Aforce of 50N
is applied on a
nail, whose tip has of
Find the pressure on the tip.
an area
cross-section of 0-001 cm
[Ans. 5 10 Nm-2]
How much will a girl of weight 50 kgf wearing high heel shoes exert
horizontal flat toe of a person pressure on a
standing behind her with a single heel of circular diameter
I cm.?
[Ans. 6-24x 10 Nm2]
The neck and bottom of a bottle are 2 and 10 cm in diameter
cm

pressed with force of 2

respectively. If the cork
is a
kgf in the neck of the
bottle, Calculate the force exerted on
the bottom of the bottle. Weight of the liquid may be neglected. [Ans. 50 kgf]
024
Hints
8x 10 v
x1000=
** .024 +250v
- ?
2
1, A body floats with th of its volume above the surface of water. Calculate the
density
of the material of the body.
[Ans. 600 kgm*]
8 Determine the surface energy of a soap film created in a ring of area
10 m2?
Surface tension of soap solution = 0.07 N/m. [Ans. 1.4 x 10-J]

Ans. [Hints: Take double free surface area of the soap film of both sides. Surface
energy o x 2A]

A soap bubble of radius r is blown into larger size of radius 2r under isothermal
conditions. What is the energy spent in doing so if the surface tension of soap solution
is .

Hints: Increased are AA = 2 x {47 (2r) - 4tr} ; for two free surfaces area will

bedouble. Energy spent = oAA.] [Ans. 247rro]

 272) Applied Physlcs-
10. A piece of wax weighs 18.80 gwt in air. A piece of metal in found to weigh 17.03
in water. It is tied to the wax and both together weigh 15.23 gwt in water. Find
gw
the
sp.gr of wax. Ans. 0.91
[Hints: wax in air + metal in water = 35.83
wax in water + metal in water = 15.23

weight of displaced water = 20.63

wt of wax
Spgr
wt. of displaced water

1.

2.

3.
 erties of Matter

T AP IT-977 TI T% (Ballast tank)

7 A I

Ans.

7.

Aplied Physics-- 18
 A
E
E
E
5
V
E V
5 V
E-
Propertie of Matter
75
A 14 CUITA 3 kg 1
Ans.
a A I kg 0ut
ofas 11 =1 kgwt =9 8N
14. 7 I T töA BAA RUT| oraTA (Angle of
contact) ATTAA fa aA ?
Ans

15.
276) Applied Physics-H

20. f TA 10 cm oU STREE 3DI 9 JA 4R 4TGAITAT 5 cm

-x
 UNIT

HEAT AND THERMOMETRY

6
HEAT:

is a
rm of energy. When a body gains heat it becomes hot while it loses, it becomes cold.
fom
Heat

Unit of Heat : C.GS. »Calorie

S.I. Joule
1 Cal 4.2 Joule
Dimension: MLT
Temperature: Temperature is defined as the thermal state of a body (i.e., the degree
of hotness or coldness of the body). It determines the direction of flow of heat when
rwO bodies at different temperatures are placed in contact. From zeroth law of
thermodynamics temperature can also be defined as follows
"Temperature is a physical quantity which determines whether or not a particular
system is in thermal equilibrium with another system."

Unit of temperature: S.I. Kelvin (k)

C.GS. Celsius (C)
>

Differences between Heat and Temperature

HEAT TEMPERATURE
1. Heat is a form of energy. 1. Temperature is the thermal state of the
body i.e. the degree of hotness or
coldness.
|2. Flow of heat does not depend on the 2. Heat flow depends on the temperature
amount of heat content. diffèrence of two bodies in contact.
3. Heat is the cause of temperature 3. Temperature is the effect of heat.
4. During change of state amount of heat is 4. During change of state temperature
changed. remain constant.
5. S.I. unit is Joule. 5. S.I. unit is kelvin
6. Heat absorbed or released is measured by 6. Temperature IS measuredd by
calorimeter. thermometer.
Relation between different scale of temperature
I division in Celsius scale =1 division in Kelvinscale.
I division in Celsiusscale division in Fahrenheit seale.

Mathematical relation :
C-lower fixed point in celsius
upper fixed point - L.F. point of C scale

277
 278) Applied Physics-
F- Lower fixed point in F scale T-L.F. of Kelvin
U.F. point - L.F. point
U.F.-L.F.

C-0 F-32 T-273

100-0 212-32 100-0
Relation between C & F

C-0 F-32 . C_F-32

100 180 59
Prob-1: If temperature of Darjeeling at summer be 25°C,what is its temperature
n
Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale?

Soln.: We know,
-32T-273
9 5
9
In Fahrenheit seale: F =C+32 =x25+32 = 45 + 32 = 77°F
5
In Kelvin seale : T = 273 +C = 273+25 = 298 K

Prob-2: The temperature difference of Calcutta and Darjeeling is 25°C. What is its
temperature difference in Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale?

9
Soln.: Difference of 25°C=Zx25=45°F [ 1 div in C-scale = div in F scale]
5
Difference of 25°C 25K [:1° difference in C-scale
=
1° difference in Kelvin
scale
=

Prob-3: A faulty thermometer reads lower fixed point as 5° and upper fixed
990. When this thermometer records 52° of a hot body, then what is the actual
point as
temperature in celsius scale?
Soln.: Let x be the correct reading in celsius scale, when faulty thermometer shows 52.
X-0 52-5
or, x x 100 50°C
100-0 99-5
required temperature = 50°C.

Prob-4: At what temperature will the celsius thermometer give

much as the fahrenheit thermometer
a reading four times as
reading?
Soln. Let in fahrenheit scale temperature =x°.
Corresponding temperature in celsius scale =
4x
Since F-32
Since,=
9
or, 4x X-32
9
or, 36x= 5x - 160 or, 31x = -160

160
X- :-5.16
31
 279
Heat And Thermometry
temperature in fahrenheit scale is -5.16'F & in celsius cale
So the required
= - 20.64°C.

uniform bore is divided equally in degrees. It reads 20

the
duh-5. A thermometer of
Pro thermometer read at
ice and 80° at boiling point of water. What will this
melting
100°F?
to temp. 100'F.
Soln,: x be the reading of unknown thermometer corresponding
X-20 100-32 or X-20 68
Or,
80-20 180 60 180

68 x 60
X-20=
180
=2267
3

X 42.67
thermometer will read 42.67.
At 100°F this
value of absolute zero in celsius scale is -273°C. Find its value is in
Prob-6. If the
Fahrenheit scale?

Sola.: We know,=

or, _273x9+32 = 459.4

or,
9 5
Value in Fahrenheit scale = -459.4°F.

Prob-7. When a celsius thermometer is dipped in hot milk, mercury column is found to

fixed points. What is the

advance parts of the distance between two
18
temperature of the milk?
Soln.: Fundamental range i.e., difference between upper fixed point & lower fixed point
is 100°C fof celsius scale.

Temperature of hot milk = x fundamental range

18

700
38 89°C
18

BENGALI VERSION
(Introduction)
280 Applied Physics-|
U (Unit of Heat)
S.l.Joule ( ) [Nm =
kg m/s'. m =
kg m?s]
C.G.S. Cal (af)
Cal =4.2 Joule

[MLT*] [L) =ML:T

( U n i t of Temperature)
S.I. f (kelvin)
CG.S. a o f (celcius)
1ATTI 1 (Differences between heat & temperature)

3.R RU

5 CATG

8. -S.I. 8. 9-S.I. o|
Heat And Thermometry
281 ( Seales of temperature) 281)

0
(lower fixed point) 32 273

100 212 373

(upper fixed point)

100 180
(fundamental interval) 100

C F K

U ffT CA U (Relation between different scale of

temperature) 3

TRT-A -Aufgas
T-Peta fe fast
C-0F-32
= T-273
KTR1AATI 100 180 100
F-32T-218 zo
9 5
aT AAM CATA 100 =TRD AT 180
180
100

GHTPRIA 1= =TIIARRD

C-0) C o 3AII
9
Cx=F-32 F-32
9
 Applied Physics-
(282)
5[7e ]
TAa,C =T-273 ([T = f
T-273 F-32 T-273
9 5
ZAERI AF F a
Example1. Pat- ITET 20°C

=-32T-273
Soln. 1 A, 9 5

C_F-32
. F 68°F.
F-32- C=x x 20 36

n e A A IN T A, T= 273+ 20 293k

20°C a M G FTZATTS SR
Example 2: ara etak 4R 7OK TATAT 1

Soln.: 20°C 19 =20x=36°F

1 20k FR GaR SR Kelvin
TAR, FIAARRT CAA H 36°F . Kelvin =

99°
Example 3. e i TcaifADIR RATC 5° R F
Soln.: A PA, TA q d s Traoitaa 13 520, 7 AMAM Md = x

x-052-5 or, X47 or, x=x 100= 50

94
100-0 99-5 100 94
Rr = 50°C.

Example4. j7 3TCIA NII TY 250 km| 9 I JAN E 8°C 4

CR T3 2T1 =
12 x 106/C.
Soln.: A *A, I ADT
Y , 2AT7 ()
=
L at

250,000 12 x 106
x x 40m

= 0.25x 12 x 40m
= 3x 40m =
120m

250 km AA TRA HCkT CATT ¥T TATT TA 120m.

He And Thermometry
283)
Ehample-s

T TAI 15 7RPCA-12 x
106/C g7R 18 x
10-6/PC.
Soln. : T

Al a , t

a,t,azt
218x 106
1 2 x 12x 10
75 (ACSA T G = 3:2.

rample-6. 20°C UUN 4PT AUPU CA HDP T I I AI CMTed M 30 CUS

( AN UU 6? MTPTS3 TAMTAA ni aTa 11, a = 18x 10°/C.
Soln.: 4 , IEA AINOA T 4R TUl A ,

Tayi

1+at-20)={1+a(t-20) =1+alt-20)
a(t-20)
2

T
RCRY 1 =86400 AFTI

86400 HTTS T13 C TT

86400x a(t-20)
HTRY, 1 MA YT 30 AA ,

.30=86400xx18x10(t-20)
t 20 38.58°C
RIC 1 ,
t = 38.58+ 20 58.58°C.
 (284) 5 Applied Physics
Thermal expansion of Solid:
uenerally, the dimensions of all substances increase with increase in temperature. But the
degree of expansion is not same for different substances. This phenomenon is known as thermal

expansion.
Expansion of solid is the least in comparison with liquid and gases. It is due to strong inter
atomie forces in case of solids. There are three kinds of expansion co-efficient in case of solid.

Expansion co-efficient

Co-efficient of Co-efticient of Co-efficient of

linear expansion Super ficial expansion cubical expansion
(a) (B) (Y)
) Co-efficient of linear expansion (a):
Definition : It is defined as the increase in length per unit original length per unit rise i n

temperature.
Let dl be the increase in length due to rise in temperature dt when the original length is
assumed to be 1. Then
di increase in length
a
l.dt original length x ise in temperature
I fdl = , - and dt =2 - t

Then, a A(t2-1)
or,1{l +at,-t,}
Where , be the final length at temperature t

S.I Unit of a k
Q.What do you mean by co-efficient of linear expansion of brass 19 x 10 /k?
Ans. It is the increase in length of 19 x 10 m due to rise in temperature of Ik of a brass
rod of length Im.

(ii) Co-efficient of superficial expansion (B):

Definition : It is defined as the increase in area per unit original area per unit rise in

temperature.
Let ds be the increase in area in original area s due to rise in temperature dt. Then B can
be expressed as,
B= S2-S1
s.dt si(t2 )
where s and s, are areas at temperature t, and t,.
Heat And Thermometry (285
S.I. unit of ß : k-l
i) Co-efficient of cubical expansion (7)
Definition: It is defined as the increase in volume per unit original volume per unit rise
in temperature.

Let dv be the increase in volume in original volume V due to rise in temperature dt. Then
y can be expressed as,
dv Increase in volume
yY == -

vdt Original volume x rise in temperature v,(t-t,)

Where v, and v2 are volumes at t,°C and t,°c

Unit of y: k-l

Relation between a, B, y :
Let at t°C each side of a cube be 1
So, the area of each face, s = P . ( 1 )

Volume of the cube, V =P . 2)

Now, taking derivative w.r.t. temperature 't', we have,
dv
.3) and 3/2
dt
.. ...(4)
dt
Dividing cqn. (3) by (1), we get
dl
Lds =2
s dt dt dt
d
-2
Again dividing eqn. (4) by (2), we get

1dd dtIdt 2
dv3d3.
v dt

3
This is the relation between a, B and y.
*
Change of density with
temperature substances decreases. Let any solid
temperature increases, the density of any solid
AS be and at t°C volume be v, and density
stance of mass m at 0°C. Volume be v and density Po
be p.
Since, we know, v, = Vo ( * yt)

m m Po Po(l+y)
r, Pt1+Y
v,V1+ y) higher terms are neglected ]
[As y is very small
PPo (1- yt)
density decreases.
nerefore, as temperature increases,
286 Applied Physics-
BENGALI VERSION
Thermal expansion of solid (dTa tat)3

(a)fon M t Ca (Solid matter) foa oMitA CA aHTA AT1 5 A TA|

e 2h (Expansion co-efficient)

CRaePTR 2 9 (B)
(co-efficient of linear (co-effcient of super- (co-efficient of
expansion) ficial expansion) volume expansion)

d
a 1.dt dl-> aPHTa

a= 4 dt 4É7
t2-1)
or, =h{l+a(t2-t1}

Q. oTa r es1 M 19 x 10-/k PE ?

Ans. 1 ADT3 71 P T AUA HTUA Ik A A I ATE Fsiba &rvs ePARI TA 19 x 10°m.

(ii) CueTA A : (B)

ds
B ds> C4P7 2AR31
S dt
Heat And Thermometry
S2S 287
s(1)
or, s,S +B(1,-1,)

Y d v

v.dt

dt S
a , B, y-4 AII T*(Relation between a, B, v) 8

9 - A U R C P a i s = P . . . ( 1 ) 4R
TTO V = .....(2)

d-2.(3) 4
dy-3/2
dt d.4)
(3)+(1)a iR =d 1#0]

B 2a
(4) (2) A IK 1 dv-3d[:1*0]
dt 3dt
Y 3u
a==1
2 3
A t T TTACY gA (Change of density with temp.)8
T, m SAA A fda i t a 0°C GYKUN INA Vo» NAY Po
C P

ITN A, V, =
V»(l+ Yt) V-Vo
Vo
288 Applied Physics
V Vol + yt)

or, PPo(l+yt)
TRASMISSiON OF HEAT
If two bodies at different temperatures are facing each other or are in contact, heat flows
from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. Heat flow can take
place by the following three different ways
() Conduetion (i) Convection (iii) Radiation.
Conduction: Conduction is a process of transfer of heat from hot end to the cold end
from particle to particle of the medium without any actual transfer of material of the medium.
In solids, heat is transferred by this process.
In metals heat is transferred by the drift of free electrons.. At the hot end kinetic energy of
free electrons are more than that of cold end. Therefore faster moving electrons drift towards
the cooler part.
In non-metals (having no free electrons) heat energy is transmitted by the vibrations of its
atoms.
i) Convection : Convection is a process of transfer of heat by the actual movement of the
particles of the medium. By this process the transfer of heat is always vertically upwards. The
reason is that medium particles near the source of heat absorb heat from the source and
become less dense moving faster in the upward direction and the medium from above being
denser moves down to take its place. Thus a current is set up in the medium which is called a
convection current.

Differences between Conduction, Convection and Radiation

Conduction Convection Convection
1. Material medium is necessary 1. Material medium is 1. No material medium is
forthis process. The medium is necessary for this process. required.
generally solid or crystalline Medium is generally fluid.
substance.
2. It is not possible in vacuum. 2. It is not possible in vacuum. 2. It is possible in vacuum.
3. The molecules of the medium 3. As the molecules of the 3. Medium does not play any
do not leave their mean medium move there is a mass role.
positions but they transfer heat movement of the medium.
as a result of vibration about
their mean position.
4. The transfer of heat can be any 4.The transfer of heat takes 4. The transfer of heat is in all
direction along any path. place in a vertically upward directions along a straight line
direction. path in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
5. The process is faster than 5. The process is fastest and the
|5. The process is slow. conduction. transfer of heat takes place with
the speed oflight ie. 3x10 m/s
 Heat And Thermometry (289
BENGALI VERSION
O1741 (Transmission of Heat) :

1 ARS ( Process of Transmission)

(Conduction) (Convection) (Radiation)

o , b a e fATA H 1 (Differences between Conduction, Convection

and Radiation)

|.RTOCO 1. afaa Mea 1.a OTE MUCAS

2. 1

Aplied Physics-I 19
 Applied Physics-I
290
3. TTTA u a fATSTTRU
3.

4. fas D11 A MT TATARIR

4. 3 5 - T5
CRI

5. 1 RIA A1 5. DEIAA A
TRT (3x 10 m/s)

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
a solid material is defined as
Definition: Co-efficient of thermal conductivity of in the
unit area per unit temperature gradient
the rate of flow of heat normally per state.
direction of flow of heat across the solid in steady
of section and A0 be the
the rate of flow of heat and A be the
area cross
If b
At
e
at distance Ax. Then the rate
difference in temperature between two opposite faces separate a

of heat flow depends on,

AQAQ. AQkAS
At Ax
A Ax
where K is a Constant of proportionality and is called Co-efficient of thermal conductivity.
decreases as the distance increases.
The negative sign indicates that temperature
S.I. Unit of thermal Conductivity (K):
AQ/At
We know, k=
A AQ/Ax
SI. unit of k= Joule/sec =ImK-s- = Wm'K-'
mk/m
Dimension of K:

[K]= At=A0-4x__MLT?.L
T6 A-Ae/AxA-Ae-At] | K.T
Composit medium:
(a) Series Combination : If d,, d, be the thickness of two flocks of thermal conductv
Heat And Thermometry 291
ck and k, are attached with each other. Let cach block has area of cross-section A and
stcady state let temperature of left block be e, and that of right block be 0, (0,> 0,).
in
consider the temperature of the junction be 8 such that 0,> 0> 0,. If Q quantity of that is
transferred in time through each block then rate of heat flow through each block will be
same.

-A(-0)4(0-6).A(%-)

Now, let k be the equivalent thermal conductivity of a material whose thickness is d, then

A(-6)A(-8)
e,> 6> 6,

Ifd, d, then 2d d*

k k , +k
k
kkk d d>
(b) Parallel Combination: In this case two rods of equal length d having thermal
conductivities k, and ka and their corresponding area of cross sections A and Az are joined
side by side. When the two opposite ends are kept at steady temperature 6, and , (0, > 0,),
then rate of heat flow through both the conductors are

kA-0,) and
and A-9)
t d t
. Total rate of heat flow through both the conductors is
-(,A, +k,A,
t t
.1)
Ifk be the equivalent thermal conductivity of the parallel combination, then

e k(A +AG-6) ..2)

d
Comparing equation (1) & (2), (A, +A,)k = A,k, + A,k

k=A+A,k
AtA
If,A, Az A say
292 Applied Physics-I

kAtk,)

2A
2

BENGALI VERSIONN

a RuI (Thermal Conductivity)

Q R UTTIA AT (Amount of heat)

A= CR (Area)
d= (Thickness) Q
(-0,) S3661 1 (Temp. difference)
t= 7A (time)
K MICR T aRui (thermal conductivity)
6, d
>,
O A/0-0)
d

Q=- KA(0-,) ..(1)

d
NAN (Series Combination) TCOA TT HU UTR t (Conduction
(a) t
8
through Composite slab)
8,
Q
K,I NTA R, VA 6,4R 977 P 4 6 1 (0,), (®,> Q

0,). 0> AE (Steady

KARR $a1 01 TAR 0,> 0, d d?
T RC 1 Q A, T1i
E A
state) t NCA
3,
k4(-0) k4(0-6)
d d
Heat And Thermometry
293
A8-8)_A(0-0)_ A(0, -08)
or

0-6)_A(0 -)
q, d, d,

. 2d d
k kk kkk
Ifd =d, =d, U, UA k

2k&
k +k
(b) TATY 1T*AR (Parallel Combination) : k, 4R k, Ti «ReT fai3 gR A,

5 4d -
t

,A ) . .

t d

, )
d

k(A +AG-) 2
t d

k(A +A)=k,A, +k,A2

k= KA, +k,A
2A
294 Applied Physicss-1
a17 9 G 2PRT5AS CPQp 7AA U, qshe A, = A, = A W, DCa

k=A+k,A
2A

(Unit of thermal Conductivity)

(1) TAA1 TI, k=- Qd
A(0,-0,)
Joule m
S. I. 9 A,
m K sec
Joule m'K'sl = Watt m-'K<

[k]=
MT-[MLT*°}
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of science which deals with the study of transformation of
heat energy into other forms of energy and vice-versa.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics: (Why it is so called?)

Zeroth law was formulated by R.H. Flower in 1930 much later than the 1st and 2nd law of
thermodynamics. But as this law gives the concept of temperature which is fundamental to
both 1st and 2nd law of thermodynamics can't be placed after the two laws. So it should be
placed before 1st law and 2nd law. Hence it is called zeroth law.
Thermal equilibrium: Two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium if no transfer
of heat takes place when they are placed in contact.
Statement of Zeroth law: "When two thermodynamic systems are separately in
thermal equilibrium with a third thermodynamic system. Then first two systems are in
thermal equilibrium with each other."

Definition of Temperature from Zeroth law: Temperature is defined as the physical

quantity which determines whether or not a particular system is in thermal equilibrium with
another system.
Heat And Thermometry (295)
is the total energy
Concept of internal energy: Internal energy of a system
rotational and vibrational) and
OSsessed by the system due to molecular motion (translational,
pos

molecular configuration.
is called internal kinetic energy (U,) and the
to the molecular motion
The energy due Thus
due to molecular configuration is called internal potential energy (U).
energy
U-U,+ U, inter-molecular forces are
ideal gas or perfect gas, it is assumed that
of an
But in case
0.
of the molecular. Thus U,
=

Therefore, no work is done in changing the configuration

zero. which depends
internal energy of an ideal gas consists only of internal kinetic energy,
Hence
of the gas.
only on temperature and final
in internal energy of a system depends only on initial
It is noted that change in going from
It does not depend upon the path followed by the system
states of the system.
initial state to final state.

First law of thermodynamics (claussius statement):

Statement : The first law of thermodynamics states that when somequantity of heat
to system capable of doing external work, then the quantity of heat
(dQ) is supplied a

is of the increase in the internal energy of the system

equal to the sum
absorbed by the system
work done by the system (dw) in expansion.
(dU) due to rise in temperature and the external
dQ = d U + dW|

where, dQ > amount of heat energy supplied to the system.

dU> change in internal energy.

dW external work done.
Sign convention
tve ; when heat is supplied to a system.
(i) dQ
dQ> -ve ; when heat is drawn from
the syystem.
(1) dW tve ; when gas expands i.e. work done by the gas.
dW -ve ; when gas compressed i.e. work done on the gas.
increases.
(11) dU +ve ; when temperature increases internal energy.
decreases.
dU>-ve ; when temperature decreases, internal energy

Importance of first law of thermodynamics

() This law supports the principle of conservation of energy as applied to heat energy.
()
of matter i.e. solid, liquid and gas.
1 This law applies equally to all the three phases
(1i) It introduces the concept of internal energy.
without
t is learnt from 1st law thatit is impossible to get work from any machine,
giving an equivalent amount of energy to the machine.
(296 Applied Physics-1
Limitations of the lst law of
thermodynamies : The lirst law of
cstablishes the essential thermodynamics
cquivalence betwecn the heat cnergy and mechanical
energy and
says that the two can be converted into ench
other. Ilowever, this law has the followin
limitations
. The first law docs not indicnte in which direction the
change will occur. As for
CXample when a moving car is stopped by applying break work donc against friction
is
converted into heat. But wlhen this amount of heat is
given to bus, it will not move an
inch i.e. heat energRy will not be able to convert
mechanical energy fully. So first law is
silent about it.
2. The first law
gives no iden about the extent of change.
3. The first law of
thermodynamics gives no information about the source of heat i.e.
whether it is a hot or a cold body.

BENGALI VERSION
141fef1 (Thermodynamics)

OPUT UUN (Zeroth law of thermodynamics) 1930 TC R. H. Flower

O R q (Statement of Zeroth law of thermodynamics): "zd afeH T

e y l TA 4TAN (Concept of internal energy) iAI 7RII (system) NG UEVAN

(U),
U U,+ u,|
Heat And Thermometry 2972

Ta T ( M T Ago) (1st law of thermodynamics (claussius

statement) 3

dQ = dU + dW

RT, dQ > 2T3

BR 5PTE TA (Sign convention)

dU > tNTa1 2kgE TeJVA z du +ve 43R 3 ( du

-ve

dW 7RZIA AT *I +ve 9R 7KT Ta P - v e

ookRuta e IY (Importance of first law of thermodynamics) 3

(i)

99RtR eem a AAAI (Limitation of first law of thermodynamics):

 298 Applied Physics-

Specific heat of gases

Definition of Sp. heat Specific heat of any substance is defined as the amount of heat
raise the temperature of unit of substance through 1°C.
required to a mass

In the above difinition of specific heat it was assumed that whole of the heat supplied to the
substance is used in raising temperature. As the expansion of liquid and solid is negligible
small, so the ternalwork was ignored. But in case of gas, expansion is quite appreciably high,
so the external work cannot be neglected.
As a gas may be geated in two ways-one at constant volume and other at constant pressure,
it has two sp. heats. One is at constant volumeanother is at constant pressure.
Molar sp. heat (C)

Molar Sp. heat at Molar Sp. heat at constant

constant volume pressure
C) (C
Molar specific heat at constant volume (C,) : It is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of a gas through 1 kelvin at constant volume.
Molar specific heat at constant pressure (C) : t is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of1 mole of a gas through 1 kelvin at constant pressure.
Unit of Molar sp. heat
(a) S.I.- J mol' k (units of work)
(b) C.GS. erg mol'k
Why C>C
When a gas is heated at constant volume, all the heat supplied is used to increase the
temperature or internal energy of the gas.
When a gas is heated at constant pressure, it expands. It does work against the extemal
pressure. The heat supplied is used in two ways:
(i) Partly to increase the internal energy or temperature.
(ii) Partly to do work against external pressure.
Therefore, at constant pressure an additional amount of heat equivalent to work done
utilised. Hence more amount of heat is required to increase the temperature of 1 mole of a ga
at constant pressure than that at constant volume i.e. C,> C.
Heat And Thermometry (299)
can be proved that,
It
=R

where, C molar sp. heat at constant pressure.

C = molar sp. heat at constant volume.

R universal gas constant = 8.31J k-l mol

Application of first law of thermodynamics:

(a) Isothermal Process: In isothermal process temperature keeping constant of a closed
sustem volume changes with the variation of pressure of the enclosed gas.

From first law of thermodynamics. We get, dQ du + dw =

Since temperature remaining constant, therefore change in internal energy, du= 0.

'. dQ = dw

So in isothermal process there is no change in internal energy, but external work done by
the system or on the system takes place.

(b) Adiabatic process : It is the process in which there is no heat exchange from system
to surrounding or vice versa but change in pressure, volume and temperature, of the enclosed
gas take place that process is called adiabatic process.
From 1st law of thermodynamics, this can be explained as follows:
We know, dQ = du + dw

Since, Q= constant, therefore dQ =O.

O du +dw du= -dw
Inadiabatic expansion, dw is positive, therefore du=-ve. So internal energy decreases. As
internal energy decreases temperature of the system decreases.
Differences between Isothermal and Adiabatic Process

Isothermal Adiabatic
1. In this process temperature is constant. | 1. In this process temperature is not constant.
2. Quantity of heat is varied. 2. Quantity of heat in the system remain
constant.
3. Wall of the enclosed vessel is made of 3. Wall of the enclosed vessel is made of |
good conductor. bad conductor.
4. It is
a slow
process. 4. It is a fast process.
. Boyle's law is obeyed and the formu 5. Boyle's law will be in the form pv? =

pv constant. C
constant where, Y=:
C
6. No change in internal energy. 6. Change in internal energy and hence
temperature change take place.
300 Applied Physics
(e) Isobaric Process : Isobaric process is that thermodynamic process which occurs at
constant pressure. For example. boiling of liquid at constant pressure.
(d) Isochoric process : Isochorie process is that thermodynamic process which occurs at
constant volume.
For example, when heat is given to a system containing gas in a cylinder with rigid walls
and fixed piston, there would be no clhange in volume of the gas.
According to Ist law
dQ = du + p dv

=
du +
p x 0
= du

So work done is zero. Hence, the absorbed heat is fully transformed into internal energy.

Indicator diagram or P-V diagram:

In thermodynamics, the importance of Indicator diagram i.e., P-v diagram is enormous. In
p-v diagram usually volume v of a system is represented by x-axis and corresponding pressure
P is represented in y-axis. By this diagram we are able to know the behaviour of any ideal gas
with the help of pressure, volume and temperature.
Characterstics of P-V diagram
In p-v diagram, each point represents the thermal equilibrium state of an ideal gas.
ii) Each curve in (p-v) diagram indicate a thermodynamic process of the system.
ii) In p-v diagram area enclosed by the curve with the volume-axis represent work done
by the gas (+ve) or on the gas (-ve).
Representation of isothermal and adiabatic curve by p-v diagram :

(a) Isothermal curve : A represents initial state of Isothermal curve

an ideal gas having particular pressure and volume.
Now the gas is isothermally expanded through the path Adiabatic curve
A to B with slope less. The area enclosed by the curve B
with v-axis, ABDEA represent work done by the gas.

b) Adiabatic curve : Now again the gas is

expanded adiabatically through the path AC with greater V
slope i.e., steep curve. In this case work done by the gas is represented by the area ACDEA.
So in case of expansion, work done is greater in isothermal process. But in case of
compression, as isothermal curve is below than that of adiabatic curve. So the area enclosed
by adiabatic curve is greater than that of isothermal curve.

B
(c)Isoberie process in (p-v) diagram : AB represents isoberic
curve, pressure is constant at any point within AB but volume
changes.
Work done in isoberic process = Area ABCDA DI
V
 Heat And Thermometry
(301
(d)(p-v) graph in isochorie process: When in a process, B

oressure and temperature changes but volume constant is called

sochoric process. AB curve represent isochoric process. Since at a
particular volume only pressure changes.

In isochorie process work done by the gas is zero. Since by the

curve AB, area has not been enclosed with volume axis.
V
(e) Cyclic process in (p-v) diagram: A (V,, P)
Definition: A cyclic process consists of a series of E
changes which return the system back to its initial state.
P
Let, A(V P,) represent the initial state of a gas. Let it
be subjected to a number of changes in volume & pressure
such that it acquires the final state B(v2» P2) via the path
B(V, P)
AEB D
Work done by the gas = area AEBCDA
(V)-
Let the be
system now subjected to another succession of changes in volume and pressure
which return the system back to its initial state A(vp P,) along the path BFA.
Work done on the gas in going from B to A via the path BFA
area BFADCB
Net work done by the gas
=
area AEBCDA -

area BFADCB
area AEBFA

Hence it is concluded that work done in cyclic process is numerically equal to the area
enclosedby the loop representing the cycle.

BENGALI VERSION
302 Applied Physics-|

(C) (

C,T C. a TI

C.GS. 9 Cal mole-l oc-i

S.I. 9 8 J mole-lk-1

,-R

» a ofuTR a qa ait (Application of 1st law ofthermodynamics)*

(a) 7CATR e (Isothermal Process)
Hent And Thermometry
303
0,
dQ-dU t dW = 0+ dW dQ =dW

efawl (Adiabatic Proces)

(b)T1

11oaMSTA a-pIA,
dQ= dU + dW
UTRY Q =

:. dQ = 00 d u = - dw

CATefme UIA efrHTR I (Differences between isothermal process and

adiabatic process)
CAT34 (Isothermal) ef TU r f t (Adiabatic)

2. 7-27A

= ,AA, Y Cp
C
 304) Applied Physics-

dQ = du +dw
=
du + p dv
du + p x 0 [:: v =4 7 . : dv = 0
dQ = du

PV- be (PV-diagram or Indicator diagram)

PV-4 Zaf8

AB I Rur1 A UPTT ATAI f A R A CRT B P

E D
V
afaT r = ACDEA T C=qA TAI

)
eat
And Thermometry
305
aNR A (Relation between slope of Isothermal and
tic Curve)
Adia

PV

p dV+V dp
=
00

pV=

YpV dV + VY dp = 0

dV

c)TH1 a P-V qN (Isobaric Process)

p-V 15A AB ABIi q I V-C C AB-A T TA P

DL
d) TTTa efata P-V N (P-V graph in Isochorie
process) B
UR ATU AT B1 N T A E I , AUI
(p-V)

e) efrT (P-v). aNG4 (P-V diagram in V

cyclic process)

Aplied Physics-I- 20
(306
Applied Physics
A (V,, P,)

B rRN ZTATRI4 B 7 A RT
TCA AEB T
faea aATR UDTE A uTRA AC AT P
BFA

+ CPGF AEBCDA
B(V,P.
T AEB °T STM FUP =

FUPR CFazpei BFADCB D

9R BFA TR SUMA e
= -

AEBCDA
N (V)-
R
=

C
BFADCB = C P P AEBFA

& ANSWERS
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

A. Multiple Choice type:

Tick ( ) the correct answer:
constant 'R° is
. The S.I. unit of universal gas
(d) of these.
(a) N mole-'k-l (b) gm-mole k (c)J mole-'k none

Ans. (c) J mole-'k-l

bodies in celsius scale is 15°. In Fahrenheit scale
2. The difference of temperature of two
this difference will be

(a) 690 (b) 270 (c) 15°

Ans. (b) 270

3. The difference of temperature of two bodies

in celsius scale is 25°. In Kelvin scale this
difference will be
(a) 298 (b) 25 ()45 (d)-258
Ans. (b) 25

4. At what temperature, do the celsius and

Fahrenheit scale gives the same reading?
(a) 40 (b) 00 (c)-40° (d) 72
Ans. (c)-40°
S.I. is
5. The unit of thermal conductivity in
(b) Wm-'kls-l
(a) Jm'k-'s
(c) kcal m'k-ls-l (d) none of these.
Ans. (a) Jm'k-is-l
6. An ideal material for making cooking vessels must be having

(a) small conductivity and large heat capacity

Heat And Thermometry
307
(b) large heat capacity and large conductivity
(c)small.heat capacity and large conductivity
d) small heat capacity and small conductivity
Ans. (c) sma
Ans. (c) small heat capacity and large conductivity
1. Heat from the sun reaches the earth by
(a) conduction (b) convection (c) radiation (d) none of these.
Ans. (c) radiation

The graph shows the variation of pressure P with reciprocal of volume v of a fixed
mass of an ideal gas at two constant temperature T, and T.
From the graph we can conclude that

(a)T>T (b)T<T
()T,T (d) no conclusion can be drawn. T
Ans. (a) T,> T2
9. The co-efficient of linear expansion of brass is 1.8 x 105 oC. If the temperature be
expressed in Fahrenheit scale, the co-cfficient of cubical expansion will be
(a) 1.00 x 10-5 oF- (b) 5.40 x 10-5 op-1

(c)9.72 x 10-5 oF-i (d) 3.00 x 10-5 oF-1

Ans. (d) 3.00 x 10-5 op-1
10. Two metallic rods of length , and L and made of such metals as to have co-efficient of
linear expansion a and a^ respectively. The condition for diference in length to be
independent of temperature is

()a, ,a, (d) None.

Ans.() ,a, =La
11. The internal energy of an ideal gas depends on--
(a) Pressure (b) Volume
(c) Temperature (d) Size of the molecule.
Ans. (c) Temperature
12. According to first law of themodynamics-
(a) Heat neither enters nor leaves the system.
6) Heat is constant im isothermal system.
c) Energy is conserved (d) None of these.
Ans. (c) Energy is conserved
13. The first law of
thermodynamics is a statement of-
(a) Conservation of heat (b) Conservation of work
(c) Conservation of momentum (d) Conservation of energy.
308
AppliedPhysics
Ans. (d) Conservation of energy
of
14. Zeroth law of thermodynamics gives the concept Heat.
Temperature (d)
(a) Absolute zero (6) Zero number (c)
Ans. (c) Temperature
conductivities k, having equal length
and k2
15. Two metal rods of different thermal
The equivalent thermal
and equal area of cross-sections are joined in series.
conductivity (k) of the combination is

(a) 2k kk
(b k,+k (c)k, + k (d)
k+k2
Ans. (a) 2k,k
k, +k
[Hints: Inseries,weknow, d=d, +dand d, da ; k. k,
16. Two metal slabs of different thermal conductivities k, and k, having equal length and
equal area of cross-section are joined in parallel. The equivalent thermal conductivity
(k) of the combination is

k 2k,k (d) k, +ka

k+k (k+K2
Ans. (b)k2
2
17. On which of the following factors the thermal conductivity of a metallic rod depend?
(a) area of cross-section of the rod (b) difference of temperature across the length (c)
both (a) and (b) (4) Nature of material of the rod.
Ans. (d) Nature of material of the rod.
18. Three rods of the same material, same area of cross-section and same length have been
joined as shown in figure. If temperature at two ends be 0°C and 90°C, the
temperature of the junction of three rods will be
(a) 45°C (b) 60°C (c)30°C (d) none.
Ans. (b) 60°C
Hints : Net rate of quantity of heat will flow from two branch rod to the rod at 0°C. Let
Temperature of the junction = 0]
90°C

0°C

kA(90-0), kA(90-0)_kA(6-0) =

d d d
180 20 =0 30 = 180°
. 0 60°C 90°C
 And Thermometry
19. A steel rod
steel of thermal
309
conductivity
conductivity of each part will be :
k is cut into two
equal parts, then thermal
k
a) (6) 2k
(c)k (d) none
Ans. (c) k

Hints: Thermal conductivity is the inherent property of the material. So it will be same
n0 In which of the indicator
diagrams (p v) given below AB, BC,
-

CA represent
isothermal, isochoric and adiabatic
changes respectively?
P A

(a) (b)
B

P
A

(d)
B

Ans. (c)

B.Fill in the blanks:

1. On heating some amount of water from 0 to 4°C its volume will
(decreasel
increase). uls
2. On heating bimetallic strip, a curvature is set in with the metal
having smaller co-
efficient of linear expansion on the (Concave side/convex side).
3. A brass scale is correct at 0°C. The
length of a rod measured by it at 30°C is 50 m. The
true length of
the rod will be -

than 50m. (greater/less).

4. Specific heat at constant volume is - than specific heat at constant pressure in
gas. (Less/ greater)
Ans. Léss.vlsà ureu
.
As temperature increases internal energy-(Decreases Increases)
Ans. Increases.
6. Internal potential energy of ideal gas is- . (Zero/ Infinity)
Ans. Zero.
 Applied Physics-|
310
(Temperature / Heat)
7. Zeroth law gives the idea of
Ans. Temperature. of
s t aw of thermodynamics is a consequence of principle of conservation
(Momentum / Energy)
Ans. Energy
C. True or False
distance at -5°C.
The reading obtained
measure a
tape is correct at 0°C. It is used to
. A steel
IT]
will be less than the actual length.
is hollow and the other
made of the same metal, but one
.wo sphere of the same size are
will expand more than
temperature, the
hollow sphere
IS solid. They are heated to the same

the solid one.

SHORT-TYPE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

scale can be expressed
scale and in Kelvin
1. Which temperature in Fahrenheit
by the same numerical valve?
Ans. Let x be the reading in both scale.

F-32 T-273
Now, we know,
212-32 373-273
X-32 X-273 =
r X-32 X-273
180 100 9 5
or, 5(x 32) = 9(x - 273) x = 574.25

scale shows same reading 574.25.

Temperature in fahrenheit & Kelvin
2. Normal temperature of human body is 98.5°F, what is its value in celsius scale?

Ans. We know,

or,x9= 985-32=665
C 66 5x36.94 »37
9

Normal temperature of human body in celsius scale is 37°C.

have negative value on Kelvin scale?
3. Can the temperature of an object a

Ans. No. Because of Kelvin scale has been taken where volume and pressure of any
zero
in Kelvin scale 0 negative
gas is zero. Beyond this temperature nobody can attend. So
temperature is not possible.
 And Thermometry 311
Hear.
is heated?
H e a t

physical change may be observed, if an object

what
Wha
(iv) Change of clectrical
Expansion (1i) Change of state (i) Change of colour
.

Chemical change
erties (v) Elasticity (vi)
erties (v) scales
is the temperature for which the reading on celsius and Fahrenheit
What
are same?

reading in celsius & Fahrenheit scales.

Ans, Let x be the temp., which has same
An:
C F =X

F-32 of, 9
5 9
X = 400
or,
9x
SX -...
Ca-40°C and 40°F represent the same temperature. block of metal feel
temperature would a block of wood and a
6. At what
common

hot when touchedd?

equally cold or equally block of metal will appear
the body temperature, a block of wood and
a
Ans. Only at
when touched, because no transfer of heat at this temperature.
egually cold or equally hot
is
sides of a circular iron-ring, If the system
7. An iron rod is rigidly attached to the opposite
remain circular? Explain.
equaly heated, will the ring
If d be the diameter of the ring, the length of circumfer-
Yes, the ring remain cireular.
Ans.
ence of ring
nd. =

Circumference TTd
=T
d
length of rod i.e., diameter
increased by 0, and a be co-efficient of linear expan
If the temperature of the system is
sion, then
Circumference md(l+ a®)
Length ofthe rod d(1+a6)
This proves that the ring remain circular.
when boiling water is poured
into it. Why?
8. A thick glass tumbler cracks
wall as glass is a
tumbler expands more than the outer
Ans. Because the inner wall of the inside the glass
a lot of strain develops
bad conductor of heat. Due to this uneven expansion
and breaks it.
flame?
crack heating directly on a
Why does not Borosil glass
on
9,
thin and
of expansion. Moreover, it is generally very
Ans. Because it has low co-efficient
hence inner and outer surface expands equally.
with temperature value.
is marked with its volume along
a
10.A specific gravity bottle
Why? with
Ans, It is because material used in specific gravity glass which expands
bottle is
bottle will hold
different temperature specifie gravity
increase in temperature. Therefore ae constent temperature has been
mentioned.
Oifferent volume of liquid. So to fix volume
 312) Applied Physics-
11. A metal dise has a hole in it. What happens in size of the hole, when dise
heated?
is

Ans. The size of the hole inereases.

12. Is the value of temperature co-efficient always positive?
Ans. It has positive value for metals & alloys. For semiconductors and insulator, the value
of a may be negative.
13. Iron rims are heated red hot before planting on wooden cart wheels. Why?
Ans. The iron rim to be put on the cart wheel is
always a little smaller in radius. When the
iron rim is heated red hot, its size than
becomes
greater that of wheel and it easily slips on
whill. When the rim is allowed to cool it returns to its original size and fits
the
firmly on the
wheel.
14. Can a substance contract on heating? Give an example.
Ans. Yes, for an example ice contracts on heating.
15. Are the co-efficient of thermal expansion constant for a given solid?
Ans. No, the co-efficient of thermal expansion of a solid change with temperature.

16. If thermal conductivity of iron 0.2 C.GS. unit, what is its value in S.L.
Ans. Thermal conductivity =
0.2 C.G.S
Cal 0-2x4-2J
= 0-2
CmxCxS T0mxlkxs

0-2x4.2x 100J
8 4 Jm' k s-l = 84 Wm- k
mks

17. The warm clothes we wear in winter are really warm?

Ans. No, they are as cold as ordinary clothes. But since these clothes keep our body
warm during winter, we call them warm clothes. These clothes are generally made of wool
which contains numerous air pocket. Air is a bad conductor of heat. These air pockets in
woolen garments prevent body heat from being conducted away and hence keep our body
warm.

18. In a cold room, metallic substances appear very cold to touch but not the wooden
substance, although a thermometer will show that both of them have the same
temperature. Explain.
Ans. Metals being good conductors of heat, metallic substances draw heat from the hand
as soon as they are touched and we feel coldness. But wood is not a good conductor, so as
soon as it is touched instantly thermodynamic equilibrium is reached and no transfer of heat
from the body.
eat And Thermometry
Heat Ana

313
19.
In winter, birds often swell their feathers. Why?
Ans.
Air enclosed between their body and feather does not allow flow of heat from the
the birds to the cold surrounding. Since air is bad conductor of heat.
90.Stainless
20
steel cooking pans are preferred with extra copper bottoms. Why?
ns. This is because thermal conductivity of copper is greater than that of steel which
Ans,

wS to pass more quantity of heat instantly.

1. Heat is generated continuously in an electric heater, but its temperature becomes

constant after sometime. Why?

Ans. This is because a stage is reached when rate at which heat is generated by electric
surrent becomes equal to the rate at which heat is lost by radiation. Thermal equilibrium is
reached.

22. Can water be made to boil without heating?

Ans. Yes, by reducing pressure on water, boiling point of water can be brough down to
rOom temperature. But don't think you will get boiled rice.
23. What thermodynamie variable is defined by-(a) Zeroth law and (b) First law
Ans. (a) Zeroth law defines temperature and (b) first law defines internal energy.
24. Is it possible to convert internal energy into work?
Ans. Yes. For example, in explosion of a bomb chemical energy which is a form of internal
energy is converted into kinetic energy.
25.Which molecules, ice at 0°C or water at 0°C have greater potential energy and
why?
Ans. The potential energy of water molecule at 0°C is more, because heat spent in melting
is used up in increasing the potential energy.
26.Does the internal energy of an ideal gas change (a) in an isothermal process and
(b) in an adiabatic process?
Ans. (a) In an isothermal process,
T constant
. dT= 0 & du = 0
In isothermal process internal energy does not
change.
(6) In adiabatic process internal energy changes.
In adiabatic Q= constant
process,
dQ=0 dQ=du + dw
or, 0=du+ dw du =- dw
f dw is positive
(work done by the system) ; then internal energy decreases that means
temperature falls.
27. If on
giving 50J of heat to a system, work done on the system 20J, what will
be the change in internal energy of the system?
Ans. From 1st law of
In this case, thermodynamics,
dQ du + dw =

dQ 50J =
 Applied Physics-j1
14 dw 20J (since work done on the system is negative)

du
du 50+ 20 70J Change of internal energy = 70J.
200.J of heat is supplied to a gas and 80.1 t
28. In a thermodynamical process, of the system?
the change in internal energy
work is done by the gas. What is
du + dw
Ans. From 1st law of thermodynamics, dQ
=

In this case, dQ = 200J

dw =
80J (work done by the system is positive)
80 d u = 200 - 80 120J.
. 200 d u +

120J.
change of internal energy
=
Hence.
the valve of bicycle tube is suddenly removed, the escaping air
summer, when
29.In a

apperars cold. Why?

Due to adiabatic expansion, change in
Ans. This happensdue to adiabatic expansion of air.
falls.
internal energy decreases. As a result temperature
door of a refrigerator in a closed room?
30.Can a room be cooled by opening the
warmer. When a refrigerator is working
Ans. No, the room can't be cooled, rather slightly
in a closed room with its door closed, it is rejecting
heat from inside to the air in the room on
the back side of the freeze. So temperature of room increases gradually.
the refrigerator to the room
When the door of refrigerator is kept open, heat rejected by
will be more than the heat taken by the refrigerator
from the room by an amount equal to
of room will increase at a slower rate
work done by the compressure. Therefore temperature
be noted that if rejected heat from refrigerator be
compared to the 1st case. In this case it may
room will be cooled very slowly.
thrown outside the closed room, then by opening door
and at the same temperature has
31. Which one among a solid, liquid and gas of same mass
greatest internal energy? Which one least. Why?
because (negative) Potential energy of its
Ans. A gas has greatest value of internal energy
because (negative) Potential energy
molecule is smallest. Internal energy of the solid is least
force between molecules.
of its molecule is maximum due to strong attractive

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish between heat and temperature.
2. Establish relation between celsius and Fahrenheit scalee of temperature.

convection and radiation.

3. Distinguish between conduction,
measurement in S.l.
4. Define "thermal conductivity" and hence find its unit of

steel s
What do you mean by the statement "co-efficient of linear expansion of
12 x 10/k?
eat And Thermometry
315
refrigerator are 8 thick having a surface area of 15 m2 The
he walls of a cm

the
etature outside the refrigerator is 35C. How much power in watt must

refrigerator motor supply in order to maintain a temperature of 0°C inside the refrigerator?
Wm'k-. Ans. 2.756 k
Thermal conductivity of the material of the refrigerator
0.42

watt.]
A n iron rod and a zinc rod are respectively 25.5 cm and 25.50 cm long at 0°C. At
what temperature will they be exactly equal in length? Co-efficient of linear expansion

for iron and zine are 1.0

* 103 and 3.0 x 10-5/0C. [Ans. 98°C]
8. A scale made
of steel is correct at 0°C. The length of a brass rod measured by the
for
scale at 30°C is found to be 4.5 m. What is the true length of the rod at 0°C?
a

steel and brass are 11 x 10°MC and 19 x 10°/°C respectively. [Ans. 4.499 m]

density of platinum at 10°C is 2.140 g/c.c. Find its density in S.I at 400°C. Co-
9. The
efticient of linear expansion of platinium is 9
x 10k-. [Poly-2009, 2010
Hints: Density at 10°C (P,) =2.140 g/c.c. 2140 kg m-s =

(-,)= (400- 10) 390°C 390k

= =

y 3a =3 x9 x 10-6k-l 27x 10-6k-l

=

Density at 400°C, p = P1 {l - y ( -t , ) }

2140 (1 - 27 10-6 x 390) =2117.47 kg m

10. State zeroth law and 1st law of thermodynamics.
11. Define temperature from zeroth law.
12. What do you mean by isothermal process, adiabatic, isobar and isochoric process. Give
example on each case.
13. Distinguish between isothermal expansion and adiabatic expansion.
14. Define sp. heat at constant volume and sp. heat at constant pressure of gases. State their
relation.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Problem-1. A steel scale is correct at 0°C, The length of brass tube measured by it
at 30°C is 4.5 cm. What is the length of the tube at o'C ?
(a of steel= 11x 10-6 k-l, a of brass = 20 x 10 k-l)

Soln.:Let, length of the brass tube at o'C is

At 30°C, ,(1 +a,t) = 4.5 (1 +a,t) [t = (30-0)°C 30°C = 30k.

or, 45(1+a,i)_4.5(1+11x100 x30) cm= 4.4988 cn.

(1+a,) (1+20x 10- x30)
 316 Applied Physics
Problem-2. A thin steel sheet at 20°C has the same surface area on a thin conne
sheet at 30°C. At what common temp. will the two sheets have the same
area, (a of copper = 17 * 10°k", a of steel = 11 x 10 k ').

Soln.: Let, in t°C, the two sheets have the same area according to the question.
s1+ - 30)} = s{1 + B ( 20) :(t-30)PC = (t - 30)k]

or.
1+2u(t-30)=1+2a,(t-20) s#0]
or 2 x 17 x 10 (t - 30) = 2 * 11 x10 (1 -20) = 48.33C.

Problem-3. A hole is driled in a copper sheet. The diameter of the hole is 4.24 cm at
27C. What is the change in the diameter of the hole, when the sheef is
heated to 227°C. (a of copper = 1.7 x 10-5 °C-)

Soln.: Here, t =
temp. difference =
(227 -27°C =200°C.
At 27°C, diameter d, = 4.24 cm.

Surface area of hole at 27°C s = =(4.24) cm.

At 227C, s2 =s,(1+Bt)

or,
(4.24)" }1+2x1.7x10%x200 :B-2a]
or, d, 4.2544 cm. [taking +'ve sign]
change of diameter of the hole = d,-d, = (4.2544-4.24) cm = 0.0144 cm.

Problem.4. If co-efficient of linear

in farenheit scale?
expansion of steel be 12 x 10-k, what is its valme
12x10 12x106
Soln. a =X10
1k 1C F
=x12x10/°F =6.67x 10-5/F
Prob-5. Find the percentage inerease in length of a metal rod when its temperature is
raised from 10°C to 40°C. Given, co-efficient of linear expression of steel is
15x 105C.
Soln.: Let length of the rod
Increase in length = ö/

8 l = I x a x (t, - t)
=15x10x(40-10)=450x10
:. % increase in length =x100=450x 10 x 100=0-045
Heat
And ADd Thermometry
ob-o A metal rod of length
20 cm and
diameter 2 cm is covered with non-
17
eanducting substance. One of the ends is
maintained at 100°C, while the other
end is put in ice at 0°C. It is
found that 25 gm of ice melts in
5 minutes.
Calculate the co-efficient of
thermal conductivity
of the metal. Given,
latent heat of ice =
336 x10 specific
Jkg"' k1
coa.:
Here, 8, = 100°C
temp. difference (8, - 8,) = 10°C = I0OK

time. t 5 x 60 sec = 300 sec.

thickness, d = 20 cm = 0-20 m

radius of metal rod, r=:lcm=-01Im

area A Tr = T x (.01) = 3.14 x 10 sq. m.

IetK be the coefticient of thermal conductivity of the material of the rod.

Amount of heat flowing from the rod into ice.

Q-
KA(2-6,)t _Kx3-14x10 x100 x300 Joule = 47.1 K Joule.
d 0-20
Mass of ice melted, m =
25 gm= .25 x 10- kg
Sp. latent heat of ice L = 336 x 103 J kg-l kl.

. Heat required to melt the ice, Q =

mlL =
25 x 103 x 336 x 103
= 8400 Joule

.47.1K = 8400 K 8400 =178-34 watt mk

K=
47-1
Prob-7. A cubical ice box of 30 cm side has a thickness of 5 em. If 4 kg of ice
in the box, estimate the
are put
amount of ice remaining after 6 hr. The outside
temperature is 45°C and coefficient of thermal conductivity of the box = 0.01
Jm'k's. Take latent heat of fusion of ice 335 J
Soln. :
gm =

cubical box has six faces

area A =6 x
(30 sq. cm =0.54 m2
d 5 cm = 5 x 10-m
t6 hr =6 3600 sec
6-6(45 0C = 459C = 45K
k 0.01 J m'
=

K- s
Total heat entering the box Q=kA(82 d-8,)
0-01x0-54x 45x6x 5000 Joule
5x102
=
104976 J.
mass M kg of ice melts in 6 hr.
then, Q ML [L= latent heat =

of fusion of ice]
 318 Applied Physics-j
Mx 335 10 J M x 335 103 = 104976
L 335 Jg' = 335 10 Jkg-
M 0.313 kg
i c e melt in the box after 6 hr = (4 0.313) kg = 3.687 kg.

Prob.-8 A brass boiler has a base area of 0.15 m and thickness 1 cm. It boils water at
the rate of 6 kg. min', when placed on a gas stove. Estimate the temperature
of the part of the same in contact with the boiler. Thermal conductivity of brass
109 J m ' K ' s a n d heat of vaporisation of water = 2256 J gm,

Soln.: K =109 J m'K's', , 100C =

373 K
A = 0.15 m2
6,=? (temp. of the part of the boiler
d = 1 cm. =102 m in contact with the stove)
a m o u n t o f heat flowing per second through the base of t h e boiler, (t = 1 sec.)

kA(2-0) or. 109x0.15x2-375) J-1 : t=1 sec]

d 102
= 1635 (0 -373) J s-l
Since, L 2256 J gm = 2256 x 10 J kg'
= latent heat of vaporisation of water.
And rate of boiling of water in the boiler M = 6 kg min

kgs = 0.1 kg s"

60
h e a t received by water per second
Q = ML = 0.1 x 2256 x 103 = 2256 x 100 J s-

.
1635 (0,-373) = 2256 x 100 or, e, =- 100x2256 373
1635

2=511 k =238° C.
Prob.-9. The walls of a refrigerator are 10 cm. thick having a surface area of 10 mi. The
watt mus
temperature outside the refrigerator is 30°C. How much power in
ths
the refrigerator motor supply in order to maintain a temp. of 0°C inside
refrigerator. Given, thermal conductivity of the material of the refrigerato
4 2-k-1
10 0.1
Here, thickness of the refrigerator wall, d
=
=
cm. m.
Soln. :
area of wall, A = 10 m2
30°C =30k.
6, 30°C, 6, =
0°C. temp. difference 6, -0
Thermal conductivity k = 0.42 w m k ' ,

kA(@2 - ) 0.42 x10x30=1260 watt.

power supply d 0.1
Ment And Thermometry 19
0 . The ratto of the nren of eross nection of two rods of different material is 1: 2.
The ratto of the thermal conductivities of their material is 4: 3. On keeping
equnl temp. differenee between the ends of these rods, the amount of heat
condueted from one end to the other through each rod is the wame. Determine

the ratio of the lengths of the rods.

Soln. : Let. length of the two rods /, and 1,
arca, A, A , T : 2
Thermalconduetivity, k, k,- 4 3

Temp. ditlerence
for both the rods (0, -0,)
lu both cases ralc of flowing heat are same

,A,0, 0,) k,A,(0, -0,)

A (0 -0,)o
k A2

Ratio oftheir length, , := 2:3

Prob.-11. A layer of the ice 20 thick has formed on a pond. The temperature of air is
cm

-10C. Find how long will it take for another 0.1 cm layer of water to freeze. Given,
thermal conduetivity of ice 21 W mk", Latent heat capacity of ice
=

3:36x 10J kgrl and density of ice 900 kg m". =

Soln.: L = latent heat of ice

3.36 x 10 J kg. 6,=-10°C

x=20 cm
p density of ice = 900 kg m
0.2m
(0,-0,) 10°C =
10k. 6,=0°C dx
Initial thickness of ice, x = 20 cm = 0.2 m.

layer of ice is formed.

Let, in a very small time dt. dx thickness of
. On that moment heat flowing through x = 0.2 m of ice layer

QkA2-0)dt
[k thermal conductivity, A = area]

X
Mass of ice of dx thickness = Apdx m.

For water of this layer to freeze into ice of mass m, the amount of heat that should be
Temoved from water, Q ml = Apldx.

Apldx
kA(02-0)dt
X
 320 Applied Physics-1
or, dt E
pL x.dx : A+0j
k(0-0,)
Integrating both sides, d = pL
-a)02
(0.2+001)x.dx

or, 1= pL [=requiredtime]
k(0-)
900x3.36x10,
2.1x10 [(0.201) -(0.2)*] =
2887.2 sec. 48 min 7.2 sec.

Prob.-12. An iron boiler 0-018 m thick exposes 2 sq. m of surface. 40 kg. of stream at
atmospherice pressure will be produced per hour. Find the temperature of the
boiler surface exposed to furnace. (k for iron = 483 S.I. unit and latent heat of
steam 225x104 Jkg' W. B. Poly '2005]
Soln.: It is given that,
K 48.3 S.I. unit
A = 2 sq m.

d= 0.018 m.
t 60 x 60
difference of temp. (T - 373); T > Temp. of the outside.
Quantity of heat flow = 40 x 225 x 104. J.
Now from the formula of thermal
conductivity,
QA(-0,)t
d
60 x 60
. 40x 225 x 104 =48.3 x2(T-373) x
0.018
T 373 + 4.658 =377.658 = 377.658 K = 377.6 273 104.658 °C

Prob.-13. The walls of a refrigerator is 8 cm thick having a surface area of 15m2. The
temperature outside the refrigerator is 35°C. How much power in watt
must the refrigerator supply in order to maintain 0C
inside the
refrigerator. Thermal conducetivity of the material of the refrigerator, k =
0-42 wmk.
[W. B. Poly '2004]
Soln.: We know,

The rate of conduction heat,k4(9-4)

d
In this case, d = 8 cm = 0.08 m

k 0.42 wm'k
A 15m2
H e a
And Thermometry
-6 =35°C 35k 321
0.42x15 35
Power=
0-08 -2756 watt
Two different metal rods
of same length and
Prob-14.

thermal conductitities 3k and 2k

same
cross-sectional area but of
free ends of the combination joined series. The
are in
are 100°C and temperature at the
0°C. All other surfaces
covered with an insulating material. Find are
the
Soln.: Let the temperature of the junction c temperature at the
junction.
In steady state rate of flow
through different metals will be same.
9-A100-0)A(0-0) A(100-0)
t dd )
3k 3k 2k
100°C 9 0C
A(8-0) A(100-0) 3k 2k

k2k d-
or, 2k 0k 00
6
20 =1200 60
temperature of the junction = 60°C.

Prob-15. A bar made of brass

(k,
100 wm-'k) of length 30 cm and of
=

area 8
cross-sectional
cm is
kept above the bar made of copper (k, 400 wmk) of same =

length but area of cross-section 10 cm2 forming a composite slab of

combination. The temperature of one end of the combination is at 100°C parallel
and
other end is attached to an ice slab at 0°C. Find how much ice will
melt in one
hour? Given relative latent heat of ice 80
calg. It is assumed
=
that no heat is
lost in any way radially.
Soln. : From thermal conductivity in steady state, of heat flow
brass is
rate through A, area of

6, 0°C
6, 100°C brass
t
Similarly through A, for copper rod,

k
t d
.Rate of total heat flow through both the rods, 30cm
Ice at 0°C

Applied Physic-- 21
 22) Applied Physics-
In this ease. 100, A, - 8 cm - 8 10 m
400, A, 1 0 em? - 1 0 10 "m

, 0, 100°C- 100k
Rate of heat flow from steam to ice
100
-(100x8x 10 + 400x 10x 10 x 5 J
30x 10

=(0-02+0.4)x 104 -42 104 1.4 x 10

30 30

1-4x10
-14x0
4-2
Cal =
33.33 Cal
Total heat flow in one hour - 33.33 x 60 x 60 Cal = 119988 Cal.

Since 80 Cal heat is required to melt lg ice.

119988 gof ice 1500 g of ice =

1.5 kg
119988 Cal will melt 80
80
=

Therefore 1.5 kg ice will melt in one hour.

Prob-16. A rod CD is joined at the middle of an identical rod AB of thermal conductivity
100 S.I. unit as shown in figure. The ends A, B and D are maintained at 100°C.
0°C and 25°C respectively. Find the temperature at the junction C.

Soln. : Let 0 be the temperature of the junction in steady state. It is also assumed that AC
BC CD = d (say) and area of cross of each rod= A.
is 0. Then rate of heat flow through AC, CB and CD are
Suppose, the temperature at C
A100A(100-0) d d
At d

AB 100A(100-0) 100°C 0°C

At d

A0 100A(0-25) d
At d
According to Kirchoff's rule,

A4 A , A 25 C
At At At

100A(100-0) 100A(0-0) 100A(0-25)

d d At
.100 0 =0 -0+0- 25
20-25
30 125
Heat
And Thermometry
125 323
-=41.67°C
3
Temperature of the junction is 41.67°C.
.

Prob-17, A
17. A4
,

Thermodynamic system is taken from 600

roan original state A to an
intermediate
state by the linear process shown in P
fig. (k
(K Pa30
Pa) 300
Its volume is then reduced to
the original
value from B to C by an isobaric
Calculate the total work done by process.
the gas
in cyclic process ABCA.
2.0 5.0
Soln.: We know in (p-v) diagram, V (Litre)
work done in cyclic process area ABCA
xBCxCA =xAvx Ap
2
Since, BC (Av) = 5 - 2 3 L = 3 x 10- m3
CA (Ap) (600 300) k Pa
-

=
300 x 103 Pa
Work done =ix3x10* x300x10°J
2
= 450J

Prob-18. An electric heater

supplies heat to a system at a rate of 100 Watt.
If system
performs work at a rate of 75 Joules per
second, at what rate is the internal
energy increasing?
Soln.: Heat supplied, AQ 100W =
100 Js-l
Useful work done, Aw 75 Js- =

Increase in internal energy, Au =?

From Ist law of thermodynamics, we know
AQ= Au + Aw
'Au AQ Aw
=
(100 75) Js-
- = =
25 Js
Prob-19. The volume of steam produced by lg of water at 100°C is 1650 cm. Calculate
the change in internal energy. during the change of state. Given J =
42 x
10
erg cal, 1 atm = 1-013 x 10 dyne cm, specific latent heat of steam
540 cal g
Soln.: Change of volume, Av (1650 1) cm =

:. Work done, dw= pAv

=
1-013 x
10 x 1649 erg
During change of state from water at 100°C to steam, the quantity of heat,
AQ mL = 1 x 540 Cal
24 Applied Physics-1
540 4-2 10' erg
-

How, we know from 1st law of thermodynamics,

AQ Au + Aw

Au =AQ- Aw
=

540 x 4:2 x
107 - 1-013x 106x 1649
-
2-101 x 1010 erg
Change in internal energy = 2.101 x 100 erg.

Prob-20. Fom how much height an ice piece will have to fall freely on the ground such
that it will melt completely. It is taken that 20% energy is lost due to air
friction and radiation. Specific latent heat of fusion is given 336 x 103 Jkg
Soln. Let mass of ice = m kg

height h m
Potential energy at height h = mgh

Effective energy which is converted into heat

80
x mgh J [ : Loss of energy 20% ]
100
Heat required to melt ice
H= mL = m x 336x 103J

Since w= jH [ J =1 in S.I. unit ]

80
xmgh=mx
100 336x10°
h=
336x10
9.R42-86 km
0-8x9-8

Ans. NTAfa,®Er am T= x

F-32 T-273 X-32 x-273

or,
x-32 X-273
212-32 373-273 180 100 9
or, 5(x 32) = 9 (x-273) or, 5x- 160 = 9x -2457 x = 574 25
Heat AndThermometry
325)

Ans. N,
C 25°C AF= 77°F
UAR 250oT AaR TTAÍADIER 4R 77 126 FieR NATADICA

6. 1tata 7ri f?
N

A
HeatAn Thermometry
327)

YTE R
 (328 Applied Physics-

23. R (Green house) T6 IRI?f7 UTOTT R @ 25 (Green house

effect)? g7 A NA (Global warming) s a a ? 4 254I34 T

Ans. 1 (Green house) 3 RtT7 CATA SIT, *1-7T, FOT y RIT3

7ROT 297 (Green house effect) 8 s A TTOT GE P U ; AA

sTTA, , a yR-, fkr, R , ART R-sRE, AITARE

TA T| 1 T RC ETPAIJ T973 RI| 4TA Green house effect 31

T A (Global warming) TYT TETUI TAO ATAI TITCRI, ACSRCTA YRIRA

Global warming.

Bad effect)
HeatAnd Thermometry
329
o (Remedy) ;

3.
TCI MA R
24. 1
Ans.

Ans. (a) TATR aPTA, TAIAT, T =

du = 0
dT =0

dQ = 0

dQ =
du + dw
or, 0 = du +dw

du-dw
(330 Applled Physlcs-

dO du + dw
, dQ = 50J
dw=-20.J (HAIA E11 PUas 114t MAl 3)
du ?
50 du - 20J du 50 + 20 70J

Ans. 19efamTa 2M 4TPT,

dQ du + dw
dQ 200J
dw 80J [U Y PUPN 4Ty]
du= ?
200 du + 80 or, du= 120J

TOR, TETVNI MTO A 120J.

=

- x
PRACTIALS

331
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1 |
eination ofvolumeof the materjal ofa holbw cyllnder by using sllde
callipers

Theory:

Iet Lbe the length of the hollow cylinder of inner diameter d and outer diameter D
D
Outside volum ofthe cylinder = n L
d

Inside volume of the cylinder n =

Volume of material of the hollow cylinder-

p-
Measuring inner and outer diameter and length of the cylinder by slide calliper, volume of
erial of the hollow cylinder can be determined.

Apparatus:
(1) Slide Calliper (2) Hollow small cylinder with suitable inner diameter such that inner
jaw of slide calliper can be inserted insdie the cylinder.

Procedure
A. Procedure for measurement of length of the cylinder
1. Before the measurement of
length, lst vernier constant of the slide
calliper has to be
determind.
Internal jaws
LOCk screw
Bar

Ma i n Depth rod
Vemier Scale

Outside jaws
.To determine vernier constant, the number
the total
number of vemier
of main scale division which coincides with
division
isdetermined and
ofvalue ofI m.s.d and value of I v.s.d is calculated. then V.C. Which is the difference
333
334 Applied Physics-1
verniser calliper is calculated. There are two types of zero
3. Now zero error if any in
error one is positive zero error and another is negative zero error. To find positive
zero error. both the jaws are closed. If the zero mark of the vernier scale is on the right
of the zero mark of the main scale, the zero error is said to positive. Now note the
division of the division of the vernier scale which coincides with any division of main
scale. The number of this vernier division when multiplied by v.c. gives the positive
ero crror. In the final result. this positive error is subtracted. Similarly if the zero mark
of the vernier scale is to the left of the zero mark of the main scale, the zero erroris

said to be negative. In final result the negative error is added- (a-(-Aa) =a +Aa)

4. The rod is held length wise. The value of main scale reading will be the value which is
be that value of vernier scale
just crossed by vernier zero mark and vernier reading will
which just coincide with any division of main scale. Now, vernier reading will be the
of
product v.c, number of vernier scale division. The length of the rod =mainscale
and
reading + V. scale reading.

5. Five or Six number of observation are taken at different position by rotating the cylinder
about its own axis.

B. Measurement of inner and outer diameter.

6. To measure inner diameter, the inside jaws which is on the upper part of the instrument
is inserted inside the hollow cylinder and the main scale and vernier scale reading is
taken just like measurement of length.
7. Similarly for external diameter, external jaws are used to hold the cylinder and main
scale reading and vernier scale taken at least 3 or 4 times.

Result
(a) Measurement of vernier constant of slide calliper
10 V.S.D = 9 m.s.d

9 9
I V.S.D. =m.sd=mm
10 10

9
V.C. = 1 m.s.d- I v.s.d = Imm - m m = m m =0 l mm =0-01cm
10

(b) Measurement of zero error

For positive error, subtract this error from final value. But for negative error; it is added
with final value.
Practicals
TABLE-1
Measurement of length (L), outer diameter (D), inner diameter (d) and volume of the
material

Measured No. of Main Vernier Value of Total Zero Corrected volurne of the
Average
observa- scale Scale V.S.R. value of material of the
quantity reading reading error
= V.S.R L' a+b ' or D Lor Dord hollow cylinder
tion reading reading
x V.C. D' a +b or d L L'-C v- d'
d' a bb D D'-C
(a) (b) (c) d d-C

(Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm)

Length **°**'*' L'
L' L V ...*
3

Outside 1
diameter 2 **** D' D
(D) 3 D'E
Inner 1 * * * * ' *

diameter 2 d..
3
(d) ***

Precautions:
1. Parallax error should be avoided at the time of taking vernier scale reading.
2. Do not press unduly jaws of vernier callipers

be measured most be held parallel to main scale.

3. Length to

4. Diameter must be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions at a point due to

non-uniformity.
5. 7.ero correction must be suitably applied.

BENGALI VERSION

Dtermination of volume of the material of a hollow cylinder by using

slide callipers (TRu
ww ta t20 1 CoTO MHIC w fta)
336 Applied Physics
D
d

D
CDTS TRtaa aTTEA = n L
4
d4
RCBTEa feuraa = L

i -(p-)L

(1) E fa13 (2) TIRI i CBTG|I

Internal jaws
-Lock screw
Bar

M a in Depth rod
Vernier scale

Outside jaws

2.
 Practicals
Prac 337

6.

mm=mm = 0°lmm = 0-0 lcm

10

Table-1

reading L'or D' (c) L, D d

m * L' a+b or d' L L'-C

(Cm) (Cm) D' a+b D D C V-(p-a'L

(Cm) d a +b d d -cC
(a) (m) (b) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm)

L L' L
2 ****

******
***

D'E
***''' D' D' D
(D) D'

'

* *
'*'****'.

***** * * d. d .
(d) **** *******"

Applied Physics-I- 22
 336) Applied Physics
www
D
- d -

L
d
4

TeTTA =(D -d*)L

Internal jaws
-Lock screw
Bar

Ma in Depth rod
Vernier Scale

Outside jaws

.2.

3.
 337

6.

8.

mm =mm = 0lmm = 0-01cm

10

Table-1
BTCS i (L), a1R TI7 (D) 47R TUV TM (d) 4R T a AÁAA TsfA3

fAAT1ffRTAT
L' or D' (c) L, D 4R d
reading
ord L l'- C TT(V)
m *
L' a+ b
D ab D D-CV-D-d')L
(Cm) (Cim)
(Cm) d' a+b d d c
(a) (m) (b) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm)
****** LE
L L'E L
() * *******

*****° ****'"'

1 ****''''*
D
2 **''**" D'E D DE *******

******|

D) **. ***' DE.

**''* ****** **'*''

* * * * * *

**°*'*'

(d) ******' *******"

Applied Physics-I- 22
338 Applied Physics

3.

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

Deteraination ol area of eros n of a wire thin solid rod by using

aue inate themarinumprop ortiona error in the

Apparatus
(i) Screw gauge (ii) Given wire or thin solid rod.

Theory:
Let d be the diameter of the wire, then area-of cross-section, A = T,

Now, measuring the value of diameter(d) by- acrew gauge we can determine the area of
cross-section.
Procedure:
(i) Pitch and LC. (least count) of the screw gauge is calculated.
(ii) Zero error if any in the screw gauge is recorded. To estimate pos tive zero error on
bringing the stud & spindle in contact, if the zero mark on the circular seale is
below the base line of the main scale, then positive error is found out by multiplying
the circular division number by L.C. This value is subtracted from final result.
Anvll Spindle Sleeve Thimble Ratchet

0462 cm

Frame

In case of negative zero error, the zero mark of the circular scale is above the base
time of the main scale. Exampleif total no. of C.S.D be 50 and base line crosses the
Practicals o 339
CSD be 45. then negative zero = - (50 - 45) x L.C. From final result. error when
subtracted., ultimately the amount is added.
(i) The wire is held between the stud and spindle and the ratchet is turned in such a way
that the screw head is just touched to the wire without excess
pressure.
(iv) Now the linear scale reading and number of c.s.d. is noted. Multiplying C.S.D by
L.C. The value C.S. reading is added to the linear scale reading, the value of diameter
will be find out.
(v) Now the wire is rotated by T2 at this position and reding is taken.
(vi) Finally adding or subtracting negative zero error or positive zero error final diameter
is calculated.

Observations
Value of Least Count-
Screw pitch
Total number of circular scale division
Distance moved in main scale due to one complete rotation ofthimble.
Total no. of C.S.D.

0-5m0-0Imm
50
= 0.001 cm

Zero error measurement :

Let zero error =+A E

For positive error : d-As
For negative error: d- (-Ae) = d + Ae

Table for measurement of diameter (d) and area (A).

No of Linear C.S Value of loial Mean Zero Corected Area of Proportional
ObS scale reading C.S.D reading diameter eror diameter cross-sec- eror in
reading = bxL.C| a+c) tion of area

(a) (b) (c) d) " (2) d=d'tz Wire -A dd

=d mean A d

(Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm)

*******

******

*****

***** ****' ***

340 Applied Physics
Calculation of max proportional error:

Theory:
To calculate max proportional error, we are taking the mean value (Table-1) as the actual
diameter. At tirst absolute error from each observation has to be found out, as d dd,
then taking arithmatic mean (only + ve value) of the absolute error, we have to devide it by
Ad
mean value. we will get proportional error. Proportional error in area-2 d (Taking derivative).

Table-2 (Proportional Error)

No of Each value Ad= Ad Proportional Proportional

Obser ofd from ignoring

Ad +Ad Error in diameter error in area
No. of Obs

Tabie-1 -ve sign. (Ignoring-ve sign)

Ad menn 2Admean
Gmean mean
(Cm) (Cm) (Cm)

.d

SResult
Final area of cross section within error limit-

=At=At2Admean
A
mean
2:A0mean x 100%
mean
Precautions
(i) During rotation of circular scale, don't touch the thimble. Only use ratchet to rotate
the screw. Otherwise due to excess pressure the measured rod may be deformed.
thachet can withstand minimum pressure, due to excess pressure the screw slips and
save the rod from excess pressure.
(ii) Diameter must be measured in two mutually perpendicular direction at a point as
diameter may be tapered.
(ii) Backlash error should be avoided by moving the screw only in one direction while
taking reading.
(iv) Zero correction must be suitably applied.
Practice 341
BENGALI VERSION

Determination of area of
cross-section of a wire or thin solld rod using
uge. Estimate the maximum proportional error In the measurement.

Td
4

.
2.

Anvi Spindle Sleeve Thimble Ratchet

0
h
0.462 cm

Frome

4.
42 Appliedplied Physics
5.

- 0-5m = 0-0 Imm = 0-00 Icm

50

AT9 0 7 T = d - AE

wT9 0a TM =d-(-AE) =
d+ AE

Table-1
UM (d) 3 CRA (A) AfaA ATa1

CATG RTAE
(a+c) (d) UPM

Td
(d) (2) d d tz A
(a) (6 (b)*L.C.
(c)
(Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm) (Cm)
***

*****

****''| *****|

**** ******* **"

*******'

ad+ad|t,n

Ad mean
dnean
 4

At=Atmcan
A mean
A t a d e a n x100%

Table-2

Ad = ( d d )
ad

Table-1 c )

(Cm) (Cm) "

(Cm)
d ' * * * * ° °

* * ° ' * * *

d ****

********"

* * " * * * *

* * * ' * *

* * * * *

5 4
****

T41-T01
1
sT|U
(Backlash error) RA
AU3 HT (G qjo
2-CGTA R AD

C
344 Applied Physics-
EXPERIMENT NO. 3B
To determine radius ofa convex/concave mirror/surtäce using a spherometer
Apparatus
. A spherometer
A conveN or concave mirror
A
large size glass plate.
4. A white plane
paper
A plane eommon scale

Theory: li works on the prineiple of mierometer serew. It is used to measure cither very sinall
thickaess the radius of
or
curvature of a spherical surface, that is why it is calleda splierometer.
When a spheromcter is placed on the
spherical surface it touches threc legs are touched at G
A, B&C(unseen) Fig. 2. Let w.r.t. to
plane surface height ofserew D, GE h and at plan> surface
=

the distance of D from any leg AE =a

(Fig. 2). It can be proved gcometrically,
radius ofcurvature,
R h2

I average dislance between any two legs be /, tl.en

sec
2
30
. . o***

B 30° A
/2 /2
Ifl&h is known, then the value of Rcan be determined.
Procedure:
i)The central screw of the spherometer is raised and the spherometer is gently pressed on the
practical note book to get the inpression of three legs as A, B & C.
Practica

C 34
1

B 30
A
HI2

(i) Now the sides of the triangle ABC are measured.

(ii) The mean distances AB, BC, CA are noted and the mean value is noted.
(iv) The pitch and least count of the spherometer are recorded in stepwise.
(v) The screw is raised sufficiently upwards to accomodate convex surface so that three legs are
noted on it.
(vi) Now the reading of circular scale is noted and it is placed over a large size plane glass sheet.
(vii) The number of complete rotations (n,) is noted just touches the plane glass sheet.
(ix) The observations are recorded at least five tímes.

Observations:
1. Distance between the two legs of the spherometer: In AABC the legs of the spherometer is
marked.
AB().... cm
BC()..cm
AC()...cm
Mean value of l = -
AB+BC +CA
.Cm
3 B

Distance between the two

legs of the spherometer
 346) Applied Physics
2. Least count ofspherometer
Serew pitch = I mm

Total No. o f circular scale div. = 100

mm
Least eount = 0-01 mm 0-001 em.
100
3. Table for measurement of 'h':

Sctial num Circular (Disc) Seale Rcading No. of complete No. of disc scale Total reading h
her of ohser rotationson plane| division in
On conve qurface | On plane glass sheet glass sheet
n,p x
vations
Initial Final
incomplete (L.C.)
rotation x = a - b
(n,) (mm)
(a) (b) or. (100+a)-b

2 * *****

3 *****

Calculations:
. It is found that value of h in each observation and it is recorded in the last column.

2. Mean value of h = n *h mm =.....Cm.

3
3. R h
t c m =.Cm.

Result: The radius of curvature of the given convex surface is ... cmn.

Precautions:
(i) The screw should be moved in the same direction to avoid back-lash error of the screw.
(ii) The excess rotation should be avoided.
(ii) The screw should move freely without friction.
Pacticals (347
BENGALI VERSION
to determine radius of curvature of a convex/concave mirror/surface using a
erometer (Spherometer- 1try ave co a 0 1

. FTAfaDt3
2
3. 946 TI 7aDa (PI5CEG)

4. 416 IHTS CK

foG CT ATT JTFTA G A, B C ( T ) AT TT (Fig-2)I AA F , FOS

TCIC D-4a But GE = h gR TAUT D-4 R (RTT A - e t i MCA T AE =a

R= h

s e c 30°
--.*****.
=
a

12 B 30 A
R I/2 H 12
6h 2

[ Not necessary R =+efdottaa emt

2h
GO F O = R, OF= 2R
GE = h
AE = a

AAGE AAEF TIA, TA1 ay 0a 2uoit GAF fayr ICm Tte

GE AE
AE
or, GE x EF =
(AE)?
EF
or, GE(GF - GE) = (AE)? or, h(2R- h) = a*
(3
Practicals

(1)

()

T F(Experimental result) 8

MM

3PP CNN AË TIRRUI (N) = . .

.-115= Distance between the two

-5 lcgs of the sph meter
FfT (Least Count) 1=

CUR CATS KAMI

** m

ATa-1 (Table-1)

CTR
XX
L.C.
CAT STTE (mm)

(n) m=y-Y2
1O0- - Y ) | |x = nN + m]
 Applied Physics
350 www

ATATO-2

AB + BC+
AB (cm) BC (cm)) CA (cm)
CA (cm) (cm)

* * * * *

***

*'***''*'

****
.
* * * * * * * *

*"

s t 8 y / = . . cm
h . . cm

R ...cm
6h

FOO (Precautions) 8

1.

2.
 351
PructicalsS

EXPERIMENT NO. 44
nd the co-efficient of limithng atatic friction between wod and glase using a
Noriont oard

R (Normal reaction)
WOoden
5 0 g wt (w,)
block
glass top P+P
wooden
board
Pulley

ZZZ7AL7Z
Table top
with glass COVer

W+W

Pan Pan (P)

ZZZZZZIZZZIIZIIZZZZZIZIZZ weight (p,)

Apparatus:
1. Wooden block (with hook on one side).
2. 50g or 20g weights.
3. Horizontal table with glass top.
4. Pan
5. Spring balance
6. Thread
7. Spirit level

Theory surfaces sliding lending

or
between two surfaces in contact is parallel to the
The force of friction fmotion.
motion.
to the direction of
to slide over each other and acts always opposite to make a body start sliding
over a
the least force required
Force of sliding friction, It is
surface.
Force of friction; F aR
352 Applied Physics
r.FuR Or. R
R
where co-eficient of friction R is the normal reaction.
At equilibrium, F P+p, (where
=
P is the weight of the
and R= w+ W
pan, P,> weight).
where. w = weight of wooden block

Wweightbox
Procedure:
. Horizontal table top and pulley is cleaned.
2. The wooden block is
weighed.
3. The horizontal table is leveled
by spirit level.
4. The weight of the
pan is checked.
5. Since the weight of the pan is very light, so some weight from weight box is put on the pan.
6. The table top is tapped to make the block just slide.
7. The weights in pan is increased slowly till the block starts
sliding on tapping the table top.
8. Now the total weight in the pan is noted and then recorded in observation table.
9. One 50g or 20g weight is put over the wooden block and
steps 8 and 9 are repeated.
10. Observations are recorded.
11. Now the observations 8 & 9 are repeated.
Observations:
Weight of wooden block W = . . g wt
Weight of pan P= ,...gwt
Table for additional weights
SI. No. weights on Total wt being wt on pan (p,)| Total wt (force) Co-efficient of Mean value of
ofobs wooden block pulled (w +w) (gwt) pulling the friction (u) coefficient of
(w)g. wm (gwt) = Normal
block and friction (u)
reaction (R)
weights (PP,)
(gwt) (gwt)= limitting|
friction (F)
(gwt)
Practicals
w
353
Calculations

total weight (force) pulling the block and weights gives the value of force of sliding friction.
On horizontal surface, total weights being pulled give normal reaction R. Total weight (force)
friction F.
ulling these weights gives dynamic
A graph is plotted between normal reaction R and limitting static friction F, taking R along
X-axis andF along Y-axis.
The graph becomes to be a straight line as shown below:
B
200

I50

125
T00

75

50 A ----.-.

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Normal reaction (R) gwt (w + w)
Result
t is found that as the total weight pulled increases, before reacting the value of limitting static
friction force of friction also increases. The increase is in direct proportion.
The graph shows that limitting friction F is directly proportional to the normal reaction R.
It is an agreement with the law of limitting static friction. This experiment may be taken as a
verification of the law.
F
The constant ratiois called the co-efficient of static friction (u). It can be calculated by

finding slope of the graph.

In a AABC.

Slope ofstraight line AB =tane = BC =

AC R
Precautions:
1. The surface ofthe table top should be horizontal
2. The weight in pan should be increased in small steps and pan should not oscillate or rotate.
3. Table top should be tapped gently each time.
4. Pulley should be frictionless.

Applied Physies-- 23
354 Applied Physics
BENGALI VERSIODN
To find the co-efficient of limitting static Iriction between wood and glass using
horizontal board.

2. faG (ATeM (spirit level)

3. JA (Pan)
4. G 31 50g, 20g 4a 5g -7 qTbI q164TAT I
5. 1 HTU1
6. yI

JTO(Theory)

T -afefana (R) 7A7tGI

ade, Fa R

1, F = uR
1,
R

TZTUZTTITTZ

zZZZZaLuuunnuz
Practicals 355

gwt

aHITO1 S T S (W') = . . gwt

ROA ITAN ARTNE 39A (w) =WtAa gwt

TRS RTATf@e 9 9 (P) = P' + Aa. gt

Table-1

7-afo F
R=W+w A3 ZTT|F=(P, +P)
(gwt) R
(gwt)
(,)gwt
P(gwt)

2.

**

R- F (TRÍBTaa aoR H*oÍETA 1iTR N

AB
BC
 Applied Physics
Table-2

l l R (gwt)

. 0 B

ra-efuir1 (R) gwt>

Precutions

4.
Practicals 357
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Tofind the force constant of n pring by plotting kraph berween load and extension

Apparatus8:

m scale
2a rigid support
3 a S0g or 20g slotted weight 5 or 6 no.
4 a vertical wooden scale
a fine pointer

6. a hook
358) Applied Physics-
S ww

Theory: When a load F is suspended from lower free end of a spring hang1ng from a rigid
support it increases its length by amoOunt l, then

F
Fal or, F =kl or. k =
where k is constant of proportionality i.e., when /= 1 then k = F. Hence k is also called spring
constant of a spring. It may also be defined as the force required to produce unit extension in the

spring.

Procedure:
. The spring is hanged from a rigid support and a pointer & hook is attached to its lower
end.
A 50g hanger is hanged from the hook.
A vertical wooden scale is set in a way such that the pointer comes over the division but
not touching the scale.
. The reading of the position of the tip ofthe pointer on the scale is noted. It is recorded in
loading column against zero load.
5. Suitable load of 50g or 20g slotted weight to the hanger is gently added.

. Few minutes are waited till the pointer tips comes to rest. Now step 4 is repeated.
7. Now the steps are repeated.
8. The observations are recorded.
Observations:
TABLE-1
Least count of vertical scale = 0, l cm.

Table for load and extension

No. Load on Reading of position ofpointer tip (cm) Extension of

obs. hanger At the time of Mean reading
length ()
At the time of
Applied force
increasing load- decreasing load a +b
(gwt) b)
(a)
--0
20
40 -4
4 60 -
80 -4
100

7 120 -
Extension in cm-
360 Applied Physics-1
wwww

BENGALI VERSION

To find the toree Constant o pring by plottmg graph between oad and
extension

. D 1/2m

. dre (slotted weight) 20g 6-7DqTD«TAT

6. 216
7. 96 (Pointer)

. Fal

1.Fhl. RITA k =

AT ITET K

2J7 4 (Restoring force)

TA1 9to (Experimental procedure)

4.

5 937 9 9 7 20g G9 5/6 Ae |

6.
7.
Practicals 361

4F 5A 1 TTSS AT= 0-1 cm

TABLE-1

5TP R A D (cm)
Cm
(g-w) a+b
(a) (b)
2

0
- 0
20
3 40 y-4-
60
-
80
0
100

1 120
-
362 Applicd Physics
wwwwwww www

TABLE-2

X- eR- a3 (F gwt) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Y. eR73 aqfd (l em)

X-7 144 ET3 (gwt) 9at Y-5 Tqfd (cm) CTRITAI KTACR I

20 40 60 80 100 120
PReR-9 2E V (gwt)-

2.

4.
Practicals Btgot (363
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
Determination of co-efficient of viscosity of given highly viscous liquid by Stokes
method (radii and density of the balls and density of liquid to be supplied).

Apparatus:
i) Viscometer of about 100cm height and 10cm diameter. (ii) Stop watch (ii) Thermometer
(iv) One steel ball and another glass ball. (v) Metre scale. (vi) forceps. (vii) Watch glass. (viin)
heavy viscous fluid (Castor Oil).

viscometer

10
20
30 A
40
W 50

60 B
70
80
.

****
90 C
***

3100 cm

Theory:
When a small spherical body falls freely through a viscous medium, three following forces act
on it

body acting vertically downwards(w)- Tr'Ps

Where, p
=

) Weight of the

density of the body

Gi) Upward thrust due to buoyancy equal to weight of displaced liquid-

p tr'og where G= density of the liquid.

Stoke's law.
Gii)
Upward viscous dragging force according to
fv 6rnv
364 Applied Physics-A
wwww. wwwNww

As the body falls through a viscous medium, its velocity goes on increasing due to gravity,
Consequently opposing viscous drag which acts upwards also goes on increasing. A stage
reaches when the true weight (w) of the body is just equal to sum of upthrust due to
buoyance (F,) and the upward viscous drag (F). At this stage there is no net force to
accelerate the body. Hence it starts falling with a constant velocity, which is called terminal
velocity which we have to find out experimentally and finally co-efficient of viscosity(n) in
the following way-
Since. F= W
4
6trv+rog=tr
3 pg8
Where p and a are the density of material of the body and liquid.

2r(p-o)e
V

Where nCo-efficient of viscosity

adius of the spherical
(to be supplied) ball

P,density ofthe ball and liquid (to be supplied)

VTerminal velocity which is to be determined by viscometer.
Procedure
. The viscometer is kept on the table and is filled with transparent high viscous liquid
such as castor oil.
2. On the outer surface of jar three
markings A, B, C are made at a distance of 30 cm.
3. Marking A should be well below the free surface of the
attend terminal
liquid such that spherical ball
can
velocity.
4. The spherical ball (small in size ie., d <
lem) is placed gently on the surface of the
high viscous liquid (castor oil) and is dropped.
5. When the ball crosses the marking A, B, C, time is
recorded by stop watch. Time
interval between A to B and B to C is noted. If it is
same, then we can sure that it
has attended terminal velocity.
6. Now only two marks A and C are taken into account.
7. Distance between A and C is taken by a scale or attached scale with viscometer.
8. Time interval between A and C is noted
by highly precise stop watch of L.C. 0-01 S.
9. The ratio of distance between A and C and time interval
will give the terminal velocity.
Practicalsho

arccedure is repealed
procedure for 5 times for
365)
10. The different balls
of enstor oil is noted
Iemperature
by thermomete.
and nd oa are
2b e. pdetermined.
supplied. So knowing value of terminal
velocity, viscosity of liquid can

Results
Room temp
Density of castor oil = 0-96 x 10' kgm
Density of steel ball = 786 x 10" kgm

Density o f glass ball = 2:5 x 10' kgm

TABLE 1
Measurement of terminal velocity
kinds Radius of Reading of Reading of Time interval Distance Teminal
NO
ODS ball each Ball stop watch Stop Watch between A between velocity
of diferent at the mark at the mark and C points A &C

radius A' C' .

(S) (S) (S) (Cm) (Cms)
(Cm)
***********

Steel **' *********"|

***"'*
********.
glass ***
********

****"****
'*"

Teflon '''***"
'******'

***'***

**"''

TABLE 2
taking data from Table 1.
Measurement of viscosity

Density of Density Co-efficient Average Remarks

No. of kinds Radius of Teminal
solid ball of liquid of viscosity value of
obs of ball each Ball velocity
2r(p-
() (o 9

kgm (Pa-s) (Pa-s

m) (ms) kgm
' ' ' '

Steel
' ' ' '

**'
* * * *

**' '****

'****
*''"

***'

**'"

glass
'**"

5 Teflon ***"

6 t"'
 Applied Paysics
366 ww w www

Precautions:

For measuring terminal velocity it

should be ensured that the ball is moving with
should be strictly followed.
constant velocity. Procedure (5)
the centre of the ball at all places.
2 The distance should be measured from
3Temperature of liquid should be noted, because co-efficient of viscosity depends on
temperature. As temperature increases viscosity decreases, according to relation,

lo
1+At +pt
4The ball should be well polished.
5. Time should be accurately recorded.

6. Be carefull about air buble not be adhered with the ball.

BENGALI VERSION
Determmination of co-eficiert of viscosity of gven highly viscous ie
ud Dy stokes method adi and deniy of dhe ball and density of
Hquid to be supplied o rnn a a 1r0a
wwww w

. a f o Tarela fera e9 (w)=ar pg

(F)og
3. 1-ATETOTE( CA) 37 (F) 6rnrv.
=
Rracticals bot 367

Viscometer

****
10
***

20D
30 A

*****'****|**
40
*****
.

*******
. 60
60 B
. .
' * * * * ***''***
' . 70
........ '
80
...... ''*S 90 C
" ******
*** ****** *
100 cm

W-Fy-Fp =0
or. Fy +Fs = w

4
or
6rnrv+ nr og=nr'pg
3

_2r(p-o)g
V

2. 5eba ateta zaREY fo PORI (30cm 4tCR) A,B,CI

(368 Applied Physics
.

5.
6.

7.

Room temp =
C
T Å TAY (G) 0-96 10 kgm =
x

T Y (p,)= 7:86 10 kgm" x

PD AV (P,) =
2.5 x 10* kgm?
TABLE 1

A C A 9 C A 9 C

Va h
-031T5
(2G)
(Cm) (S) (S) h
(S) (Cm)
****°****
(Cms-")
2 **** ***

********|

******** ********.
***'**"

*****
*****"
********
******
****** ***

*********

****"'***
********
*******'''
 369
W w
TABLE-2

(v)
(P) (o (n)
(m) (ms-) kgm3 kgm (Pa-s) (Pa-s)
* * ' * * * ' * ' *
' * * *
'''**''**"

'*** ******** '***'***

'*''*'"****"

' * * * *
******** "****'**

* * * * * ' * * * *

* * * * * *
*********

4
*''****

5
****'''
"**** '''''
6 ****

lo
fAfa z TCA, "It+at +Bt2
+at +Bt

EXPERIMENT NO. 7

To find theco-efficient oflinearexpansion ofthem

Apparatus:
Linear expansion apparatus
Steam generator with heatingarrangement
3
3. Thermometer
4. A metal rod
S. A meter scale
6. Battery
7. One way key
8. Galvanoneter

Applied Physics-I-24
 Applied Physics-I
70
THEORY:
rod at t,°C and L, be the length ofthe rod at t,°C, then we
Let L, be the length of the length ofthe
have for co-efficient of linear expansion.

increase in length

L(t-) original length xtemp difference

IITZZAZTizz 000|
Incoming
steam Battery

Electric
lamp

Key

Steam

000
9TM
PROCEDURE:
.Enough water in the steam generator is needed before heating started.
2 Before heating length of the rod is measured accurately.
3. Now the temperature is measured.
4. The galvanometer and battery are connected.
5. Galvanometer and battery are connected as shown in figure.

6. Pitch and least count of the spherometer are determined.

7. The circuit is switched on and the spherometer screw is moved slowly forward direction
until it touches the rod and sudden deflection in the galvanometer is noted. Switchedofthe
circuit and the spherometer reading is noted.
8. The observation is repeated 3 times and mean value is taken.
9. The temperature is noted till it is steady.
Practicals 371)
Observations:

Original
length of the rod , . . cm.

Initial
temperature of the rodt, =
°C
rod t,
Final temperature ofthe
C

spherometer
Distance moved the linear scale
on
Pitch of the
=

mm
No. of rotations of circular scale
Number of division on the circular scale = Least Count of spherometer

Pitch
mm
No. of division on the circular scale

Increase in length =

(/2 -1)= .... cm

Co-efficient of linear expansion, a = 2 -

4(2-t1)
No..of Initial reading Final reading Co-efficient
obs
of linear
Pitch scale Circular scale| Spherometer Pitch scale Circular scale | Spherometer expansion
reading reading readingin cm reading reading reading in

(a) (b) a x pitch (a) (b') cm.

+b x least
=a pitch|
x 4,-4)
count
+b'xL.C.

Precautions:
good electrical connection.
T h e rod is cleaned with sand paper to ensure

direction.
2 To avoid backlashspherometer screw is moved in the same
error
and leave at the bottom.
3.
.Steam should be entered at the top of the outer jacket
 Applied Physics
72
BENGALI VERSION
olnd the coefen of liunear pauston of themateria of a ie ro

3. RTCaNDI
4 ADI C

6.
TTTTAND

T , t°C ©FoR TTUI CFÝ

=
L, 4

Incoming
E steam
Battery

Electric
amp

Key

Steam|
out

2000
Practicals 373
LL
L(-t)

A.

6.

3CU 1 Í T UIATaT
=
t,°C .

J1AIATK|
9T3 CARJ
=
L, cm t,°C
=... mm
CA1 TTI FUON TTAN mm

CFTafADICAs - f A 5 =
374 AppliedPhysics-
Caf-a131
bPI
(a) Md (em) (a') (cm)
(b) a xM5 (b) |4-a' 54-4)
+b x L. C.
+b' L.C.

6.

EXPERIMENT NO. 8
Yafcation o Botesda ybo w
apnarat
Theory:
Boyle's law states that for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the volume varies
inversely with its pressure.

v . Pv= Constant

when the level of Hg between two tube be the same, then lit atmosphuric pressure = P and
volume of air in the enclosed air be v, and pressure is (P - h,).

Again keeping the closed tube in the same position the open tube is raised by h, then
volume of enclosed air be V, and corresponding pressure be (P + h,) cm. of Hg.
Therefore according to Boyle's law we can write, Pv = (P - h,) v,= (P = h,) v,

Apparatus
(i) Boyle's law apparatus, (ii) Plumb line, (ii) Thermometer, (iv) Barometer.
Practicals
Procedure :
375)
atmospheric pressure is determined by Fortin's
. First
Barometer and temperature by thermometer.
is made vertical by adjusting levelling screws,
The apparatus
Now the closed tube is fixed at a particular position on the

scale.

4. The 2nd open tube is now so adjusted that in both the tube
shows same level.
Hg-level
5. The Open tube is lowered by I cm. or 2 cm. from the Hg-
level of closed tube. The pressure is noted to be (P h,) and
-

increased pressure of
volume is V,. Similarly by raising the
+ h,) and corresponding
the closed air is noted to be (P
volume of air be v.

6. The experiment is repeated 5 or 6 times.

7. Now in each case multiplication of pressure and volume of

the closed air will be the same.

8. Last by (P - v) graph is drawn. If the nature of the graph

result obeys Boyle's
hyperbola, then it is concluded that experimental
shows rectangular
law
C. atmospheric pressure (P) = ..cm. of Hg.
Result: room temperature =
TABLE-1

Diff. of Net pre Product

Volume of Reading of Hg-evel
Condition No.
ssure of
air in Reading leading Hg-level air in a pressure and
of closed of open in two
Pressure obser closed closed tube volume
tube tube tubes (PV) C.C. x
tube-B
vation
(A) h=(A-B) P-(Pth) Cm of Hg
cdosed (B)
C.C (Cm) (Cm) (Cm)
vessel (V
Atmosphereic 1
Pressure
Above
Atmospherinc 2
3
Below
1
atmospheric 2
pressure
376 Applied Physics 1
ww www

TABLE-2

Table for computing (p -

v) and -
(p - v) graph shows rectangular hyperbola

-graph shows straight line.

Pressure of Enclosed air|
(P) 76 78-1
Cm of Hg
Volume (v) in C.C.
195183
0-051 054 ***

(Graph) :
() (p - v) Graph
(ii)pGraph
L
(c.c.) (cm3)
P P-

(Cm of Hg) (Cm of HHg)

Discussion:
i)Barometer reading should be taken twice just at the begining and at the end.
i) The stop cock of the closed tube should not be loosely fitted otherwise quantity of entrapped
air will not be constant.
ii) The difference between Hg-level should be taken on the convex side of the meniscus.
iv) The difference between Hg-level should not be too large otherwise there may be some
leakage in the stop cock.
Practicals 37
BENGALI VERSION

Verification of Boyle's law by le's apparatus. (THr

Va
PV =

(TTNE 511)

P - h,)

51 3TA (P + h»)
TETR,37A 4 P , PV = (P - h,) V, = (P + h,) V2
 Applied Physics
378

(i) TH(T , (ii) g7niy, (iii) thermometer, (iv) TiAiADAI

5. 31d 5/6 Ta fAgE RAI

..** ... cm ?ATA 5IP

TABLE-1

B T 511

T (B) AT (A) 51

P p+h (p'v)
c.CXcm
(v) c.c. h(A-B)
(Cm) (Cm) of Hg
(Cm)
19.5 25.0 25.0 0.0 76

51

18.3 27.5 29.6 2.1 78.1

51

20.7 23.8 21.5 2.3 73.7

5191 711 2
3
Practicals g q
TABLE-2
379
(p v) M*t5TAR ATA (aATTsAa A)
X- 44147 51 (p) 4R y-7 1144 TTE (V)

76 78.1
(Cm of Hg)
Volume (v) in c.C. 19.5 18.3
(71)
(cm-) 0.051 .054 ****

() (p - v) R

(cm3)
(c.c.)

P P

(Cm of Hg (Cm of Hg)

i)
380 Applied Physics-1

EXPERIMENT NO.9

To determine specifie gravity of sand by speeifie gravity bottle.

ww w ww ww.w

STheoryy volume
liquid is definedthe ratio of the weight of a given
Ihe specific gravity of a solid or as
the sp. gr. be 's, then
of that substance to the weight of an equal volume of water at 4°C. If
wt. of the substance in air
S
wt. of equal volume of water at 4°C

wt. of the substance in air

wt. of equal vol. of water at t°C

x
wt. of equal vol. of water at t°C
wt. of equal vol. of water at 4° C
of water at t°C.
S S' x
Swhere S> sp. gr.

20 ml
at
25 °C

Let weight o f empty bottle = W, gmwt.

Weight o f bottle + sand = w, gmwt.

wt. o f bottle + sand + water o f the remaining part o f the bottle = w, gmwt.

wt. of the bottle completely filled with water = w gm.

W2-W
Sp.gravity of sand,
(W4-W)-(w3-W2)
Practicals
ww 381)
Temperature corrected specific gravity, S =S' x
S.
Apparatus:
)Sp. gr. bottle, (ii) Common balance, (ii) weight box, (iv) Sand, (v) Thermometer,
(vi) blotting paper.

Procedure

1.The bottle is cleaned and dried.

The balance is levelled properly.
The weight of the empty bottle with stopper is taken and
let it be w.
4. 1/3rd part of the bottle is filled with sand and let
its weight be
w.
5 Now the remaining part of the bottle is filled with
water and weight is taken say
Wgm wt.

6, Sand is now removed and the bottle is washed and is

its weight is taken completely filled with water and
as w4
7. Sp. gr. is now calculated from the
working formula.
Resultss
Temperature of water =..C.
Specific gravity of water at that temp.

No. of wt. of wt. of bottle wt. of wt. of the

obs. + sand
Sp. gr. of Average Corrected
empty bottle + bottle of sand
bottle sand +
Sp. gr. Sp.S'xS
gr.S)
completely (S) =

water filled with

water
(w) (w,) (w (W
gm) gm) gm) gm)

Discussion
. The balance should be perfectly levelled.
2.
Temperature correction. should be followed.
3. No air bubble should be
trapped within the liquid.
NCexCess liquid comming out from the bore of the stopper should be wiped out
cautiously.
 Applied Physics-I
382)
BENGALI VERSION
AA R
determinethe sp. gravity of sand bysD.
eravity bottle (tT
o
www

20 ml
at
25C
 383
S= S'x S,

TR , i AUT G = w, gmwt
TE+ G8a = W, gmwt

yooo tË AIUTAN G9 = wA gm wt

W,-
T (S") =
W-W)-(w -w,)
RCA i 1 S =
S' x S

TT 2Y A (20 c.c), yaRE, 99AA 14, I qA, MaDT I

2. TCR9M 3NT AO G67 P

(W, gmwt)

(w gmwt)
(384 Applied Physics
TABLE-1

a1N = .......C

+ 1fT af+ 13 (S)

(W
(w W4-W
G(w) G (W) = (W-W)

(gm) (WA-W-(W3-W1)|
(W-W2 (W-W
gm+gm t.+ t ...+

mgmt...mgm .. t..+ **** ****

gm .gm =gm
2 T.

+.. ***** *****

gm

i)

eITUTEOA
ENG
NSTI
LIBRARY

AcC. No.
GINEER
222
02 22
Bishnupur

dONHS 3ankura

13/a
ChA
(OINH
 OUR OTHER PUBLICATIONS
1st Semester
Applied Physics -I D. Choudhuri
Applied Chemistry Aloka Devi
Mathematics- Konch, De & Paul
Technical Drawingg B. Bhattacharya & S. Dutta
*"*******

2nd Semester *

Engineering Mathematics-ll Konch, De & Paul

Applied Physics-ll D.Choudhuri
Fundamentals of Electrical&
Electronics Engineering
Engineering Mechanics Das&Nag
B.
Introduction to IT Systems Bhattacharya & S. Dutta
Mondal & Munshi
3rd Semester
Environmental Engineering Aloka Devi
Programming in CC Partha Mondal
Basic Electronics Tapas Kr. Barman
Elements of Electrical
Electrical Machine - Engineering Tapas Kr. Barman
Tapas Kr. Barman
4th Semester
Electrical Utilisation, Traction,
Heating & Drives
Tapas Kr. Barman
****.--

5th Semester
Industrial Management Bhadra& Roy
Power Plant Enginieering
Tapas Kr. Barman
Non-Conventional Energy Sources Tapas Kr. Barman

Chapterwise Questions with Solutions in

All Subjects All Semesters are Available Here

Bhagabati
College
Publioation
57/1, Street, Kolkata-700 073
Phone: (033) 2257 3166, Mobile:
94333 40312