Pure Appl. Geophys.

173 (2016), 1289–1303

 2015 Springer Basel
DOI 10.1007/s00024-015-1173-z Pure and Applied Geophysics

Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers: Case Study
from Amdoun, Northwestern Tunisia
BELGACEM REDHAOUNIA,1 BATOBO OUNTSCHE ILONDO,2 HAKIM GABTNI,1 KHOMSI SAMI,1,3 and MOURAD BÉDIR1

Abstract—The Amdoun region is characterized by a high Key words: Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), Karst,
degree of karstification due to the climate impact Cavities, Perched aquifer, Amdoun (NW Tunisia).
(±1500 mm year-1) and the development of fracture network.
Survey using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is deployed to
provide a cost-effective characterization of the subsurface karst
environments. A total of seven ERT profiles with lengths of 315 m
were evaluated at the Béja governorate (NW Tunisia). The area 1. Introduction
represents a small syncline of Boudabbous limestone rocks (Lower
Eocene), which is covered by a thin layer of clay. In this study, an
ERT survey was conducted to examine the spatial distribution and Karst aquifers are known to be highly heteroge-
shape of underground cavities in the karst area in Jebel Sabah neous, formed by a complex conduit system that is
anticline and Aı̈n Sallem-Zahret Medien syncline. In this study,
generally impossible to locate. Moreover, the
geological, hydro-geological and electrical resistivity tomography
(ERT) methods were applied to determine the geometry of the resources are very hard to exploit, with permeability
perched aquifer in the Amdoun region (NW Tunisia). The area is coefficients ranging from 10-9 to 10-1 m s-1, and
characterized by fractured and karstic limestone aquifer of Late flow velocities ranging from a few millimeters a day
Cretaceous (Abiod Fm.) and Lower Eocene (Boudabbous Fm.).
The aquifers have a karstic functioning and drain aquifers of eco- to hundreds of meters an hour (BAKALOWICZ 2005).
nomical interest, despite some wells exploiting them. Seven Carbonate rock is soluble in the presence of acid
resistivity profiles were conducted along the survey area at three dissolved in water, most commonly resulting from
sites. The orientation, extension and the degree of inclination of
those profiles are shown in the location map. The correct resistivity
CO2 solution. The process that combines solution of
data were interpreted using Earth Imager 2D software. The results carbonate rock and flow in openings is named
of the interpreted geo-electrical sections showed that the resistivity ‘‘karstification’’ (FORD and WILLIAMS 1989). Karst
of the carbonate aquifer varied between 2.5 to over 5794 Xm. The
aquifers constitute 12 % of the global land surface
thickness of the perched aquifer ranged from 15 to 50 m, while its
depth from the surface lies between 10 and 60 m. The ERT not and store water on which approximately 20–30 % of
only provided precise near surface information, but was also very the Tunisia population depends, as stated in classical
useful for establishing the 3D geometry and the position of several textbooks on karst. These carbonate reservoirs (Abiod
potential cavities and karts. The results show the presence of small
to large isolated cavities at various depths. The low resistivity of and Boudabbous/El Gueria formations) in the study
cavities in the Boudabbous Formation has been explained by the area constitute approximately less than 1 % of all
groundwater saturation. The ERT technique could be effectively limestone outcrops in Tunisia. Hydro-chemical
used for 3D detection of underground limestone cavities.
analyses aid in the identification of the mechanisms
causing the accumulation of carbonates in ground-
water and the water type.
The stable isotopes of water have been analyzed
in investigations of karst aquifers to understand the
recharge processes, reservoir mixing and the inter-
1
Water Researches and Technologies Center Borj-Cedria
actions between groundwater and surface water and
(CERTE), BP 273, Soliman 8020, Tunisia. E-mail: belgacem.red-
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] to identify water sources in karst springs (KATZ et al.
2
Advanced Geosciences Europe-Spain, Madrid, Spain. 1997; VANDENSCHRICK et al. 2002; MALOSZEWSKI et al.
E-mail: [email protected] 2002; PERRIN et al. 2003; ANDREO et al. 2004; LONG
3
King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
E-mail: [email protected] and PUTNAM 2004; SCHWARZ et al. 2009; HAMED et al.
1290 B. Redhaounia et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

2014…). Geophysical methods are very useful for et al. 2010; ARIDHI et al. 2011; REDHAOUNIA et al.
studying karst terrains because of the intrinsic 2012, 2013a, b; ANENE et al. 2013).
heterogeneity of the medium (SACKS and TIHANSKY From the structural point of view, the Meso–
1996; ŠUMANOVAC and WEISSER 2001; VAN SCHOOR Cenozoic formations in northwestern Tunisia are
2002; VOUILLAMOZ et al. 2003; SMITH 2005; JARDANI intensely folded and faulted. The tertiary formations
et al. 2006; NEUKUM et al. 2010). However, the are structured in a series of anticlines and synclines in
electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) imaging the NE–SW direction. The main structural features
provided significant information of the structural are anticlines and synclines, faults and fractures. The
setting of the Amdoun region characterized by high structural and geomorphological features have
groundwater potential, fractured and chalky lime- affected the limestone sedimentary rocks in the
stone bodies due to the elevated density and Amdoun study area and have a great impact on the
concentration of open fracture network within the karst processes. The oldest rocks are the E–W Tri-
very brittle chalk of the lower Eocene (Boudabous/El assic diapiric outcrop of the Jebel Ezzouza, and
Gueria Formations) and Upper Cretaceous (Abiod except for the lithological sequences in this study
Formation). These two units are characterized by area it varies in age from the Upper Cretaceous to the
open fractured limestones, interconnected drainage Quaternary (GOTTIS and SAINFELD 1956). The major
paleochannels, shallow and deep karst and caves part of the Amdoun basin (35 % of the carbonate
(REDHAOUNIA et al. 2014b, c; AYADI et al. 2014). units) is underlain by carbonate rocks with moderate
The present study is an approach using the ERT to high degree of karstification. The densities of caves
imaging technique to identify and characterize the and karstic springs are the hydro-geological features
discontinuities, faults and water investigation of the used to check the calculated degree of karstification.
fractured and karstified limestone aquifers in the These types of surface karst features are common in
Amdoun Mounts. The conducted research demon- the Amdoun study area where relatively pure car-
strated that the ERT method was an effective tool for bonate bedrock is present and precipitation levels are
imaging the subsurface in the karst terrain. high (REDHAOUNIA et al. 2014c). Karsts developed in
the Upper Cretaceous limestones as well as in the
tertiary carbonate (Eocene Formations). The karst
2. Geology of the Study Area systems in the Upper Cretaceous limestones are
independent of those in the carbonate limestones
Tunisia is located at the intersection between the (Abiod Formation). The most extended caves systems
African, and European and Mediterranean plates develop in the Upper Cretaceous and constitute the
(Fig. 1a). Its structural framework is characterized by regional karst system which can be divided into
a transition from the Saharan platform in southern several subsystems.
Tunisia to Alpine folded structures (Atlasic domain
and Tellian troughs) in the north (BOUAZIZ et al.
2002). The Amdoun region is divided both geologi- 3. Hydrogeological and Petrophysical
cally and geographically into two zones roughly of Characteristics
equal importance, characterized by highly faulted
outcrops of Oligo-Miocene Numidian Flysch series The region where the aquifer is located presents a
unconformably over folded and faulted para-au- typically Mediterranean climate, where cool and
tochthonous to autochthonous Cretaceous to Eocene rainy seasons alternate with hot dry seasons. The
units (Fig. 1b, c). The Nappes Zone (Alpine thrust average temperature is 16.5 C and the potential
belt) and the Imbricated Zone is immediately situated evapotranspiration estimates range between 1000 and
and affected by thrusts and reverse faulting (GOTTIS 1800 mm year-1. The mean precipitation is
and SAINFELD 1956; ROUVIER 1985; KHOMSI 1998; EL 1400 mm year-1 and there are marked seasonal
EUCHI et al. 1998, 2004; KHOMSI et al. 2009; RIAHI variations. Most rainfall takes place in the autumn.
Vol. 173, (2016) Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers 1291

Figure 1
a Geographical location of the study area; b general geological map of the Amdoun study area; c geological map of the study area including
ERT survey of the three sites, 1, 2, and 3; d positioning plan of ERT profiles in site 3

Amdoun carbonate aquifers are made up of Upper represented more than 200 9 106 m3 year-1 with
Cretaceous limestones (Abiod Formation) of three more than 13 % of groundwater resources of Tunisia.
members whose thickness ranges between 200 and These formations present as very karstifiable
250 m and presents anticlines structures in the axis geologic units in the Amdoun Mounts, because the
direction NE–SW (Jebel Sabbah). The Boudabbous karstic rock masses are pervaded by a network of
perched carbonate aquifer, about 4.7 km2, is com- open discontinuities and fractures with calcite filling
pletely isolated from other aquifers (Abiod and epikarst forms (Lapiaz, Karren and Kamenitza)
Formation) and presents a synclinal structure in the (Figs. 2a, b, 3c, d). These discontinuities are the
axis direction NE–SW. The hydro-geological stocks primary flow paths and infiltration of meteoric water
of the perched carbonate aquifers are estimated by for groundwater and the development of the karsti-
ENNABLI (1980) and ENNABLI and DRAS (1981) and fication process.
1292 B. Redhaounia et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

Figure 2
a Interconnecting fissures and open fractures of limestone (upper Abiod member), b epikarst forms include the solutional hollows (Kamenitza)
and open structures (Lapiez); c photo shows a view of fractured and karstified limestone with a large cavern in the left developed in the Jebel
Sabah anticline (SW flank); d, e, f photos show the front view of three caverns in the Abiod limestone formation (Upper Cretaceous) of the
Jebel Sabbah anticline (SW flank), which developed at the intersection of the open fracture networks

The investigations of cavern networks generally Both the upper and lower members of the Abiod
agree that conduits are related to discontinuities and Formation (Campanian–Maastrichtian lower) are
major faults within the rock mass of Abiod Formation composed of fractured limestones with a high matrix
(Fig. 2c). It is unknown to this point how large these porosity of 8–20 % and a permeability of
caverns are (Fig. 2d–f), but these caverns were about 100–120 mD and average thickness of 250 m (EL
1–4 m in diameter and about 5 m long. The system is EUCHI et al. 1998). These limestones have a good
drained by six springs (Aı̈n El Goussa, Aı̈n Menzel groundwater potentiality, confirmed by several
Gourchi, Aı̈n El Kbira, Aı̈n Sabbah, Aı̈n El Hadj and springs: Aı̈n El Goussa (10 l/s), Aı̈n Menzel Gourchi
Aı̈n Sallem) (Fig. 1). (17–25 l/s), Aı̈n El Kbira (5 l/s) and Aı̈n Sabbah
According to the results of the ERT approaches, the (4 l/s);
petrophysical analyses of carbonates limestones of Fractured limestones of the Ypresian are repre-
Abiod and Boudabbous/El Gueria Formations shows a sented by Boudabbous Formations (Globigerina)/El
significant potential aquifer with a high porosity per- Gueria (nummulites), and these bioclastic limestones
meability EL EUCHI et al. (1998) and ETAP (2006). were deposited in a carbonate platform type of ramp,
However, the hydro-geological potential of carbonate with a porosity of 5–12 % and improved permeability
aquifers is largely the main reservoirs of the Amdoun in the presence of fractures from 100 to 700 mD and
region which is divided into two separate aquifers: average thickness of 250 m (EL EUCHI et al. 1998).
Vol. 173, (2016) Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers 1293

Figure 3
a Panoramic view of the mountain shows the abandoned quarry in the Zaouiet Medien-Aı̈n Sallem syncline (site 2); b thick layers of fractured
limestone (Boudabbous Formation). c The Karren epikarst forms can vary between 0.5 and 1.5 m in length, developed in the Boudabbous
Formation; d photos show the alignment of Kamenitza structures with major fractures

These limestones are of great hydro-geological infiltration of the groundwater (Figs. 2a, c, 3b). In
potential due to the high number of sources that addition, the minor and major faults affecting the
spring to the surface through faults and fractures as Abiod and Boudabbous/El Gueria influence karsti-
the source of Aı̈n El Hadj and Aı̈n Sallem (15–20 l/s). fication development in the study area. During the
Groundwater flow is predominantly through frac- rainy period, the karst system evacuates part of its
tures, which are often solutionally enlarged to form waters by some major sources (Aı̈n El Goussa, Aı̈n
fissures or small karst conduits. Sabbah, Aı̈n Sallem…), but also as multiple local
Karst developed in the Upper Cretaceous car- seeps into contact marly levels. The low thickness
bonate as well as in the Lower Eocene carbonate of the limestone nummulitic did not allow the
formation. The karst systems in the Upper Cretaceous evolution of a deep network and lapiaz which
carbonate at anticlines are local and independent developed from the joints or larger fractures
from those developed in the Lower Eocene limestone (Fig. 3).
synclines.
Upper Cretaceous and early Eocene Limestones
outcrops are extremely cracked and present a similar 4. Geo-Electrical Resistivity Imaging
geomorphological index in the épikarst zone; while
networks fracture of joints and faults explain surface Different geophysical prospecting techniques are
hydrology and especially to determine the under- used to detect underground karst and cavities
ground hydrology. Karstification develops including seismic methods (RECHTIEN and STEWART
intensively, mainly in the first 30 m of the upper 1975; BENDERITTER 1997; GRANDJEAN 2006),
part of the Late Cretaceous limestones and Lower gravimetry (CHICO 1964; BERES et al. 2001; JACOB
Eocene. Groundwater flow is predominantly through et al. 2010), GPR (ROBERT and DE BOSSET 1994;
fractures, which are often solutionally enlarged to BENSON 1995; MCMECHAN et al. 1998) and ERT (LOKE
form fissures or small karst conduits. These various 2000; LOKE et al. 2003; MARTÍNEZ-PAGÁN et al. 2013;
lineaments have great interest in the recharge and GÉLIS et al. 2010).
1294 B. Redhaounia et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

Figure 4
a Photo shows the protocol ERT survey of EP2 in site 3; b details of the geophysical instrumentation that was used in the ERT survey; c,
d photos show a top view of these sinkholes in the limestones karst terrain of Boudabbous Formation (Ypresian)

The geophysical survey was complemented with a profile after inversion and topographic correction
field investigation to gather information on the using the EarthImager 2D software. Outliers were
underground cavities of the prospected area. The removed and topographic corrections were carried
investigation is based on collecting information from out with measurements of elevation and geographic
the inhabitants who had a relatively accurate knowl- coordinates for each electrode position through a
edge of known cavities. The ERT 2-D data acquired in Trimble GPS. After completing the field survey, the
February 2014 (EP1 and EP 2) and December 2015 resistance measurements were regularly converted
(EP3 to EP 7) by the ‘‘Centre of Water Research and to apparent resistivity values. The data were devel-
Technologies (CERTE)’’, using the SAS-4000 ABEM oped to produce two-dimensional resistivity earth
Terrameter with the 32 or 64 electrodes configuration model of the subsurface. An inversion program
to characterize the shape and depth of the groundwater, converts the array of apparent resistivity data into a
provides a resistivity distribution section of a subsur- model of the geology that would yield the observed
face portion of the earth from potential measurements distribution of apparent resistivity values. The data
made on the surface (Fig. 4b). The data acquisition was inversion software used in this study was AGI
performed using a Wenner electrode array, which EarthImager 2D with a maximally smooth least
provides good sensitivity for the detection of vertical squares algorithm (CONSTABLE et al. 1987; LOKE and
heterogeneities and a good signal-to-noise ratio than BARKER 1996). The modeling was done by an
other arrays (DAHLIN and ZHOU 2004; LOKE 2011). This inversion process based on an iterative method that
facilitates studying sub-horizontal structures consid- attempts to minimize the difference between the
ered to be probable in the study area. measured pseudo-section and a pseudo-section
Measuring the resistivity with ERT 2-D enables recalculated from a model of electrical resistivity
us to interpret the data in pseudo-section resistivity theory. This modeling process is modified with each
Vol. 173, (2016) Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers 1295

Figure 5
Results of electrical imaging by Wenner array along the profile EP1 in the Jebel Sabbah NW flank (site 1)

iteration until the calculated and measured data of carbonates from Abiod and Boudabbous/El Gueria
reach an acceptable agreement or until no further limestones at different depths along each profile line,
improvement is possible. The deviation between the starting from a low value of 2.5 Xm to a higher value
theoretical model and the true resistivity model is of 5794 Xm.
expressed as root mean square ‘‘RMS.’’ While this is The electrical profile EP1 on the NE–SW direc-
a good indication of the quality of a cross section, it tion was located in the west flank of Jebel Sabbah
is not always the iteration which has the lowest RMS anticline (site 1). In the inverted resistivity section
error profile that gives the most geologically correct (final model), an RMS of 2.73 % was reached in the
one. In general, the most reliable model is located fourth iteration. The reliability of ERT detection of
just after the iteration where the RMS error does not potential caves was verified by geological exploration
significantly change (\0.5 % improvement), which of four newly discovered caves at the Jebel Sabbah
usually happens between four and six iterations anticline before the ERT campaign. The EP1 line is
(NOUIOUA et al. 2015). run near large caverns about 15 m south of the
We used for the continuous dataset, inversions to entrance (Fig. 2c, d). Wenner array electrode con-
earth model resistivity values. Between two and four figuration was used to provide a good horizontal and
iterations were run for the December 2013 vertical resolution for a clear image of the cave. The
(EP1 ? EP2) and April 2015 (EP3 to EP7) surveys, resistivity model obtained is seen at a distance
respectively, with best-fit model RMS errors between between -95 and -52 m and at 10–20 m of depth.
1.24 and 5.29 %. The RMS error statistics enumer- The presence of an important zone of high-resistivity
ated the distribution of the percentage differentiation values with a concentric resistivity anomaly body
between the logarithms of the calculated resistivity (1000–5794 Xm) has been interpreted as the presence
values and those calculated from the true resistivity of an ovular cave (Fig. 5). The low resistivity may be
model. This allows us to judge the quality of inver- due to resistivity contrasts between the ambient car-
sion images achieved from field data inversion. bonates rocks of the Abiod Formation outside of the
The distribution of resistivity in the subsurface cave. The unsaturated zone of the upper part of the
soil of the study shows a wide variation of resistivity Abiod Formation shown in the EP1 contains fissures
1296 B. Redhaounia et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

Figure 6
Results of electrical imaging by Wenner array along the profile EP2 (site 2) in the abandoned quarry. Measured apparent resistivity pseudo-
section (a), calculated apparent resistivity pseudo-section (b) and inverted resistivity section of the profile

and solution channels that provide conduits for the Fig. 1, Structurally, the area is an elongated syncline
vertical and horizontal flow direction of surface water that extends in the NE–SW direction and for about
into the underlying aquifer (saturated zone) 4 km (Fig. 3a). The apparent resistivity pseudosec-
(50–100 Xm). The difference in resistance between tion uses a Wenner array configuration of 32
the cavity and the surrounding limestone of Upper electrodes, and the length of the profile is 155 m with
Cretaceous may be the most outstanding physical an electrode spacing of 5 m. In the inverted resistivity
feature of a cave. However, the section shows a rel- section, an RMS of 2.98 % was reached in the second
atively higher resistivity layer (marly limestones) iteration (Fig. 6). The interpretation of the EP2
overlaying a very low-resistivity layer of strongly deduced from the joint inversion of both arrays, using
karstic limestones (14.8–30 Xm). the two-inversion techniques, shows the presence of
The ERT measurements reveal an increase of high three cavities with heterogeneous and complex aspect
resistivity (5794 Xm) of the topmost layer from the and two major vertical faults affecting the sub-hori-
external to the center of EP1. This can also lead to the zontal limestone of the Boudabbous Formation. We
formation of a larger cave, as observed in the EP1 at observe also a very resistant block (*280 Xm) with
depths of about 10 m. Resistivity varying from 1000 a length of approximately 15 m, limited by resistant
to 5794 Xm of the karstic void is indicative of the horizontal structure of cavity on the east and west of
karstified limestone bedrock (Abiod Fm.). The cave the inverted resistivity section. The resistivity con-
has a diameter of several meters and is partly filled trast in the inverse image between the cavities and
with sediments and/or void from the upper strati- surrounding rock environment is very important
graphic unit of the Abiod limestone formation (about *200 to *280 Xm) (Fig. 6).
(Fig. 5). Profiles 3–7 were compiled in site 3 located in the
Contrary to the NE–SW profile EP1, the electrical central portion of the ‘‘Zaouiet Madien-Aı̈n Sallem’’
profile EP2 in the NE–SW direction located in the syncline (Figs. 1d, 4a). These inverted resistivity
abandoned quarry of ‘‘Zaouiet Madien-Aı̈n Sallem models of profiles were obtained using a Wenner
syncline’’ (site 2) is shown in the location map, in configuration of 64 electrodes, and the length of each
Vol. 173, (2016) Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers 1297

Figure 7
3D view for inverted ERT sections along the different profiles 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 in site 3 in the carbonate limestone of Boudabbous Formation
with high-resistivity zone. 5 m electrode spacing, 64 electrodes, EarthImager 2D software inversion in two and three iterations

profile was 315 m with electrode spacing of 5 m cube (Fig. 7); this low-resistivity (4–16 Xm) is
(Fig. 7). interpreted as due to the weathered zone of clays
and marls (Souar Formation).
• Under this zone, an anomaly of moderate
4.1. The Interpretation of Results
resistivity (4–80 Xm) is present; this epikarst
Figure 7 shows the interpretation of five profiles zone shows a concentration of large fractures
with 3D inverted resistivity image. A 3D picture of the and karstic features clearly visible on the
fracture system was drawn showing a geo-syncline outcrop.
structure of carboante limestone bedrock (Boudabbous • Under the epikarst zone, a higher resistivity
Fm.). Geo-electrical data were interpreted with anomaly (80–1670 Xm) was associated with the
Zond2Dinv software, leading to geometric construc- endokarst zone of the Boudabbous Formation.
tion of Boudabbous fractured aquifer and to 3D
The aim was to test the efficiency of ERT in
modeling of subsurface architecture. The geo-electical
detecting secondary faults and sinkholes (S1 and S2)
cube illustrated in Fig. 7 was obtained by the intersec-
observed in situ in the Boudabbous Formation and
tion of five 2D ERT sections, allowing detecting,
illustrated in the picture of the landscape (Fig. 4a, b).
delineating important fractures and also characterizing
The use of ERT and the additional information in this
the hydro-geology of the underground karst. The
site coupled with the 2D and 3D visualization and
interpretation of 3D ERT images is based on the
analysis softwares has led to a far better understand-
distribution and contrasts in electrical resistivity.
ing of the geometric construction and the subsurface
• A small zone of lower resistivity in the EP7 is architecture of Abiod and Boudabbous fractured
imaged on top of the southeastern corner of the aquifers.
1298 B. Redhaounia et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

5. Results and Discussion Groundwater input by springs can promote car-

bonate dissolution (carbonate-rich rocks) along the
Aı̈n El Goussa Aı̈n Menzel Gourchi and Aı̈n Sab- fringes of alluvial fans and directly into surface water
bah Sallem springs discharge is the output of a karst (dams: Kasseb and/or drainage network: Majerda).
groundwater system and its changes should correspond The decrease in bicarbonate concentration causes the
with those of the input to the karst groundwater system water to be undersaturated with respect to dolomite
(precipitation), although there is often a lag in its and promotes dissolution of dolomite (HAMED et al.
response to precipitation. As a result of the effect of 2014). Ca–Mg–HCO3 water is the predominant type
human activity and other uncertain factors, a great deal in the carbonate-rock aquifers in this study area, and
of noise is overlapped in the response and the internal the lithology of rapid weathering and erosion rate
relations between spring discharge and precipitation suggests that dissolution of carbonate minerals will
are concealed or even distorted (HAMED et al. 2014; add significant amounts of Ca and Mg to the reser-
HAMED and DHAHRI 2013). voir. This is generally produced by dissolution of the
The geochemical analyses of the groundwater from carbonate minerals (calcite and dolomite) ‘‘karstifi-
these two reservoirs of Abiod limestone formations cation processes’’. The reaction of these minerals
(Campanian–Maastrichtian) and Boudabbous (Ypre- with water and carbon dioxide can be written as
sian) show that they belong to calcium bicarbonate follows:
facies, indicating a good quality of water (REDHAOUNIA
2013; REDHAOUNIA et al. 2014a). CaCO3 ðcalciteÞ þ H2 O þ CO2
The natural effect is not the only factor that , Ca2þ þ 2HCO 3; ð1Þ
threatens the karstic aquifers; thus, the anthropogenic
effect has a significant impact: the three deep wells CaMgðCO3 Þ2 ðdolomiteÞ þ 2H2 O þ 2CO2
drilled in Zahret Medien-Aı̈n Sallem syncline [Sidi , Ca2þ þ Mg2þ þ 4HCO 3; ð2Þ
Saadoun (109 m), Aı̈n Sallem deep wells 1 (105 m) Ca2Mg5Si8O2 2ðOHÞ2 þ 14CO2 þ 22H2 O
and 2 (50 m)] and Aı̈n Sallem spring are excessively , 2Ca2þ þ 5Mg2þ þ 14HCO 3 þ 8SiðOHÞ4 :
exploited, especially by the domestic sector (drinking
ð3Þ
water) (DGRE 1992, 1997, 1998; O.T 2008). The
overexploitation of this aquifer could change the Other types of rocks (e.g. calcium sulfate depos-
water quality along with the climate variability which its) may additionally contribute to hydrochemical
is observed in the TDS difference between the winter properties. However, the composition of groundwa-
(TDS = 0.3 g/l) and summer (TDS = 0.6 g/l). ters and the formation of other precipitates such as
Groundwater salinity in the study area varies both in calcite/dolomite, gypsum or Mg clays depends not
the vertical and lateral directions. Higher values of only on the hydrology, but also on the tectonic, cli-
these parameters characterize wells located in the mate and/or the presence of source rocks containing
central and the southern parts of the basin Generally, evaporites (Triassic sediments) from Tunisian and
TDS increases from the mountainous regions (the Algerian territories.
piedmont zone of the study area, which characterizes Groundwaters from Cretaceous aquifers (Abiod
the recharge areas) toward the discharge area and Boudabbous Formations) and karst waters in the
(southern part), as a result of the scarcity of recharge NW basin of Tunisia and around the springs [Aı̈n
in these regions due to the relatively long-term Sabbah, Aı̈n Sallem, Aı̈n Menzel Gourchi (Fig. 8c,
water–rock interaction. The pCO2 in the groundwater d)…] have been abstracted for water supply and for
ranging between 1.2 9 10-3 and 0.6 9 10-3 atm the agricultural sector at the Amdoun region. The
compared to the precipitation pCO2 of 10-3.5 atm impact of karst water use on the spring discharge
suggested that the water gained CO2 from root res- should be the most intensive, but the extent of use is
piration and the decay of soil organic matter. quite small. The so-called restored spring discharge
Subsequently, an increase in pCO2 caused a drop in was calculated by adding the observed spring dis-
pH (Fig. 8a). charge with the volume of exploited karst water.
Vol. 173, (2016) Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers 1299

Figure 8
a Conceptual hydrogeological model of Aı̈n El Goussa (S1) and Aı̈n Menzel Gourchi springs (S2); b fractured and karstified limestone of
Abiod Formation in the Jebel Sabbah Anticline (NW Flank); c, d PHOTOS show the panoramic view of the Aı̈n Menzel Gourchi spring (S2)

Stable isotopes of water are ideal environmental at higher elevations, which is known as the altitude
tracers; they are constituents of water molecules, which effect (HAMED and DHAHRI 2013). However, the present
allow them to be used as tracers of water molecules recharge is high due to the humid conditions within the
through various segments of the hydrological cycle and catchment and depends mostly on infrequent storm
are excellent tracers for determining the origin of events. The carbonate aquifers of the study area are
groundwater and widely used for studying the ground- recharged by the recent meteoric water by vertical
water recharge, migration pathways and mixing of infiltration from the fractures and/or the permeable
waters from different sources (FAURE 1986; SACKS and faults.
TIHANSKY 1996; SUBYANI 2004). Moreover, the isotopic The isotopic compositions of the groundwater
composition of monthly recent meteoric waters is in the samples from the NW aquifer range from -6.37 to
range -8.45 to -4.12 % d18O and -55.4 to -22.6 % -0.82 % for d18O and from -40.8 to -7.7 % for
dD (Fig. 8a). The average values of d18O and dD in the d2H (HAMED and DHAHRI 2013). These samples are
precipitation are -6.28 and -39 %, respectively (JOU- taken from different depths and altitudes of the study
ZEL et al. 1991; CLARK and FRITZ 1997). This variation is area. This groundwater is interpreted as contempo-
controlled by local climatic parameters, including the raneous recharge at the high-altitude surrounding
origin of the vapor mass, re-evaporation during rainfall mountains (Atlas Monts) and a mixing groundwater
and the seasonality and monthly rate of precipitation resulting from the dominant upward leakage from the
(HAMED and DHAHRI 2013). The isotopic composition of deep artesian water table.
precipitation is strongly influenced by temperature, Seven 2D geo-electrical measurements were car-
which is reflected as a seasonal effect (as a result of the ried out in three sites aiming to characterize the near
lower condensation temperature in winter than in sum- surface problems of the fractured and karst lime-
mer) and the depletion of heavier isotopes (2H and 18O) stones aquifers (Abiod and Boudabbous Formations)
1300 B. Redhaounia et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

in the Amdoun study area. The results of tomography 6. Conclusions

ERT profiles, the most representative ones, are
described below to present the characteristics of the This study presents the results of a multi-method
cavities existing in the three sites. The cross sections approach of characterizing of the carbonates lime-
of the true resistivity distribution are displayed. The stone aquifers in northwestern Tunisia. The
high-resistivity zones interpreted as karstic galleries, groundwater was affected by the climate impact and
which represent the level that is the fractured lime- human activities (mostly in the form of groundwater
stones of the upper member of the Abiod Formation, overabstraction). A dual-porosity model that includes
were noted in the indices of the epikarst (fractures, a fissure-porous aquifer (baseflow) and karstic con-
alteration, kamenitza, caverns…) to the outcrop. The duits (rapid infiltration) best described the analyzed
presence of faults can be deduced from the abrupt systems of Amdoun carbonate aquifers. This study
change between the lower and upper range limits of revealed that the recharge was dominated by winter
resistivity. precipitation; the dual-porosity system dominated by
The ERT imaging provided significant informa- the baseflow of the individual springs has different
tion about the sub-surface structural setting in the degrees of karstification. Joint interpretation of geo-
Amdoun region. This area is characterized by high physical (ERT), hydro-geological, structural and
groundwater potential fractured and chalky lime- synthetic simulation data allowed identifying the
stones bodies, showing elevated density and carbonate aquifer of the Amdoun region.
concentration of open fracture network within the The application of geophysical method of ERT
very brittle chalk of the Lower Eocene (Boudabous/ measurement reveals three distinct three sites in the
El Gueria Fms.) and Upper Cretaceous (Abiod Fm.) subsurface below strong fracturation zones. ERT
(Fig. 8a, b). The results proved that ERT was capable survey supports the theory of significant shifts in the
of detecting karst, sinkholes or caves of variable resistivity parameters of the carbonate limestones
dimensions. Several other Wenner profiles with 5 m with height resistivity in the Jebel Sabbah
spacing were measured in the area of study and the ([5000 Xm—site 1) and along the syncline of
presence of other sinkholes and cavities developed in ‘‘Zaouiet Medien-Aı̈n Sallem’’ with low resistivity
the Abiod and Boudabbous Formations was detected (\350 Xm—sites 1 and 2). The 3D model of these
(Fig. 4c, d). Finally, the interpretation process favors cavities and sinkholes in site 3 resulted from the
smooth contouring over the abrupt resistivity con- application of geo-electrical methods in the fractured
trasts that cave passages show in seven electrical carbonate limestone of the Boudabbous Formation.
profiles (Figs. 5, 6 and 7). Because of this fact, the Geo-electrical measurements with ERT method
resistivity values that the model applies to the cave were carried out in the studied area with seven geo-
passages depend on the surrounding rocks resistivity. electrical profiles to obtain a better characterization
The karst system in the Amdoun region is a of the geological anomalies associated with perched
unique and complex system. The genesis and the carbonate aquifers. This work also introduces a new
original structure of karst are known through various tool for the identification of karstic, sinkholes, frac-
works (MANGIN 1975; BAKALOWICZ 1979; MARSAUD tures and voids, since cave detection may be the first
1997; AL-FARES et al. 2002). The karstic aquifer itself application of this ERT approach in the study area.
has three main areas: the epikarst, the infiltration zone Moreover, this approach gives an easier interpretation
(vadose zone) and flooded area (saturated zone) of its size and position of the subsurface anomaly
(MANGIN 1975; BAKALOWICZ 1979). In the nearest part caves, sinkhole, faults, etc.
of the surface, water infiltration can be temporarily In future works, it will be necessary to contem-
retained by forming a small temporary tank perch, plate other approaches, such as for example,
‘‘the epikarst’’. This part is characterized by a high integration of ERT imaging and ground penetrating
degree of fracturing and alteration, giving it a sec- radar (GPR) to investigate and characterize the
ondary porosity in the limestone of the Upper hydro-geological perched groundwater bodies with
Cretaceous and Lower Eocene. more accuracy.
Vol. 173, (2016) Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers 1301

Acknowledgments BERES, M., LUETSCHER, M., OLIVIER, R., (2001), Integration of

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(Received May 8, 2015, revised August 24, 2015, accepted September 2, 2015, Published online September 25, 2015)