In this Lecture you will Learn:

„ About the role of operation specifications

„ What is meant by “Contracts”
„ About algorithmic and non-algorithmic techniques, and
Specifying Operations how they differ
„ How to use:
‹ Decision Tables
Chapter 10
‹ Pre- and Post-condition Pairs

‹ Structured English

‹ Activity Diagrams

‹ Object Constraint Language

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Main Purposes of Operation

Why we Specify Operations
Specification
„ From analysis perspective: „ Confirm that the logic of user requirements has
‹ Ensure users’ needs are understood been understood correctly and documented
„ From design perspective: accurately.
‹ Guide programmer to an appropriate
„ Provide designers and programmers with a
implementation (i.e. method) detailed and unambiguous basis for the design and
implementation of system behavior.
„ From test perspective:
‹ Verify that the method does what was
originally intended

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Types of Operation and Their Effects Services among Objects
„ Operations with side-effects may: „ When objects collaborate, one object typically
‹ Create or destroy object instances provides a service to another
‹ Set attribute values „ Examples:
‹ Form or break links with other objects ‹ A Client object might ask a Campaign object
‹ Carry out calculations for its details
‹ Send messages or events to other objects ‹ The same Client object might then ask a
‹ Any combination of these boundary object to display its related
„ Operations without side-effects are pure queries Campaign details to the user
‹ Request data but do not change anything

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Contracts: an Approach to Defining

Class Exercise
Services
„ Why are operation specifications in an object-oriented „ A service can be defined as a contract between the
project likely to be small? participating objects
„ Contracts focus on inputs and outputs
„ Intervening process is seen as a black box
„ Irrelevant details are hidden
„ This emphasizes service delivery, and ignores
implementation

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Contract-Style Operation
Types of Logic Specification
Specification
„ Intent or purpose of the operation „ Logic description is probably the most important
„ Operation signature including return type element
„ Description of the logic „ Two main categories:
„ Other operations called ‹ Algorithmic Specification Techniques

„ Events transmitted to other objects describe the sequence of internal logical steps
that an operation is to follow.
„ Any attributes set
‹ Non-Algorithmic Techniques describe the
„ Response to exceptions (e.g. an invalid parameter) result for a given set of inputs.
„ Non-functional requirements

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Non-Algorithmic Techniques Decision Tree

„ Black box type „ Diagram that shows conditions and actions graphically
„ Describe the result for a given set of inputs.
„ Focus on what the operation should achieve
„ Appropriate where correct result matters more than method
to arrive at it
‹ Decision Tree: complex decisions, multiple criteria and

steps
‹ Decision Table: similar applications to decision tree

‹ Pre-condition and Post-condition Pairs: suitable

where precise logic is unimportant or uncertain

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Decision Table Decision Table
„ Decision tables are particularly suited to representing „ Provides a notation that translates actions and conditions
decisions with complex multiple input conditions and (described in a processing narrative) into a tabular form.
complex multiple outcomes, where the precise sequence of ‹ The upper left-hand section contains a list of all
steps either is not significant or is not known. conditions.
Conditions and actions Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3 ‹ The lower left-hand section lists all actions that are

Conditions possible based on the conditions.

Is budget likely to be overspent? N Y Y ‹ The right-hand sections form a matrix that indicates

Is overspend likely to exceed 2%? - N Y condition combinations and the corresponding actions
Actions
that will occur for a specific combination.
No action X
Send letter X X
Set up
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Class Exercise Pre- and Post-condition Pair

„ To what kinds of situation are decision tables particularly „ Pre-conditions allow the user and analyst to agree the
suited? precise conditions under which it should be possible for an
operation to run.
„ Post-conditions specify the intended state of the system
after the operation has executed.
„ This information can be used later by a program designer
to specify the operation, by a programmer to code it and by
a tester to check whether it works as intended.
„ Together, pre- and post-conditions describe an operation’s
interface to the rest of the system.

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Example Class Exercise
„ Pre-conditions: „ Why is it important to specify both pre- and post-
‹ creativeStaffObject is valid conditions for an operation?
‹ gradeObject is valid
‹ gradeChangeDate is a valid date
„ Post-conditions:
‹ a new staffGradeObject exists
‹ new staffGradeObject linked to creativeStaffObject
‹ new staffGradeObject linked to previous
‹ value of previous staffGradeObject.gradeFinishDate
set equal to gradeChangeDate

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Algorithmic Techniques Structured English

„ White box type „ Commonly used, easy to learn
„ Describe the sequence of internal logical steps that an
operation is to follow „ Also called Program Design Language (PDL), or
„ Focus on how the operation might work Pseudocode.
„ Suitable where users understand the procedure for arriving
at a result
„ Can be constructed top-down, to handle arbitrarily
complex functionality
„ Examples:
‹ Structured English

‹ Activity Diagrams

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Control Structure in Structured Sequence Structure in Structured
English English
„ Three types of control structure, derived from „ Each instruction executed in
structured programming: turn, one after another

‹ Sequences of instructions get client contact name

sale cost = item cost * (1 - discount rate)
‹ Selection of alternative instructions (or groups calculate total bonus
of instructions) description = new description

‹ Iteration (repetition) of instructions (or groups

of instructions)

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Selection Structure in Structured Selection Structure in Structured

English English
„ One or other alternative course is followed, depending on
result of a test:
if client contact is ’Sushila’
set discount rate to 5%
else
set discount rate to 2%
end if

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Iteration Structure in Structured Iteration Structure in Structured
English English
„ Instruction or block of instructions is repeated
‹ Can be a set number of repeats

‹ Or until some test is satisfied, for example:

do while there are more staff in the list

calculate staff bonus
store bonus amount
end do

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Activity Diagrams Simple Activity Diagram

„ Activities diagrams can be used to specify the „ An activity diagram showing the main steps for the
logic of procedurally complex operation. operation CreativeStaff.changeGrade().

„ Are part of UML notation set

„ Can be used for operation logic specification,
among many other uses
„ Are easy to learn and understand
„ Have the immediacy of graphical notation
„ Bear some resemblance to old-fashioned flowchart
technique
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 Activity Diagram with Selection and
Activity Diagram with Selection
Iteration
„ A activity diagram for CreativeStaff.changeGrade(), with „ Activity diagram for Prepare bonus list(),
an initial selection to check that approval has been given. showing selection and iteration structures.

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Object Constraint Language (OCL) Component of OCL - Context

„ OCL expressions usually consist of: „ Defines domain within which expression is valid
‹ A Context within which the expression is valid „ Instance of a type, e.g. object in class diagram
(for example, a specified class); „ Link (association instance) may be a context
‹ A Property within the context to which the
expression applies (for example, an attribute of
the specified class);
‹ An Operation that is applied to the property
(for example, a mathematical expression that
tests the value of the attribute).

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 Component of OCL - Property Component of OCL - Operation

„ A property of that instance „ OCL operation is applied to the property

„ Often an attribute, association-end or query „ Operations include
operation ‹ Arithmetical operators *, +, - and /

‹ Set operators such as size, isEmpty and select

‹ Type operators such as oclIsTypeOf

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OCL Used for Pre- and Post-

OCL Expression and Interpretation
conditions
OCL expression Interpretation
„ context CreativeStaff::changeGrade
Person In the context of a specific person, the value (grade:Grade, gradeChangeDate:Date)
self.gender of the property ‘gender’ of that person—i.e. a
person’s gender. „ pre:
‹ grade oclIsTypeOf(Grade)
Person The property ‘savings’ of the person under
self.savings >= 500 consideration must be greater than or equal ‹ gradeChangeDate >= today
to 500.
„ post:
Person If the set ‘husband’ associated with a person
self.husband->notEmpty implies is not empty, then the value of the property ‹ self.staffGrade[grade]->exists
self.husband.gender = male ‘gender’ of the husband must be male.
‹ self.staffGrade[previous]->notEmpty
Boldface denotes OCL keyword, but has no
semantic import. ‹ self.staffGrade.gradeStartDate =

Company The size of the set of the property ‘CEO’ of a gradeChangeDate

self.CEO->size <= 1 company must be less than or equal to 1.
‹ self.staffGrade.previous.gradeFinishDate =
That is, a company cannot have more than 1
Chief Executive Officer. gradeChangeDate
Company The set of employees of a company whose
self.employee->select (age < 60) age is less than 60.
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Class Exercise Class Exercise
„ Why are non-algorithmic (or declarative) approaches „ What is an invariant?
generally preferred in object-oriented development?

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