Wind energy

 INTRODUCTION

Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with movement of large masses of air.
These motions result from uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, creating temperature, density
and pressure differences.
It is estimated that 1 per cent of all solar radiation falling on the face of the earth is converted into
kinetic energy of the atmosphere, 30 per cent of which occurs in the lowest 1000 m of elevation. It is
thus an indirect form of solar energy.
Wind energy can be available continuously throughout a 24-hour day for much longer periods, though
it can vary a great extent including no wind periods.
 It is a clean, cheap, and eco-friendly renewable source.
 The main disadvantages are that it is a dispersed, erratic and location-specific source.
 Wind energy is harnessed as mechanical energy with the help of a wind turbine.
 The mechanical energy thus obtained can either be used as such to operate farm appliances,
and water pumping or converted to electric power and used locally or fed to a grid.
 A generator coupled to a wind turbine is known as aero-generator.
 Very slow winds are useless, having no possibility of power generation.
 On the other hand, very strong stormy winds cannot be utilized due to safety of turbine.
Moderate to high speed winds, typically from 5 m/s to about 25 m/s are considered favorable
for most wind turbines
 The global potential in winds for large-scale grid-connected power generation has been
estimated as 9,000 TWh/year or 1 TWe (1T =10⌃12).
 Globally, wind energy has become a mainstream energy source and an important player in the
world’s energy markets, and it now contributes to the energy mix in more than 70 countries
across the globe.

 Major factors that have led to an accelerated development of wind power are as follows:
(i) Availability of high strength fiber composites for constructing large low-cost rotor
blades
(ii) Falling prices of power electronics
(iii) Variable speed operation of electrical generators to capture maximum energy
(iv) Improved plant operation, pushing the availability up to 95 per cent
(v) Economy of scale, as the turbines and plants are getting larger in size
(vi) Accumulated field experience (the learning curve effect) improving the capacity
factor
(vii) Short energy payback (or energy recovery) period of about one year

 ORIGIN OF WINDS
 The origin of winds may be traced basically to uneven heating of the earth’s surface due to
the sun.
 This may lead to circulation of widespread winds on a global basis, producing planetary
winds or may have a limited influence in a smaller area to cause local winds.
 Three types under origin of winds
 Global (or Planetary) Winds
 Local Winds
 Factors Affecting the Distribution of Wind Energy on the Surface of the Earth

 Global (or Planetary) Winds

Two major forces determine the speed and direction of wind on a global basis.
(i) The primary force for global winds is developed due to differential heating of the earth at
equatorial and polar regions.
 In the tropical regions, there is a net gain of heat due to solar radiation, whereas in the polar
 regions there is net loss of heat.
 This means that the earth’s atmosphere has to circulate to transport heat from tropics towards
the poles.
 On a global scale, these atmospheric currents work as an immense energy-transfer medium.
 Ocean currents act similarly, and are responsible for about 30% of this global heat transfer.

(ii) Spinning of the earth about its axis produces a coriolis force, (an effect whereby a mass moving
in a rotating system experiences a force acting perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the
axis of rotation), which is responsible for deviation of air currents towards the west. Between 30°N
and 30°S, heated air at the equator rises and is replaced by cooler air coming from the north and south.
This is known as Hadley circulation.
 Due to coriolis force, these winds deviate towards the west.
 These air currents are also known as trade winds because of their use in sailing ships for
trades in the past.
 There is little wind near the equator (±5°around it), as the air slowly rises upwards rather than
moving westward.
 Between 30°N(S) and 70°N(S) predominantly western winds are found.
 These winds form a wavelike circulation, transferring cold air southward and warm air
northward (in the northern hemisphere and vice versa in the southern hemisphere).
 This pattern is called Rossby circulation.

 Local Winds
 Localized uneven heating is responsible for local winds.
 The first is differential heating of land surface and water bodies due to solar radiation.
 During the day, solar energy is readily converted to sensible thermal energy on the land
surface and this quickly increases its temperature.
 Whereas, on water bodies it is partly consumed in evaporating water and only partly absorbed
to cause an increase in temperature.
 The land mass thus becomes hotter than water, which causes differential heating of air above
them.
 As a result, cool, heavier air blows from the water towards land.
 At night, the direction of wind is reversed as the land mass cools to sky more rapidly than the
water.
 This is the mechanism of shore breeze.
 The second mechanism of local winds is differential heating of slopes on the hillsides and
that of low lands.
 The slope heats up during the day and cools down during night more rapidly than the low
land.
This causes the heated air to rise along the slope during the day and relatively cool air to flow
down at night.

 Factors Affecting the Distribution of Wind Energy on the Surface of the Earth
 Several factors are responsible for distribution of wind energy on the surface of the earth.
  Some factors work globally while others have limited local influence.
 Both global and local factors influence the availability of wind energy at a particular site.
 The extent of influence of each factor varies from site to site.
(i) On the planetary level, great mountain masses influence the circulation of air currents
(ii) Surface roughness or friction, owing to the resistance that different elements of the earth’s
surface offer to air circulation affects the nature of wind.
 Hills, trees, buildings and similar obstructions impair streamline air flow.
 Turbulence results and the wind velocity in a horizontal direction gets markedly reduced.
 Frictional effect is less on smooth areas such as seas or large open areas and more in rough
urban areas with tall buildings or trees.
 Therefore, wind speed is quite high near the sea shore.
 (iii) Climatic disturbances such as down draught from thunder clouds and precipitation also
affect the local winds.
 (iv)Wind speed also increases while passing through narrow mountain gaps, where it gets
channeled.

 NATURE OF WINDS
 To be able to understand and predict the performance of wind turbines it is essential to have
some knowledge of the behavior and structure of wind.
 This is also required for proper design of a supporting structure to carry the imposed load
safely and at an economically viable cost.
 The behavior and structure of the wind varies from site to site depending on the general
climate of the region, the physical geometry of the locality, the surface condition of the terrain
around the site and various other factors.
 Rapid fluctuations in the wind velocity over a wide range of frequencies and amplitudes, due
to turbulence caused by mechanical mixing of lower layers of atmosphere by surface
roughness, are commonly known as gusts.
 The Beaufort scale, a wind-speed classification, gives a description of the effect of the wind.
 It was initially designed for sailors and described the sea state, but has been modified to
include wind effects on land.
 It is a useful guide to wind speed.

 Wind Data.
 All countries have national meteorological services that record and publish weather-
related data including wind speed and direction.
 Wind speed is measured by an anemometer and wind direction is measured by a wind
vane attached to a direction indicator.
 Anemometers work on one of the following principles.
 (i) The oldest and simplest anemometer is a swinging plate hung vertically and hinged along its
top edge. Wind speed is indicated by the angle of deflection of the plate with respect to the
vertical.
(ii) A cup anemometer consists of three or four cups mounted symmetrically about a vertical
axis. The speed of rotation indicates wind speed.
(iii) Wind speed can also be recorded by measuring the wind pressure on a flat plate.
(iv) A hot-wire anemometer measures the wind speed by recording cooling effect of the wind on
a hot wire. The heat is produced by passing an electric current through the wire.
(v) An anemometer can also be based on sonic effect. Sound travels through still air at a known
speed. However, if the air is moving, the speed decreases or increases accordingly.
(vi) The other more novel techniques include the laser anemometer, the ultrasonic anemometer
and the SODAR Doppler anemometer.
Fig. shows a typical anemograph of wind speed recorded at three heights—10 m, 50 m and 150 m—
during strong winds.
These main conclusions drawn are as follows
(i) Wind speed increases with height.
(ii) Wind speed is fluctuating with time, i.e., turbulences are present at the site.
(iii) The turbulence is spread over a broad range of frequencies.

 WIND T URBINE SITING

 The power available in wind increases rapidly with wind speed.
 Therefore, the main consideration for locating a wind-power generation plant is the
availability of strong and persistent wind.
 A suitable site should preferably have some of the following features:
 No tall obstructions for some distance (about 3 km) in the upwind direction (i.e., the direction
of incoming wind) and also as low a roughness as possible in the same direction
 A wide and open view i.e., open plain, open shoreline or off shore locations
 Top of smooth well-rounded hill with gentle slopes (about 1:3 or less) on a flat plain
 An island in a lake or the sea
 A narrow mountain gap through which wind is channeled
 Site reasonably close to power grid Soil conditions must be such that building of foundations
of the turbines and transport of road-construction materials loaded in heavy trucks is feasible.
 Production results of existing wind turbines in the area to act as a guide 8 to local wind
conditions.

 MAJOR APPLICATIONS OF WIND POWER

 Wind turbines have been built-in power output range from a kilowatt to a few MW to suit a
wide range of applications.
 Major applications may be grouped in three categories.
 Applications Requiring Mechanical Power
  As Off-Grid Electrical Power Source
 As Grid-Connected Electrical Power Source

 Applications Requiring Mechanical Power

 Wind Pumps
 Low-power turbines are used for producing mechanical power for pumping water in remote
areas. These are also known as wind pumps.
 Simple and reliable traditional reciprocating pumps or centrifugal pumps are used.
 These wind pumps are used to supply water for livestock, small-scale irrigation, low head
pumping for aquatic breeding and domestic water supply.
 Mechanical power is also used to operate farm appliances.
 Heating
 The direct dissipation of mechanical power produces heat with 100% efficiency using a
paddle wheel and other turbulent fluid systems.
 The available hot water is used as such or employed for space heating
 Sea Transport
 Modern racing yachts, with a subsurface keel, harness lift forces and are much more efficient
and can sail faster than the wind.
 Large cargo ships requiring power in MW range, driven by improved efficient sails, are now
being designed.
 Also, wind turbines are installed on board to power propellers in ferries operating on short
routes.

 As Off-Grid Electrical Power Source

(i) Machines of low power with a rotor diameter of about 3 m and 40–1000 W rating can
generate sufficient electrical energy for space heating and cooling of homes, water heating,
battery charging and for operating domestic appliances such as fan, lights and small tools.
(ii) Applications for somewhat more powerful turbines of about 50 kW are producing electrical
power for navigation signal (e.g., lighthouse), remote communication, weather stations and
offshore oil-drilling platforms.
(iii) Intermediate power range, roughly 100 to 250 kW aero-generators can supply power to
isolated populations, farm cooperatives, commercial refrigeration, desalination and to other
small industries.
 The generator may operate in stand-alone mode or may be connected to a mini-grid system.
(iv) For lifting water to a hill, aero-generator is installed on the top of hill and electrical energy is
transmitted to a pump fixed at a lower level.
 The same principle is utilized to store excess generated power using a pumped storage system
to be utilized later during no wind periods.

 As Grid-Connected Electrical Power Source
 Large aero-generators in the range of a few hundred kW to a few MW are planned for
supplying power to a utility grid.
 Large arrays of aero-generators, known as wind farms, are being deployed in open plains or
offshore in shallow water for this purpose.

 Forces on the Wind

Wind Velocity, uo : Velocity of free air in the neighborhood of a wind turbine (at a distance
where the disturbances due to the rotation of a turbine does not reach).
Incident Wind Velocity, u1 :Velocity of air passing through the rotor, i.e., the velocity at
which the wind strikes the blade. It is slightly less than uo .
Blade Element Linear Velocity, v : Linear circumferential velocity of the blade element due
to rotation of blade.
Relative Wind Velocity, vr :Velocity of air relative to the blade element as the both the air
and blade element move.
Incident Wind Velocity, u1 Velocity of air passing through the rotor, i.e., the velocity at
 which the wind strikes the blade. It is slightly less than uo .
Blade Element Linear Velocity, v Linear circumferential velocity of the blade element due
to rotation of blade.
Relative Wind Velocity, vr Velocity of air relative to the blade element as the both the air
and blade element move.
Angular Speed, ω Angular speed of rotor in rad/s.
Angle of Attack (or angle of incidence), α Angle between central line of the blade element
and relative wind velocity vr as shown in Fig.
Blade Setting Angle (pitch angle), γ Angle between central line of the blade element and
direction of linear motion of the blade element or angle between relative wind velocity vr and
normal to the plane of blade.
Drag Force, ∆FD Incremental force acting on the blade element in the direction of relative
velocity of wind.
Lift Force, ∆FL Incremental force acting on the blade element in a direction perpendicular to
the relative velocity of wind.
Axial Force, ∆FA Incremental force acting on the blade element along the axis of rotation of
the blade.
Tangential Force, ∆FT Incremental force acting on the blade element tangential to a circular
path of rotation.
Solidity Solidity is defined as the ratio of the projected area of the rotor blades on the rotor
plane to the swept area of the rotor.

 WIND ENERGY PROGRAMME IN INDIA

 The wind-energy programme was initiated in India in 1983–84.
 The programme has been managed and implemented by the Ministry of Non-conventional
Energy Sources, Government of India. The potential in wind has been estimated as 45,000
MW, assuming 1% of land available for wind-power generation in potential areas.
 Wind-resource assessment is a continuous process for identification of potential areas for
wind farming.
 There are 216 sites having wind-energy densities of 200 W/m2 (corresponding to wind speeds
of 6.93 m/s) and above at 50-m height.
 These have been identified as potential sites. The total installed wind-generation capacity in
India, as of July 2008, has reached 8696 MW.
 This sector has been growing at over 35% in the last three years. It is estimated that 6,000
MW of additional wind-power capacity will be installed in India by 2012.
 Despite the fact that wind power accounts for 6% of India’s total installed power capacity, it
generates only 1.6% of the country’s power.
 The state wise potential as well as installed capacity is given in Table
 The gross potential is estimated as 45,000 MW in the potential areas.
 However, the technical potential is limited to only13, 000 MW assuming 20% grid
 penetration, which will go up with the augmentation of grid capacity in potential states.
 Wind electric generators of unit sizes between 225 kW and 1.65 MW have been deployed
across the country.

 The power in the wind

 Wind possesses energy by virtue of its motion
 Any device capable of slowing down the mass of moving air like a sail or propeller can
extract part of the energy and convert is into useful work

Three factors determine the output from a wind energy converter

 The wind speed
 The cross section of wind swept by rotor
 The overall conversion efficiency of the rotor, transmission system and generator or
pump
 No device however well designed can extract all of the wind’s energy because the wind
would have to be brought to a halt and this would prevent the passage of more air through the
rotor.
 A 100% efficient aero generator would therefore only be able to convert up to a maximum of
around 60% of the available energy in wind into mechanical energy
 Well designed blades will typically extract 705 of the theoretical maximum but losses
incurred in the gearbox transmission system and generator or pump could decrease overall
wind turbine efficiency to 35% or less
 The power in the wind can be computed by using the concept of kinetics.
 The wind mill works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind to
mechanical energy.
 Power is equal to energy per unit time
 The kinetic energy of any particle is equal to one half its mass times the square of its velocity.

 The amount of air passing in unit time through an area A, with velocity V is AV and its mass
m is equal to its volume multiplied by its density ⍴ of air
M = ⍴AV
 Substituting the value in m we get

 The above equation tell us that the maximum wind available at the actual amount will be
somewhat less because all the available energy is not extractable is proportional to the
cube of the wind speed
 The above equation also tell us that the power available is proportional to air density (1.225
kg/m3 at sea level). It may vary 10-15 percent during the year because of pressure and
temperature change
 Equation also tells us that the wind power is proportional to the intercept area
  Thus an aero turbine with a large swept area has higher power than a smaller area machine
but there are added implications. Since the area is normally circular of diameter D in
horizontal axis aero turbines, then

Available wind power

 The equation tells us that the maximum power available from the wind varies according to
the square of the diameter of the intercept area normally taken to be swept area of the
aeroturbine.
 The equation tells us that the maximum power available from the wind varies according to the
square of the diameter of the intercept area normally taken to be swept area of the aeroturbine.

Power coefficient =

 Wind Energy Conversion

 Traditional windmills were used extensively in the Middle Ages to mill grain and lift water
for land drainage and watering cattle.
 Wind energy converters are still used for these purposes today in some of the world, but the
main focus of attention now lies with their use to generate electricity.
 There is also growing interest in generating heat from the wind for space and water heating
and for glass-houses but the potential market is much smaller than for electricity generation.
 The term "wind mill’ is still widely used to describe wind energy conversion systems,
however it is hardly an opt. description any more.
 Modern wind energy conversion systems are more correctly referred to as WECS',
'aerogenerators', 'wind turbine generators', or simply 'wind turbines'.
 There is a broad match between the energy supplied over any critical period and the energy
required.
 If the wind blows, the job gets done if it does not, the job waits.
 Operators or users of wind turbines must ensure that there is some form of back-up to cover
periods when there is insufficient (or too much) wind available.
 For small producers, back-up can take the form of:
(i) Battery storage;
(ii) connection with the local electricity distribution system; or
(iii) A stand-by generator powered by liquid or gaseous fuels.
 For utilities responsible for public supply, the integration of medium-sized and large wind
turbines into their distribution network could require some additional plant which is capable
of responding quickly to meet fluctuating demand.

 Small producers.
 Private citizens in several countries have won the right to operate wind generators and other
renewable energy systems and to export power to the grid.
 For most small wind generators this requires that the output is 'conditioned' so that it
conforms to the frequency and phase of the mains supply.
 Only a few small units are designed to maintain a constant rotational rate so that can be
synchronized to the mains frequency and feed electricity directly into the grid.
 Most produce direct current (DC) or variable output alternating current (AC)
 Power conditioning is readily achieved using an electronic black box called a 'synchronous
 'inverter, and although this is an expensive item of equipment, it does eliminate the need for
batteries and for conversion of home appliances to run on DC.
 Where there is no grid connection, electricity that is surplus to immediately requirements
must be stored on site using heavy duty batteries.
 It can be recovered later when the demand exceeds the supply.
 An alternative is to dump it (by generating and dissipating heat) or better, to convert it into
heat that can be stored, for example as hot water in a well insulated tank.
 Large producers
 Large and medium-sized wind generators are designed to give a stable and constant
electrical output over a wide range of wind speeds and to feed current directly into the grid.
 They operate primarily as fuel savers, reducing the utility's total fuel burn
 The choice of generator type depends on the size of the distribution grid and its associated
generating capacity.
 An induction generator would normally be used where there is significant amount of other
generating capacity
 Induction generators are robust and reliable and require minimal control equipment
 For isolated networks where other Local generating capacity is limited, and where a high
degree of autonomous control is required, a synchronous generator is more appropriate.
 Synchronous generators are more complex and therefore more expensive than induction
machines.

 Lift and drag

 The basis for wind energy conversion. The extraction of power, and hence energy, from the
wind depends on creating certain forces and applying them to rotate a mechanism.
 There are two primary mechanisms for producing forces
 By definition lift forces act perpendicular to the air flow, while drag forces act in the direction
of flow. Lift forces are produced by changing the velocity of the air stream flowing over
either side of the lifting surface
 Speeding up the air flow causes the pressure to while slowing the airstream down leads to
increase in pressure.
 In other words, any change in velocity generates a pressure difference across the lifting
surface.
 This pressure difference produces a force that begins to act on the high pressure side and
moves towards the low pressure side of the lifting surface which is called an airfoil
 The lift increases as the angle formed at the junction of the airfoil and the air-stream (the
angle of attack) becomes less and less actuate, upto the point where the angle of the air flow
on the low pressure side becomes excessive.
 When this happens, the air flow breaks away from the low pressure side
 A lot of turbulence ensues, the Phenomenon is known as stalling
 For efficient operation, a wind turbine blade needs to function with as much lift and as little
drag as thing more complex than deflecting the air flow, it is usually an efficient process.
 The design of each wind turbine specifies the angle at which the angle at which the airfoil
should be set to achieve the maximum life to drag ratio.
 In addition to airfoils there are two other mechanisms for creating lift.
 One is so called Magnus effect, caused by spinning a cylinder in an airstream at an high
speed of rotation

 Wind Data and Energy Estimation

 The seasonal as well as instantaneous changes in winds both with regard to magnitude and
direction need to be well understood to fluctuate by a factor of 2 or more within seconds
Therefore this calls for a proper recording and analysis of the wind characteristics.
 There are various ways the data on wind behavior is collected depending on the use it is
intended to be put into.
 The hourly mean wind velocity as collected by the meteorological observations is the basic
data used in a windmill designs.
  The hourly mean is the one averaged a particular hour of the day, over the day, month, year
and years.
 The factors which affect the nature of the wind close to the surface of earth, they are:
(i) latitude of the place,
(ii) altitude of the place,
(iii) topography of the place,
(iv) scale of the hours, month or year
 Winds being an unsteady phenomenon, the scale of the periods considered is an important set
off data required in the design. The hours mean velocity provides the data for establishing the
potential of the place for tapping the wind energy.
 The scale of the month is useful to indicate whether it is going to be useful during particular
periods of the year and what storage if necessary is to be provided for.
 The data based on scale of the hour is useful for mechanical aspects of design.
 Since the winds near the surface of the earth are derived from large scale movement of
atmospheric winds, the location height above ground level at which the wind is measured and
the nature of the surface on earth have an influence on the velocity of wind at any given time.
 The winds near the surface of the earth are interpreted in terms of boundary layer concept.
 The wind velocity at a given height can be represented in terms of gradient height and
velocity

 The values of Vg hg and n depends on the nature of the terrain

 Open terrain with few obstacles (open land, lake, shores, deserts etc)
 Terrain with uniformly covered obstacles (wood lands, small towns etc )
 Terrain with large and irregular objects (large city centres)
 The height of the windmill rotor depends on the design wind velocity and cost of supporting
structure.
 The above factors have a bearing on the design.
 Similarly, winds being an unsteady phenomenon, the scale of period considered for this the
temporal parameters (scale of hour, month and year) is an important set of data required in the
design.
 While the hourly mean velocity provides the data for establishing the potential of the place for
tapping the wind energy
 In addition to the data on the hourly mean velocity, two other informations required are:
-Spells of low wind speeds, and
-gusts
 A Number of criteria can be applied in estimating the importance of wind potential as a
function of height and location.
 First of all careful siting is important because wind speed near the ground is greatly
 affected by houses, trees and similar features as stated above.
 Wind speed increases with height above ground, if the rate of increase being about the same
at all locations.
 Therefore, if the wind speed at a given height is known, the speed at any other height may be
evaluated.
 Surface wind data on a national or regional basis is usually presented in the forms of:
(i) Isovents or contours of constant average wind velocity (m/sec or km/hr)
 The averaging period seen in the literature varies widely quarterly, and yearly averages are
commonly seen.
 It is important to know what the data averaging period is when examining a given isovent
contour map, for the winds change seasonally
 Here wind velocity zones are marked. It is seen that only some parts of the country have
reasonably good velocity
(ii) Isodynes are contours of constant wind power (watts/m² of area perpendicular to the wind flow)
 Again it is important to know the averaging period.
Wind Surveys
 Typical wind measurements at potential sites wind machines usually require the following.
(1) Instrumentation
 3 cup anemometer and wind direction sensors.
 Height of instruments; 10 m (30 feet) for preliminary data ; 15 m To 45 m (50 to 150 feet) for
long time data.
(2) Data recording systems:
 Strip chart
 Magnetic tap
(3) Type of data
Wind speed and directional-hourly averages
(4) Data reporting
Wind frequency curves
Daily, weekly, monthly

Energy Estimation
The basic wind data of hourly mean wind velocity is recost into-number of hours in the year for which
the speed equals or exceeds each particular value.
-annual hours of duration of various wind speed
 The first of these plotted amongst the hours in the year is called the velocity- duration curve.
 The replot of this on V³ basis is called the power duration curve (V³ being proportional to P)
 These curves are useful for establishing the wind energy potential of a place and the design
wind speed.

 The plot of the second form of data of number of hours for which a wind velocity of a
particular value is available is called the frequency duration curve.
 This curve is useful in deciding the design wind speed for a given site once the type of
windmill is decided and its performance is known the data is also useful in estimating the
actual energy output of the plant.

 The three speeds associated with the design of a wind mill are
Ve-cut in speed, the speed below which the wind mill does net operate
Vd-design speed, the speed for which the rotor is designed.
Vf-furling speed, the speed at which the rotor is turned away from facing the wind or stopped
otherwise with a view to protect the windmill.
All these speeds have a bearing on the mean wind velocity the of the place.
 Another reference speed is the rated velocity Vrat at which the plant output is maximum
 The three speeds are marked on fig.
 The hatched area a b c d e represents the annual energy output from an ideal plant.
 Area A B C D represents the output obtainable from an ideal plant, if the windmill were to
operate at the design speed all the time.
 The ratio of areas a b c d e / A B C D is the annual load factor of the plant.

 In practice, the actual output will be smaller than that represented by area a b e d e due to the
inability of the rotor to convert the entire kinetic energy available in the wind.
 This is represented by Cp, which varies as a function of velocity having the maximum value
at the design wind speed
Where 𝜕𝑇 is the time increment since the data is usually available in the form of hours for which
each mean velocity is available , the expression takes the form

 Site Selection Considerations

 The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed, hence wind machines
should be located preferable in areas where the winds are strong and persistent.
 The major contribution to the wind power available at a given site is actually made by winds
with speeds above the average.
 The most suitable sites for wind turbines would be found in areas where the annual average
wind speeds are known to be moderately high or high.
 Main considerations for site selection are
 High annual average wind speed.
 A fundamental requirements to the successful use of WECS, obviously, is an-adequate
 The wind velocity is the critical parameter.
 The power in the wind 𝑃𝒘 through a given cross sectional area for a uniform wind velocity V
is
𝑷𝒘= K𝑽^𝟑 where K is constant
 It is evident, because of the cubic dependence on wind velocity that small increases in V
markedly affect the power wind, e.g. doubling V, increases 𝑃𝒘 by a factor of 8
 It is obviously desirable to select a site for WECS with high wind velocity.
 Availability of anemometry data
 It is another important siting actor.
 The principal object is to measure the wind speed which determines the WECS output power,
but there are many practical difficulties with the instrumentation and measurement methods.
 The anemometer height above ground, accuracy, linearity location on the support tower,
shadowing and inaccurate readings.
 There from, icing inertia of rotor whether it measures the horizontal velocity component or
vertical, and temperature effects are a few of the many difficulties encountered.
 The anemometry data should be avail over sometime period at the precise spot where any
proposed WECS is to be built and that this should be accomplished before a siting decision is
made.
 Availability of wind Vt curve at the proposed site
 The important curve determines the maximum energy in the wind and hence is the principal
initially controlling factor in predicting the electrical output and hence revenue return of the
WECS machine.
 The Vt curve also determines the reliability of the delivered WECS generator power, for if the
Vt curve goes to zero there will be no generated power during that time.
 Wind Structures at the proposed site
 The ideal case for the WECS would be a site such that the Vt curve was flat i.e a smooth
steady wind that blows all the time but a typical site is always less than ideal.
 Wind especially near the ground is turbulence and gusty, and changes rapidly in direction and
in velocity.
 This departure from homogeneous flow is collectively referred to as “ the structure of the
wind
 Altitude of the proposed site
 It affects the air density and thus the power in the wind and hence the useful WECS electric
power output.
 Also as is well known the winds tens to have higher velocities at higher altitudes.
 Terrain and its aerodynamic
 If the WECS is to placed near the top but not on the top of too blunt hill facing the prevailing
wind then it may be possible to obtain a speed up of the wind velocity over what it would
otherwise be.
 The wind may not flow in horizontal making it necessary to tip the rotor so that the aero
turbine is always perpendicular to the actual wind flow.
 Local Ecology
 If the surface is bare rock it may mean lower hub heights hence lower structure cost.
 If tree or grass are present all of which tend to destructure the wind then the higher hub
heights will be needed resulting in larger system costs than the bars ground case.
 Distance to Roads or Railways
 This is another favour the system engineer must consider for heavy machinery, structures
materials, blades and other apparatus wioll have to be moved into any chosen WECS site
 Nearness of the site to load centres
 This is obvious criterion minimizes transmission line length and hence losses and costs.
 Nature of Ground
 Ground condition should be such that foundation for WECS are secured.
 Ground surface should be stable.
 Favorable Land Cost
 Land cost should be favorable as this along with other siting costs, enters into the total
WECS system cost
Wind Energy Scenario – World and India