SKELETAL

SYSTEM
GROUP 3
FUNCTIONS
The skeletal system has four components: bones, cartilage, tendons,
and ligaments.

1. Body support
2. Organ protection.
3. Body movement.
4. Mineral storage.
5. Blood cell production
CARTILAGE
There are three types of cartilage:
- Hyaline cartilage
- Fibrocartilage
- Elastic cartilage

Each type of cartilage can provide support, hyaline cartilage is most

intimately associated with bone.
 HYALINE CARTILAGE – chondroblasts secrete a matrix, which
surrounds the chondroblasts. Once the matrix has surrounded the
chondroblast, it has differentiated into a chondrocyte

CHONDROCYTES – are rounded cells that occupy a space called a

lacuna.

Most cartilage is covered by a protective connective tissue sheath

called the perichondrium.
Perichondrium is a double-layered outer layer of dense irregular
connective tissue containing fibroblasts.
Articular cartilage, which is hyaline cartilage that covers the ends of
bones where they come together to form joints, has no perichondrium,
blood vessels, or nerves.

There are two types of cartilage growth:

APPOSITIONAL GROWTH – chondroblasts in the perichondrium add

new cartilage to the outside edge of the existing cartilage.

INTERSTITIAL GROWTH – chondrocytes in the center of the tissue

divide and add more matrix in between the existing cells.
HYALINE CARTILAGE
BONE HISTOLOGY
BONE MATRIX – is the structural framework of bone, made up of
organic and inorganic materials that provide bone with both flexibility
and strength.

Organic Material (35%): Consists mainly of collagen and proteoglycans.

Inorganic Material (65%): Primarily hydroxyapatite (a calcium

phosphate crystal). Hydroxyapatite provides the bone with its rigidity
and strength, making it capable of bearing weight.
EFFECTS OF CHANGING BONE
MATRIX
BONE CELL
OSTEOBLASTS – are cells responsible for building new bone. They
create and mineralize the bone matrix, which strengthens bones.

OSTEOCYTES – are mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts. They

are the most abundant bone cell type and are responsible for
maintaining the bone matrix.

OSTEOCLASTS – are bone-destroying cells that break down bone tissue.

This process, called bone resorption, releases important minerals like
calcium and phosphate into the bloodstream.
ORIGIN OF BONE CELL
MESENCHYMAL CELLS – are early cells in the embryo that develop into
different types of connective tissue, including bone.

OSTEOCHONDRAL PROGENITOR CELLS – are stem cells that can

develop into osteoblasts (bone-building cells) or chondroblasts
(cartilage-forming cells).

Osteoblasts come from osteochondral progenitor cells, while

osteocytes develop from osteoblasts.
OSTEOCLASTS CELLS – are responsible for bone resorption, come from
stem cells in red bone marrow, not from osteochondral progenitor
cells.

BONE FORMATION (ossification) happens at multiple times in life, such

as during fetal development, growth, and fracture repair.

There are two types of bone formed during ossification:

Woven bone
Lamellar bone
WOVEN BONE is the first type of bone that osteoblasts form during
ossification. It is fairly weak bone because the collagen fibers are
randomly oriented in many directions.

LAMELLAR BONE is mature bone. It is organized into thin, concentric

sheets or layers approximately 3–7 micrometers thick called lamellae.
SPONGY AND COMPACT BONE
SPONGY BONE – Appears porous and consists of interconnecting rods
or plates of bone called trabeculae. Contains less bone matrix and
more space than compact bone.

FUNCTION: Trabeculae are oriented along lines of mechanical stress to

help absorb force. Spaces between trabeculae are filled with bone
marrow and blood vessels.
OSTEOCYTES: Located in lacunae
between the lamellae of the
trabeculae and obtain nutrients
through canaliculi.

ADAPTATION: Trabecular pattern

can realign with changes in
mechanical stress within a bone.

Compact bone is the solid, outer

layer surrounding each bone.
OSTEON (HAVERSIAN SYSTEM)
CENTRAL CANAL: Contains blood vessels, nerves, and connective
tissue, running parallel to the long axis of the bone.

CONCENTRIC LAMELLAE: Rings of bone matrix that surround the

central canal (4 to 20 layers per osteon).

OSTEOCYTES: Located in lacunae between lamellae, connected by

small channels called canaliculi to exchange nutrients.
OTHER FEATURES OF COMPACT BONE
CIRCUMFERENTIAL LAMELLAE is a thin layers of bone matrix around
the outer surface of the bone.

INTERSTITIAL LAMELLAE: Remnants of old osteons, filling spaces

between current osteons.

PERFORATING (VOLKMANN) CANALS: Run perpendicular to the bone's

length, delivering blood to the central canals of osteons.
FUNCTION

NUTRIENT DELIVERY: Blood vessels from central and perforating canals

provide nutrients to osteocytes, which exchange nutrients and remove
waste via canaliculi.

STRENGTH: Provides bone strength, protection for organs, and stores

minerals like calcium.
BONE ANATOMY
DIAPHYSIS – center portion of the bone. Composed of compact bone
surrounding a hollow center called medullary cavity.

EPIPHYSES – ends of the long bone, mostly spongy bone with a

compact outer layer bone.

ARTICULAR CARTILAGE – found within the joints, the end of the long
bone covered with hyaline cartilage.
EPIPHYSEAL PLEAT – known as the growth plate. Located between
epiphysis and diaphysis. Growth in bone length.
EPIPHYSEAL LINE – when epiphyseal plate becomes ossified. Occurs
when bones stop growing in length.

The cavities of spongy bone and the medullary cavity are filled with
marrow :
1. Red Marrow – cite of blood formation
2. Yellow Marrow – mostly adipose of tissue and fat cell which
serves as energy.

Ex. Part of the Hipbone (ilium) contain 50% red marrow and 50% yellow
marrow.
PERIOSTERUM – the outer fibrous is dense irregular collagenous tissue
that contains blood vessels and nerves. The inner layer is a single layer
bone cell; osteoblast, osteoclast, osteochondral progenitor cell.

PERFORATING FIBERS – bundles of collagen fibers. They strengthen the

attachments of the tendons or ligaments on the bone. Also called as
Sharpey fibers.

ENDOSTEUM – single layer of connective tissues that lines in the

internal surface of all cavities. Includes osteoblast, osteoclast,
osteochondral progenitor cell.
STRUCTURES OF FLAT, SHORT AND
IRREGULAR BONES
SINUSES – lined by the mucous membrane. Within some flat and
irregular bones of the skull filled with air.
BONE GROWTH
Bones increase in size only by appositional growth, the formation of
new bone on the surface of older bone or cartilage.

GROWTH IN BONE LENGTH – long bones grow in length at the

epiphyseal plate (growth plate) through several zones:

1. RESTING ZONE: Chondrocytes act as a reserve for growth.

2. PROLIFERATION ZONE: Chondrocytes rapidly divide, stacking
in columns to form new cartilage.
3. HYPERTROPHY ZONE: Chondrocytes enlarge, creating a gradient
of younger to older cells.
4. CALCIFICATION ZONE: Chondrocytes die, and the cartilage
hardens.
5. BONE FORMATION: Osteoblasts replace calcified cartilage with
new bone.
GROWTH IN ARTICULAR CARTILAGE – bones grow at the ends
(epiphyses) due to articular cartilage, which helps them increase in size.
This growth process is similar to the growth at the epiphyseal plate,
though it’s less organized.

GROWTH IN BONE WIDTH - Long bones grow in width through

appositional growth beneath the periosteum:

1. FORMATION OF RIDGES: Osteoblasts in the periosteum

create bone ridges, forming grooves around blood vessels.
2. TUNNEL FORMATION: As the ridges grow, they meet and
form a tunnel around the blood vessel, with the tunnel lined by
a new layer, the endosteum.

3. OSTEON CREATION: Osteoblasts in the endosteum lay down

concentric layers (lamellae), filling in the tunnel and forming
an osteon around the blood vessel.
FACTORS AFFECTING BONE GROWTH
Bone growth depends on genetic factors but can be heavily influenced
by nutrition and hormones:

1. Nutrition: Vitamin D, C, calcium and other minerals.

2. Hormones: Growth, Thyroid, Reproductive Growth
BONES REMODELLING
osteoclasts remove old bone and osteoblasts deposit new bone. Bone
remodeling converts woven bone into lamellar bone and is involved in
several important functions, including bone growth, changes in bone
shape, adjustment of the bone to stress, bone repair, and calcium ion
(Ca2+ ) regulation in the body.

Bone multicellular units (BMUs), made up of osteoclasts and

osteoblasts, manage this remodeling
MECHANICAL STRESS AND BONE
STRENGTH
Stress stimulates osteoblasts to increase bone density, while lack of
stress reduces osteoblast activity, allowing osteoclasts to reduce bone
density. When a person is inactive, bones lose density because
osteoblasts are less active.
BONE FRACTURE CLASSIFICATION
AND REPAIR
Mechanism of fracture - The first criterion for bone fracture type falls
under the category of the mechanism by which the fracture occurred.
There are three primary ways fractures can occur:

(1) through a trauma to the bone (traumatic),

(2) through a pathology (disease) of the bone (pathologic), or
(3) at a location of an implant on the bone (periprosthetic).
Soft Tissue damage - There are two main types:
(1) Closed (stable or simple): In a closed fracture, there is no visible
damage to the skin at the injury site;
(2) Open (compound): In an open fracture, there is visible damage to
the skin at the trauma site, possibly including a fragment of the
fracture bone protruding from the skin.

Displaced vs. Non-displaced -

(1) displaced, where the ends of the bones are offset from each other
and are not aligned anatomically; and
(2) nondisplaced, where the ends of the bone remain in anatomical
alignment.
Fractured pattern -
1. Linear Fracture—runs parallel to the length of the bone
2. Spiral Fracture—results from twisting of one part of the bone
3. Avulsion Fracture—separation of a bone fragment from the
rest of the bone
4. Stress (hairline) Fracture—incomplete fracture resulting from
overuse of the bone
5. Compression Fracture—the bone collapses; common in
spongy bone, often due to weakening of the bone such as in
osteoporosis
Number and Arrangements of Bone Fragments
1. Incomplete Fracture—a fracture that only traverses part of the
bone
2. Complete Fracture—a fracture that completely separates the
bone into at least two fragments
3. Comminuted Fracture—a fracture where the bone breaks into
multiple fragments

Age specific - Some fracture types occur mainly in children because

their bones contain more organic matrix relative to inorganic matrix.
BONE REPAIR
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
Calcium is extremely important in our body. Especially to our excitable
tissues such as our heart and our skeletal muscle. The amount of
calcium determines how well the muscle contracts.

CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS – where our bones crush in the process of

osteoclast, which releases Blood calcium.
PARATHYROID HORMONE – secreted from parathyroid glands

CALCITRIOL – Functional Vitamin D. Steroid Hormone derived from

Vitamin D3

CALCITONIN – secreted from C cells in the thyroid gland when blood

Ca2+ levels are too high
AXIAL SKELETON
The AXIAL SKELETON consists of the bones of the skull, the auditory
ossicles, the hyoid bone, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage
(rib cage).

The AXIAL SKELETON forms the central axis of the body. It protects the
brain, the spinal cord, and the vital organs housed within the thorax
SKULL
consists of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones, a total of 22
bones.

The cranial bones, or cranium, house and protect the brain.

Both the exterior and the interior of the skull have visible ridges
and lines.
The cranial bones are connected by immovable joints called SUTURES
There are four principal sutures:
(1) coronal,
(2) sagittal
(3) lambdoid
(4) squamous

The top of the skull, called the CALVARIA, is often removed to view the
interior of the skull.
CRANIAL BONE
The 8 bones of the cranium include:

• FRONTAL BONE
- is connected to the two parietal bones by the coronal suture.
- The frontal bone is most well known at the “forehead.”
- The superior border of each of the orbits contains a
supraorbital foramen, or notch
• PARIETAL BONES
- The paired parietal bones form nearly half of the superior
portion of the skull.
- The two parietal bones are joined medially by the sagittal
suture and are connected to the occipital bone by the lambdoid
suture.
Two sets of muscle attachment sites, the superior temporal line
and the inferior temporal line.
TEMPORAL BONES
are connected to the skull by the squamous sutures.

The term temporal means “related to time”; the temporal bone’s name
is derived from the observation that the hair on the temples turns gray
as a person ages.

The temporal bone is subdivided into three main regions: squamous

part, tympanic part and petrous part.
The SQUAMOUS PART of each temporal bone meets the parietal bone
superiorly.

- The zygomatic process extends from the squamous part

anteriorly toward the zygomatic bone of the face.

- It joins with the temporal process of the zygomatic bone to

form the zygomatic arch, a bridge across the side of the skull.

- The zygomatic process has an oval-shaped fossa on the inferior

side, called the mandibular fossa.
The TYMPANIC PART of the temporal bone has the prominent external
acoustic meatus

- Which transmits sound waves toward the eardrum, or tympanic

membrane. The external ear surrounds the external acoustic
meatus.
The PETROUS PART of the temporal bone extends posterolaterally from
the center of the sphenoid bone.

- The petrous part, together with the sphenoid bone make up

the middle cranial fossa, which contains the temporal lobes of
the brain.

- The internal acoustic meatus is located on the posteromedial

surface of the petrous part and is the opening for a nerve
controlling hearing and balance.
Externally, the MASTOID PROCESS is a large, bony inferior projection
that can be seen and felt just posterior to the external ear. This process
is not solid bone, but is filled with cavities called mastoid air cells.

The STYLOID PROCESS projects from the inferior of the petrous part of
the temporal bone. The styloid process serves as an attachment site for
three muscles necessary for movement of the tongue, hyoid bone, and
pharynx.

The STYLOMASTOID FORAMEN is located between the styloid process

and mastoid process and allows for passage of a nerve controlling facial
muscles.
three additional important foramina on the inferior side of the
petrous part:

- The JUGULAR FORAMINA allow the jugular veins to carry the

majority of the blood away from the brain.

- The CAROTID CANALS are the major entry point for blood
delivery to the brain.

- The FORAMEN LACERUM is an easily noticeable opening in a

dried skull at the border of the petrous part and the sphenoid
bone.
OCCIPITAL BONE
• The occipital bone makes up the majority of the skull’s posterior wall
and base.
• Its most prominent feature is the foramen magnum (large hole), the
opening where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord.
• This region also forms the posterior cranial fossae that support the
cerebellum of the brain
• Externally, two rounded projections on either side of the foramen
magnum are the occipital condyles
SPHENOID BONE
Although appearing to be two bones, one on each side of the skull
anterior to the temporal bone, the sphenoid bone

When viewed as a whole, the sphenoid bone somewhat resembles a

butterfly with four parts:
(1) a central body
(2) a pair of processes called the greater wings
(3) a pair of processes called the lesser wings
(4) inferior processes called the pterygoid (ter′i-goyd; wing-
shaped) processes
ETHMOID BONE
The ethmoid bone is appropriately named because it is a very porous,
fragile bone.

It is centrally located in the skull, forming the NASAL SEPTUM (wall)

The CRISTA GALLI is a prominent superior ridge of the ethmoid bone.

The crista galli is an attachment site for the meninges of the brain.
Specialized Regions in the Skull
Cranial Fossae

1. The anterior cranial fossa, which is formed by regions of the frontal

bone, the ethmoid bone, and the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone.

2. The middle cranial fossa encompasses the area from the posterior
portion of the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone to the petrous part of
the temporal bone.

3. The posterior cranial fossa is bordered anteriorly by the posterior

portion of the petrous part of the temporal bone, posteriorly by the
occipital bone, and laterally by the parietal bone.
• Paranasal Sinuses
- Considered together, the sinuses found in the frontal bone, the
ethmoid bone, the sphenoid bone, and the maxilla are called the
paranasal sinuses.
• Orbits
- The orbits are cone-shaped fossae, each with a posterior-facing
apex. They are called the orbits because the eyes rotate within
the fossae.
• Nasal Cavity
- The cavity has a rounded opening anteriorly and is separated
• Facial Bones
- The facial bones protect the major sensory organs located in
the face: the eyes, nose, and tongue. These bones also provide
attachment point for muscles controlling mastication, facial
expressions associated with our emotions, and eye movements
• Zygomatic Bones
- commonly known as the cheekbones, are anterior to the
sphenoid bone. There they form part of the inferolateral border
of the orbits.
• Maxillae
- is anterior and inferior to the zygomatic bones and the two
maxillae are fused medially
- The maxillae are two of the three jaw bones, and form (1) the
upper jaw, (2) the majority of the roof of the mouth, and (3) the
center portion of the face.
• Palatine Bones
- have horizontal plates that fuse medially to form the posterior
portion of the hard palate as described earlier with the maxillae.
• Lacrimal Bones
- are the smallest of the skull bones and house the depression
through which the nasolacrimal duct enters the nasolacrimal
canal, joining the orbits and nasal cavity.
• Nasal Bones
- The nasal bones, along with the frontal processes of the
maxillae, form the bridge of the nose.
• Mandible
- is the only skull bone that is freely movable relative to the other
skull bones.
• Vomer
- forms most of the posterior portion of the nasal septum and
can be seen between the medial pterygoid plates of the
sphenoid bone in the center of the nasal cavity.
• Inferior Nasal Conchae
- The inferior nasal concha, as discussed with the ethmoid bone,
is one of the three conchae in the nasal cavity that provide
increased surface area.
• Hyoid Bone
- is important for speech and swallowing. Some tongue muscles
as well as neck muscles that elevate the larynx attach to the
hyoid.
• Vertebral Column
performs five major functions:
(1) It supports the weight of the head and trunk,
(2) it protects the spinal cord,
(3) it allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord,
(4) it provides a site for muscle attachment, and
(5) it permits movement of the head and trunk.
• The vertebral arch is divided into left and right halves:

• the pedicle, which is attached to the body

• the lamina, which forms the posterior portion of the vertebral

foramen

• A transverse process extends laterally from each side of the arch

between the lamina and the pedicle
• Intervertebral Disks
Intervertebral disks are composed of fibrocartilage, and are located
between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae.
• Cervical Vertebrae
are located in the vertebral column region with the greatest range of
motion. These vertebrae support and move the head.

The first two cervical vertebrae include (1) the atlas (C1) and (2) the axis
(C2)
• Thoracic Vertebrae
support the thoracic cage, which houses and protects the heart and
lungs.
• Lumbar Vertebrae
- support the majority of the body’s weight
- They have massive bodies and heavy, rectangular transverse
and spinous processes.
• Sacrum
located between the two hip bones
It articulates with each hip bone by way of the auricular surfaces,
forming the sacroiliac joint.
• Coccyx
- is commonly referred to as the tailbone
- It is the terminal portion of the vertebral column
• Thoracic Cage
- commonly called the rib cage, protects the heart and lungs
within the thorax
- consists of (1) the thoracic vertebrae, (2) the ribs with their
associated costal (rib) cartilages, and (3) the sternum.
• Ribs and Costal Cartilages

- There are 12 pairs of ribs.

- Ribs are classified as either true ribs or false ribs.
- Ribs 1–7 are called true ribs.
- True ribs attach directly through costal cartilage to the sternum.
- Ribs 8–12 are called false ribs because they do not attach
directly to the sternum.
• Sternum
has been described as sword shaped and has three parts:
(1) The manubrium is the “sword handle”;
(2) the body, or gladiolus , is the “blade”; and
(3) the xiphoid process
APPENDICULAR SKELETAL

The appendicular skeleton is composed of

126 bones of the limbs (appendages), the
pectoral and pelvic girdles.
• PECTORAL OR SHOULDER GIRDLE
- Connects arms to the body
- consists of two clavicle and
two scapula
• Clavicles (Collar bone)
- The clavicle acts as a brace to hold the arm away from the top of the
thorax and helps prevent shoulder dislocation
- Each clavicle attaches to the manubrium of the sternum medially (at
its sternal end) and to the scapula laterally, where it helps to form the
shoulder joint.
• Scapulae (Shoulder blades)
- Broad, flat triangles.
- Articulate with arm and collarbone.

Structures of scapulae
has three angles (borders and corners)— superior, inferior, and
lateral.
• Glenoid cavity
- a shallow socket that receives the head of the arm bone, is in
the lateral angle
-to form the shoulder joint by articulating with the head of the
humerus, the upper arm bone
the two important processes of scapula:

- the acromion process- which is the enlarged lateral end of the

spine of the scapula. connects to the acromioclavicular joint

- the coracoid process - is a hook-shaped bone projection on the

scapula that helps stabilize the shoulder joint.
• Upper Limbs
- consist of arms, forearms, wrist, and hands
• Arm
Structure:
Humerus -The arm is formed by a single bone, the humerus its
proximal end is a rounded head that fits into the shallow glenoid
cavity of the scapula.

Anatomical Neck – Immediately inferior to the head is a slight

constriction
Anterolateral to the head are two bony projections separated by the
intertubercular sulcus—the greater tubercle and lesser tubercle, which are
sites of muscle attachment.

SURGICAL NECK- distal to the tubercles

DELTOID TUBEROSITY- roughened area in the midpoint of the shaft

RADIAL GROOVE- runs obliquely down the posterior aspect of the shaft.
radial nerve, an important nerve of the upper limb
EFFECTS OF AGING
EFFECTS OF AGING IN THE SKELETAL SYSTEM – the most significant
age-related changes in the skeletal system affect the quality and
quantity of bone matrix.

HYDROXYAPATITE – is the mineral found in your bone that gives

compression (weight-bearing) strength. But due to the collagen fibers,
it makes the bone flexible.
BONE MASS is at its highest around age 30, and men generally have
denser bones than women due to the effects of testosterone and
greater body weight.

TESTOSTERONE promotes bone growth and density. Men have

significantly higher levels of testosterone than women, contributing to
their denser bones

BODY WEIGHT: Greater body weight puts more stress on bones,

stimulating bone growth and density.
TRABECULAE (means little beams) provides support, internal to this is
spongy bone (also called trabecular bone), i honeycomb of small
needle-like or flat pieces.
More sedentary individuals experience greater bone loss, meaning
their bones become less dense and weaker over time. Here's why:

WEIGHT-BEARING ACTIVITY: When we engage in weight-bearing

activities like walking, running, or lifting weights, our bones are
subjected to stress. This stress signals the body to build stronger bones
to withstand the load.

SEDENTARY LIFESTYLE: A sedentary lifestyle with limited weight-

bearing activity doesn't provide this stimulus for bone growth. Without
the regular stress, bones start to lose mineral density and become
thinner and weaker.
A slow loss of compact bone (external layer) begins about age 40 and
increases after age 45

Bones become thinner, but their outer dimensions change little,

because most compact bone is lost under endosteum on the inner
surface of the bone.

In a young bone, when osteons are removed, new osteons fill the
spaces. With aging, new osteons fail to completely fill in the spaces
produced when older osteons are removed.

Bone loss increases the likelihood of bone fractures, deformity, loss of

height, pain, and stiffness.
SKELETAL SYSTEM PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
TUMORS – May be malignant or benign and cause a range of bone
defects.

Here's an example of a benign and a malignant bone tumor:

BENIGN

OSTEOCHONDROMA – If you break down the word from its ancient

Greek origins: "osteo" = bone, "chondro" = cartilage, and "oma" =
tumor.
It is a benign (noncancerous) tumor that develops during childhood or
adolescence. It is an abnormal growth that forms on the surface of a
bone near the growth plate.

MALIGNANT

OSTEOSARCOMA – is the most common type of bone cancer that often

develops in the osteoblast cells that form new bone.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS

GIGANTISM – Abnormally
increased body size due to
excessive growth at the
epiphyseal plates.
DWARFISM –
Abnormally small body
size due to improper
growth at the epiphyseal
plates.
OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA
– also known as brittle bone
disorder. This connective
tissue disease is caused by
mutations that yield reduced
or defective type I collagen,
a protein essential for bone
strength.
RICKETS – Growth
retardation due to nutritional
deficiencies in minerals
(Ca2+) or vitamin D; results in
bones that are soft, weak,
and easily broken.
BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
OSTEOMYELITIS – A bacterial
infection in bone, usually the
aggressive pathogen
Staphylococcus aureus is the
causative organism.

TUBERCULOSIS – Typically, a
lung bacterium that can also
affect bone.
DECALCIFICATION
OSTEOMALACIA –
Softening of adult bones
due to calcium
depletion; often caused
by vitamin D deficiency
DECALCIFICATION
OSTEOPOROSIS – or porous
bone, is a loss of bone matrix.
The loss of bone mass makes
bones so porous and weakened
that they become deformed
and prone to fracture. The
occurrence of osteoporosis
increases with age.