STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Charged Particles in Matter:- The phenomenon of static electricity and conduction of electricity
through some substances hints at the presence of charged particles in matter.

Sub-atomic Particles:- Although Dalton proposed that atoms are indivisible, but in later times,
Scientists found that atoms can be further divided into even smaller particles called the sub-atomic
particles.

 The particles found inside an atom that are responsible for forming the structure of an atom
are called sub-atomic particles. Three fundamental sub-atomic particles are-
1. Negatively charged electron
2. Positively charged proton
3. Electrically neutral neutron

Feature/ Electron Proton Neutron

Property/Characteristics
Discovered by J.J.Thomson - 1897  E. Goldstein James Chadwick - 1932
(by cathode rays discovered (by bombarding a thin
experiment ) evidence of sheet of Beryllium
proton in 1886 by 𝛼- particles)
(by Anode rays/
Canal rays
experiment)
 E. Rutherford
(gold foil test)
Symbol 𝑒 − or e 𝑝+ or p n or 𝑛0
Nature Negatively Charged Positively Charged Electrically Neutral
Absolute Charge***** -1.602 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 C +1.602 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 C 0
(calculated by Robert E.
Millikan from oil drop
test)
Relative Charge -1 +1 0
Absolute Mass(in amu)* 𝟏 1.00727 u 1.00867 u
𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟎
u ≈ 0.00054 u

Absolute Mass(in kg)** 9.11× 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 kg 1.673 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg 1.675 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg

Location inside the atom In the shells outside Inside Nucleus Inside Nucleus
Nucleus
*** 1 amu = 1.66 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg

 Nucleons:- Since protons and neutrons are particles that are found inside the nucleus, so
they are also known as “nucleons”.

***Mass of proton is approximately 2000 times (more accurately 1840 times) the mass of electron.

*Canal Rays:- Canal rays are positively charged radiations which consist of positively charged
particles of atoms (protons) . They can pass through the perforated (pierced) cathode and then
travel towards another cathode in a gas discharge tube.

***They were given the name Canal rays by E.Goldstein in 1886 who discovered these radiations.
  In atoms, number of protons = number of electrons. But in ions (cation -positive or anion-
negative), number of protons ≠ number of electrons.

*****THOMSON’S MODEL OF AN ATOM

→ Also known as “watermelon model” or “plum pudding model” or “raisin pudding model”

Thomson proposed the model of an atom to be similar to that of a Christmas pudding or

watermelon. Thomson proposed that:

1. An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
2. The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is
electrically neutral.

*****Limitations of Thomson’s atomic model:-

 The results of experiments carried out by other scientists could not be explained by this
model.
 This model did not mention anything about the nucleus of an atom.
 This model failed to explain how the positive charge holds on the electrons inside the atom.
He selected gold because he wanted as thin a layer
Rutherford’s Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment :-
as possible. This gold foil was about 1000 atoms
Ernest Rutherford designed an experiment to know how thethick.
electrons are arranged within an atom.
This experiment is famously known as the alpha particle scattering experiment or the gold foil test.
In this experiment, fast moving alpha (𝛼) particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil. Since the 𝛼
particles were much heavier than the protons, he did not expect to see large deflections.

Discovery of atomic
nucleus

***𝜶 particles: - 𝛼 particles are doubly charged

helium ions (𝐻𝑒 +2) with a mass of 4 u.
 If any other metal is used as a foil in 𝛼 particle scattering experiment,
then the foil will be thicker and more 𝛼 particles would bounce back.
This would make it difficult to determine the location of positive mass
Observations:- in the atom.

 Most of the fast moving 𝛼 particles passed through the gold foil.
 Some of the 𝛼 particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
 Surprisingly one out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound.

Conclusion:-

 Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the 𝛼 particles passed through
the gold foil without getting deflected.
 Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive charge of the
atom occupies very little space.
 A small fraction of 𝛼 particles were deflected from their path, indicating that all the positive
charge and mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a small volume within the atom.

*From the data he also calculated that the radius of nucleus is about 105 times less than the radius
of the atom.

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom:

On the basis of his 𝛼 particle scattering experiment, Rutherford put forward the nuclear model of an
atom, which had the following features:-

 There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an
atom resides in the nucleus.
 The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths.
 The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.

***** Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of the atom:

1. The revolution of the electron in a circular orbit is not expected to be stable. Any particle in a
circular orbit would undergo acceleration. During acceleration, charged particles would
radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and finally fall into the
nucleus. If this were so, the atom should be highly unstable and hence matter would not
exist in the form that we know. We know that atoms are quite stable. Thus, Rutherford’s
model failed to explain the stability of atom.
2. The model doesn’t explain how electrons are arranged in their orbits.
3. The model can’t explain the existence of definite lines in the hydrogen spectrum.

***** BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM:-

In order to overcome the objections raised against Rutherford’s model of the atom, Neils Bohr put
forward the following postulates about the model of an atom:

i. Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed inside the
atom.
ii. While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy. These orbits or shells
are called energy levels.These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K,L,M,N,… or
the numbers,n=1,2,3,4,…
 iii. Electrons can move between energy levels by gaining or losing energy.
iv. When an electron moves from higher energy level to lower energy level,it emits energy.
When it moves from a lower energy level to a higher energy level, it absorbs energy.

*****How are electrons distributed in different orbits (shells) ?

Or

*****The Bohr-Bury Scheme regarding distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom:-

The following rules are followed for writing the number of electrons in different energy levels or
shells:

i. The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula 2𝒏𝟐 , where ‘n’ is
the orbit number or energy level index, 1,2,3,….

***** K=2× 𝟏𝟐=2, L= 2× 𝟐𝟐=8, M=𝟐 × 𝟑𝟐 = 18, N= 2× 𝟒𝟐=32

ii. The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the outermost orbit is 8.
iii. Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner shells are filled in a step-wise
manner.

Valency:- The combining capacity of the atoms of elements , that is, their tendency to react and
form molecules with atoms of the same or different elements, is called its valency.

Valence Shell and Valence Electrons :- The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell .
The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons.

*** According to Bohr-Bury scheme, the outermost shell of an atom can accommodate a maximum
of 8 electrons. Since, the atoms of noble gases are completely filled with 8 electrons in the
outermost shell, so they show very little chemical activity. In other words, their combining capacity
or valency is zero. Hence they are also called inert gases.

Octet Rule:- All the atoms of elements have a tendency to achieve the stable electron
configuration of the nearby noble gas, that is, to fulfill 8 electrons in the valence shell(octet). This is
known as the octet rule.

***** Exception-Hydrogen, Helium, Lithium, Beryllium try to fulfill duplet.

*****Atomic Number :- The atomic number is defined as the total number of protons present in
the nucleus of an atom. It is denoted by ‘Z’

*****Mass Number:- The mass number is defined as the sum of the total number of protons and
neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom. It is denoted by ‘A’.
Notation of an atom:

Mass Number
Symbol of
element
Atomic Number

For example, Nitrogen is written as 147𝑁

***** Relationship Between Atomic Number and Mass Number :

Mass Number = Number of Protons+ Number of Neutrons

*****Mass Number =Atomic Number +Number of Neutrons

A=Z+ Number of Neutrons

Isotopes :- Isotopes are defined as the atoms of the same element having same atomic number
but different mass numbers.

*** The chemical properties of all the isotopes of an element are similar but their physical
properties are different.

Example:

1. Isotopes of Hydrogen:- Hydrogen has 3 isotopes-Protium (𝟏𝟏𝑯), Deuterium( 21𝐻 or D) and

Tritium( 31𝐻 or T)

It has no neutron
radioactive

2. Isotopes of Chlorine : 35 37
17𝐶𝑙 and 17𝐶𝑙
3. Isotopes of Carbon : 126𝐶 and 146𝐶

Question : Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic forms with masses 35u and 37u in the ratio of
3:1. Find the atomic mass of chlorine.

Ans:- The atomic mass of any natural element is taken as the average mass of all the naturally
occurring isotopes of that atom.

So, the average atomic mass of chlorine will be

75 25
[(35 × ) + (37 × )]
100 100
105 37 142
= ( + )= = 35.5u
4 4 4
Applications of Isotopes:

i. An isotope of cobalt is used in treatment of cancer.

ii. An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
iii. An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goiter.
iv. An isotope of carbon ( 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝑪 ) is used in radiocarbon dating to determine the age of organic
materials such as fossil fuels.

Isobars:- Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers , which have the same mass
number, are known as isobars.

Example:- 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎
𝟏𝟖 𝑨𝒓 and 𝟐𝟎 𝑪𝒂 are isobars because their atomic number is different but mass number is
same.

Isotones:- Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers and different mass
numbers, which have the same number of neutrons are called isotones.

Example:- 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝑪 , 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝑵 and 𝟏𝟔𝟖𝑶 are isotones because their atomic numbers and mass numbers are
different but each of them has 8 neutrons.

𝟐𝟒
Questions: An element has the symbol 𝟏𝟐 𝑿

i. Write the atomic number and mass number of X.

ii. Write the electron,proton and neutron number of X.
iii. Identify X.
iv. Write the electron configuration of X.
v. Write the valence shell and number of valence electron of X.
vi. Write the valency of X.
vii. Does X forms cation or anion ?
viii. Is X metal or non-metal?

Answer: i)Atomic Number = 12, Mass Number= 24

ii) Number of electrons=Number of protons=12, Number of Neutrons=24-12=12

iii) X is Magnesium(Mg) because atomic number of Magnesium is 12.

iv) 2,8,2 v) Valence Shell= M , Valence electrons= 2 vi) Valency=2 vii) X forms cation (𝑋 +2)

viii)Since X forms cation, so X is metal.