Air Quality Monitoring

Why we take Air Samples?

Objectives of Monitoring
• To identify & measure air pollutants.
• To monitor personal exposures to chemicals.
• To assess the environmental impact of
manufacturing processes.
• To comply with government regulations.
• To identify the source of the pollutants.
• To evaluate the effectiveness of engineering
controls (i.e., ventilation)
 What is Air Sampling ?
Ø A means of collecting contaminates from air to
identify and quantify the concentration of the
contaminates.
Ø Typically we need to concentrate the
contaminates with some sort of media.
Ø The exceptions is when we take “whole air
samples” then the concentration step takes
place in the lab.
• Concentration are calculated in either
dimensionless terms: ppm or ppb or
• Concentrations are calculated in mass per
volume terms: µg/m3 or mg/m3
 Monitoring
Monitoring includes
• Sample Collection
• Sample Extraction
• Sample Analysis
 What are we sampling (people or places)?
• Area Sampling What is the concentration
in the air?
•Fence line monitoring
•Evaluating engineering controls
•Smoke Stacks
• Personal Sampling What concentration
are people exposed to?
Sample taken in the breathing zone.
 Sampling Durations
How long to sample?
•Grab Sampling
~1-minute
•STEL Sampling (Short-term exposure limit)
15-minute exposure
•TWA Sampling (Time weighted average)
8-hour exposure (typical personal sampling time)
•Risk Assessment
(24-hour) Intermittent
•Real Time
(Continuous sampling)
 Air Sampling
When taking air samples -there are three factors in
determining the concentration:
• Sampling Rate
–Active Samplers –Requires a pump to control the flow rate
–Passive Sampler –Design of the sampler dictates the flow
rate “it’s fixed” by diffusion
• Sampling Time –How long of a sample do we need?
• Sample Volume –The sample volume is calculated by
multiplying the flow rate x sampling time:
Flow Rate x Sampling Time = Sample Volume
Note: sample volume is dependent on the temperature and pressure
during sampling, so correction is normally required.
 How to take the Air Samples
• Passive Sampling –also called Diffusive Sampling
Ø Relies on the natural diffusion of analytes through
the sampler
The contaminated air enters the device by diffusing onto the adsorbent
media inside the device. The analytes in the air are concentrated on to
the media. The mass uptake of the monitor is controlled by the design of
the device that surrounds the adsorbent media
• Active Sampling –also called Pumped Sampling
Is performed by pulling air (vacuum) through the sampling media using
an air sampling pump. The chemicals in the air are concentrated on the
adsorbent media.
Ø Requires an air sampling pump
Ø Concentrating the analytes on some sort of media
(adsorbents, or filters)
 Air Quality Measurement
Air Sampling Techniques
When obtaining a sample for air pollution analysis
– should be sufficient sample for analysis. Most pollutants
= very low levels and require a large volume of gas for
accurate measurement
– pollutants in very small quantities are easy to
contaminate. Take care to purge sampling containers if
grab samples are used
– Collection and analysis limitations may require collection
over extended periods means data may only be a 24 hr
avg.
– real time produces so much data - are often set to give
hourly avg. to make data more understandable
 Air Quality Measurement
Air Sampling Systems
• require gases or particles to be drawn to the
surface of a collecting medium or a sensor
• Sampling trains may include a vacuum
pump, vacuum trap, a flow regulator and a
collecting device or sensing unit
• Sampling trains for gases may also utilize
filters to present particles from entering the
collection unit
Type of Analytes being Sampled
• Gases and Vapor –typically need to be
adsorbed using a adsorbent, such as
charcoal, silica gel, porous polymer, or
synthetic carbons
• Reactive analytes like carbonyls such as
formaldehyde, and isocyanates need to be
derivatized into stabilize analytes until they
can be analyzed.
• Aerosols and Particles –typically are
trapped using a filter media, or Liquid
Media
• Solution Sampling: Impinger & Bubbler
•Impinger:Small Hole in Glass Tip -Used to
sample aerosols and particles
•Bubbler:Fritted Glass –Used to sample
gases and vapors
• Filters & Cassettes
• Used for sampling particles (dust) and
aerosols
• Different filter materials are available
•PVC, Cellulose ester, PTFE, Glass Fiber
GUIDELINES FOR MONITORING
Background Information
(i) Sources and Emissions
(ii) Health and Demographic Information
(iii)Meteorological Information
(iv)Topographical Information
(v) Previous Air Quality Information
 Air Quality Measurement
Site Selection
General Requirements for Site Selection
– purpose of monitoring
– number and type of instruments required
– duration of measurements
– should be easily accessible
 Components of Monitoring
Number and Distribution of Monitoring Locations
The no. of sampling sites depends on
• Size of the area to be covered
• The variability of pollutant concentration over the area to
be covered
• The data requirements, which are related to the
monitoring
• Pollutant to be monitored and
• Population figures which can be used as indicators of
criticality both from view of likely air quality deterioration
as also health implications.
Recommended Minimum Number of Stations, Population-wise
(Source: IS : 5182 (Part 14), 2000).
The nos. will have to be increased depending upon
several other modifying factors as follows :
• In highly industrialized cities the no. of stations for SPM and SO2
must be increased.
• In areas, where large amounts of heavy fuels are used the no. of
stations for SO2 should be more or vice-versa.
• In regions with irregular terrain, increase the no. of stations.
• In cities with extremely heavy traffic the no. of stations for NOX ,
Oxidants and CO may need to be doubled.
• In cities with low traffic and a population of > 4 million, the no. of
station for SO2 , NOX and CO can be reduced.
Distribution of Sampling Stations
Selection of Monitoring Location
Principal factors governing the locations of the sampling stations are the objectives, the particular
method of instrument used for sampling, resources available, physical access and security
against loss and tampering.
• Air quality monitoring should be done in areas where pollution problem exists or is expected i.e.
mainly in industrial areas, urban areas, traffic intersections etc.
In general the following requirements should be satisfied for site selection.
Representative Site
• The site should be away from major pollution sources:The station should be at least 25 m away
from domestic chimneys, especially if the chimneys are lower than the sampling point ; with larger
sources the distance should be greater
• The site should be away from absorbing surfaces such as absorbing building material.
• The site should be selected such that it is expected to remain a representative site over a long
time and no landuse changes, rebuildings etc. are foreseen in near future.
Note:
• The instrument must be located in such a place where free flow of air is available.
The instrument should not be located in a confined place, corner or a balcony.
• For traffic pollution monitoring the sampling intake should be 3 m above the street
level. The height of 3m is recommended to prevent re-entrainment of particulates
from the street, to prevent free passage of pedestrians and to protect the sampling
intake from vandalism.
• Samplers are therefore to be kept at a distance of 200 m from unpaved roads and
streets.
 Physical requirement of the
monitoring site
• The site should be available for a long
period of time
• Easy access to the site should be there
anytime throughout the year.
• Site sheltering and facilities such as
electricity of sufficient rating, water ,
telephone connection etc. should be
available.
• It should be vandal proof and protected
from extreme weather
Recommended Criteria for Siting Monitoring Stations
 Topographical and
Meteorological Factors
• The topographical factors that must be
considered are mountains, valleys, lakes,
oceans and rivers.
• These factors cause a meteorological
phenomena that may affects air pollutants
distribution.
 Air Quality Measurement
Meteorological Monitoring
• changing weather conditions can produce dramatic
changes in air quality and ambient pollution levels
• Factors such as:
– wind dispersion rates (velocity and direction)
– temperature inversions
– photochemical reactions, and
– rain
 Selection of Pollutants
• Criteria for SO2 Measurements: Sources of SO2
include domestic emissions from fossil fuel burning,
industrial emissions and diesel vehicles.
• Criteria for NO2 Measurements: Generally areas with
high population and traffic are chosen for measuring
NO2.
• Criteria for RSPM/PM10 Measurements
• Criteria for CO Measurements
• Criteria for Ozone Measurements
A minimum distance of the sampler from road for measurement of
Ozone and NOx (Source: ETC, Canada, 1995).

In general the following requirement may be met for siting the

monitoring station.
(i) Height of the inlet must be 3 – 10 m above the ground level.
(ii) The sampler must be more than 20 m from trees.
(iii) Distance of the sampler to any air flow obstacle i.e. buildings, must
be more than two times the height of the obstacle above the
sampler.
(iv) There should be unrestricted airflow in three of four quadrants
(v) There should be no nearby furnace or incinerator fumes.
 Sampling Duration and Frequency

• National Ambient Air Quality Standards states

that annual average should be computed of 104
measurements taken twice a week of 24 hours
duration.
• The pollutants vary diurnally and seasonally and
these variations should be taken into account for
determining frequency of sampling.
• In general minimum 20% of the reading should
be taken in each season.
 Data Handling and Presentation
• Site observations can be type of area, whether residential, industrial,
sensitive or traffic intersections, distance from nearby sources, whether
location is in a market place etc.
• Height of instrument above ground level should also be recorded.
• The data should be validated by rejecting erroneous data, applying
corrections as per the calibrations performed of flow rates
• 98th percentile should be calculated as the NAAQS states that 24-hourly
standard can be violated 2% of the times but not on two consecutive days.
• The following must be followed for reporting data
(i) The values should not be reported below the detection limit as per the
method.
(ii) SPM/RSPM values which are very high should be reported in round figures
(without decimal place).
(iii) Any outlier values found should be checked for contamination of sample,
sudden change of environmental conditions in the vicinity of the monitoring
site etc. and discarded if necessary.
 Air Quality Measurement
Choice of Monitoring Equipment
• For almost every type of air pollutant there are several
different acceptable methods of analysis
• The type of equipment and methodology used for analysis
may be determined by many factors such as
– cost
– the number of data points required
– the purpose for which the data are being used
– the time interval required between data points
– the devices power requirements
– the type of air pollutant, and
– the environment in which the monitoring equipment is being placed
 Air Quality Measurement
Calibration Procedures
• When a device uses airflow input need to calibrate
the airflow system
• involves using a device or a pre-calibrated gas flow
meter to check on the ambient airflow into the
device
• All devices MUST be calibrated according to
manufacturer’s spec’s in maintenance manual -
times and results of these MUST be kept in the
instrument logbook
 Air Quality Measurement
Calibration Procedures
• two types of calibration procedures commonly used
on air monitoring equipment – static methods and
dynamic methods
• Static methods - involve a simple one point
electrical or chemical test
• Dynamic methods - based on generating a flowing
stream of calibration gas – which is used to
calibrate the whole instrument = preferred method
for calibration
 Air Quality Measurement
Data Handling
• range from the simplest manual methods to
very sophisticated electronic devices
• Manual methods - use field data sheets or
log books, where all parameters are entered
manually – not suitable for remote sites
• Data loggers - electronic devices that store many
data points in an electronic memory. They can be
attached to a device and accumulate the data for
long periods of time if required
 Air Quality Measurement
Particulates – Hi Vol Sampler
• most commonly used particle sampling
method
• analysis is gravimetric - filter is weighed
before and after the analysis on an
analytical balance, and difference is
particulates collected
• A standard high volume sampler collects
particles in the size range from 0.1 - 100µm
 Air Quality Measurement
Particulates – Hi Vol Sampler
• airflow is measured by a small flow meter
(calibrated in m3 air/minute)
• particulate concentration measured is
referred to as the Total Suspended
Particles (TSP), = combination of settleable
particles and suspended particles
• expressed as µg/m3 for a 24hour period –
normally as part of 6 day cycle
 Air Quality Measurement
Particulates – Hi Vol Sampler
• PM10 and PM2.5 high volume samplers –only
collect particles with aerodynamic sizes of 10µm
or less, or 2.5µm or less
• recognised by PM10 head, which looks like a cross
between a flying saucer and an overgrown wok!
Air Quality Measurement
 Air Quality Measurement
Particulates – Nephelometers
• devices which use the scattering of light to
measure the size and number of particles in a
given air sample
• best used to determine the amount of particulate
matter in different size fractions
• usually used to examine the amount of particulate
material in the 0.1 – 2.5µm size range – that
which presents the greatest risk to human health
Air Quality Measurement
 Air Quality Measurement
Real Time Analysis
• Several methods provide real time analysis,
the most popular is remote UV detection for
SO2
 Air Quality Measurement
Gases – Sulfur Dioxide
• many methods available for determination of SO2
• AS3580.4.1 - 1990. appropriate for SO2 0-5ppm
• permits the use of any of the following detection
methods;
– UV fluorescence analyser
– flame photometric detector (with or without gas
chromatograph)
– electrochemical (coulimetric detector)
– most widely used method in this country is the UV
fluorescence analyser
 Air Quality Measurement
Gases – Sulfur Dioxide
• UV Fluorescence = air sample drawn into a
scrubber chamber (removes PAH) and then
on into an irradiation chamber where it is
exposed to UV light
• SO2 absorbs in 190-230nm
• The amount of fluorescent radiation is
directly proportional to the concentration of
SO2
 Air Quality Measurement
Gases – Sulfur Dioxide

• SO2 + UV SO2*
• SO2* SO2 + light
Therefore:
F = k [SO2]
Where: F = is the intensity of fluorescence
radiation; K = is the factor of
proportionality; [SO2] = concentration of
SO2
 Procedure
• The air sample flows into the inlet of the analyser where it is
scrubbed to remove any interference by aromatic hydrocarbons that
may be present. A hydrocarbon scrubber device usually
accomplishes this.
• Then the air sample flows into a reaction chamber, where it is
irradiated by UV radiation with a wavelength range of (200-220) nm.
• The UV fluorescence light, in the wavelength range of (240-420) nm,
is optically filtered and then converted to an electrical signal by a UV
detector, for example, a photomultiplier tube.
• The response of the analyser is proportional to the number of SO2
molecules in the reaction chamber.
• Therefore, either temperature or pressure has to be kept constant,
or if variation of these parameters is expected, the measured values
have to be corrected.
• For this UV fluorescence method to yield accurate concentration
measurements, it must be calibrated against some primary standard
 Calibration Procedure
Zero Calibration – Switch on the analyzer at ZERO mode and zero
gas from internal source will be measured by the analyzer. After the
reading has stabilized, check the display of the zero value. In case
of derivation, adjust the zero value.
Zero Gas: Zero air used in the calibration of the analyser should
not contain a concentration of SO2 detectable by the analyser under
calibration. The concentration of O2 in the zero air shall be within +/-
2% of the normal composition of air (20.9%).
Span Calibration – After the ZERO calibration has been done,
switch the analyzer at SPAN mode. SO2 span gas (pre-determined
concentration) from permeation tube, kept in permeation oven,
would be measured by the analyzer. In case of any deviation in the
displayed value and the span gas concentration adjust the reading
of analyzer to the span value. Repeat ZERO and SPAN calibration
for atleast three times or till stable and true values are indicated.
After ZERO and SPAN calibration, switch the analyzer at SAMPLE
mode. Now, analyzer will measure SO2 present in the ambient air.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) in ambient air
(Non-Dispersive Infrared Method)
• Non Dispersive Infra-Red (NDIR) photometry provides a method of utilising the
integrated absorption of infra-red energy over most of the spectrum for a given
compound to provide a quantitative determination of the concentration of Carbon
Monoxide (CO) in ambient air.
• The spectrometer measures the absorption by CO at 4.7 mm using two parallel
infrared beams through a sample cell, a reference cell and a selective detector.
• The detector signal is led to an amplifier control section and the analyser output
measured on a meter and recording system.
• Some instruments use gas filter correlation to compare the IR absorption spectrum
between the measured gas and other gases present in the sample, in a single
sample cell.
• These instruments utilize a highly concentrated sample of CO as a filter for the IR
transmitted through the sample cell, to yield a beam that cannot be further attenuated
by the CO in the sample and thus acts as a reference beam.
• The board-band radiation that passes through the sample cell and the CO filter is
filtered again by a narrow-band-pass filter that allows only the CO-sensitive portion of
the band to pass to the detector. The removal of wavelength sensitive to other gases
reduces interferences.
 Air Quality Measurement
Gases – Oxides of Nitrogen
• determined using chemiluminescence
• specific for NO, but total oxides of nitrogen
determined by passing sample over a
catalyst to convert NO2 to NO
• suitable for ambient air containing NOx (NO
and NO2) at levels less than 1 mL/m3
 Air Quality Measurement
Gases – Oxides of Nitrogen
• reaction of NO with ozone in a dark enclosed
chamber to produce light - detected by a pmt
• Provided the ozone is present in excess the light
output is directly proportional to the concentration
of NO
• NO + O3 NO2* + O2
• NO2* NO2 + hn (light)
 Air Quality Measurement
Gases – Carbon Monoxide
• non-dispersive infra red (NDIR) devices,
suitable for detection from 0-500ppm by
volume
• sample through a flow cell in the instrument
where it is irradiated with infrared radiation
• essentially just a modified dual beam
infrared spectrophotometer
Air Quality Measurement
IR source

Chopper
CO free
air in Ambient sample in

Reference Sample cell

cell
Ambient sample out
CO free
air out IR transmitting
windows
0.1
Detector
2
diaphragm &
capacitance plate
 Air Quality Measurement
Gases – Ozone
• determined either by chemiluminescence methods
or direct reading UV detectors. AS3580.6 - .6.1 -
1990
• sample drawn into a mixing chamber mixed with a
stream of ethene - causes a chemiluminescent
reaction and the subsequent emitted light at about
430nm
• direct reading UV method - stream of gas in the
sample is drawn through a flow cell where it is
irradiated with UV light at 254nm
Automatic Measurement of Ozone (O3)
in ambient air
(UV Photometric Method)
The method is based on the photometric assay of
ozone (O3) concentrations in a dynamic flow
system. The concentration of O3 is determined in
an absorption cell from the measurement of the
amount of light absorbed at a wavelength of 254
nm.
The method is based on the absorption coefficient
of O3 at 254 nm, the optical path length through
the sample, and the transmittance, temperature
and pressure of the sample. The quantities above
are related by the Beer-Lambert absorption law
Transmittance = = I/Io= (e)-acL
Where: a = absorption coefficient of O3 at
254 nm = 310 atm-1 cm-1 at 0o C and 101.3
kPa
e = O3 concentration in units of
atmosphere
L = optical path of absorption cell length in
cm I = intensity of light passing through
cell with an ozone sample
Io = intensity of light passing through cell
with zero air
 Procedure
• Typically, an air sample is first directed through a scrubber that
removes any O3 present, but otherwise does not affect the sample.
• The ozone-free sample then flows through the absorption cell, and
its transmittance is measured. This constitutes the zero cycle.
• At a present time, solenoid switches and another air sample flows
directly into the absorption cell, bypassing the scrubber and its
transmittance is measured. This constitutes the ozone measurement
cycle.
• The difference in transmittance between the two cycles is a measure
of the O3 concentration.
• The complete measurement cycle takes about 20 to 30 seconds.
Microprocessor-controlled electronics perform timing functions,
condition the signal and perform arithmetic operations in
commercially available analyzers.
 Air Quality Measurement
Gases – Non-methane H/C
• essential to discriminate between methane and
other H/C’s, as it is the only hydrocarbon that
naturally occurs in large amounts in the
atmosphere - remember those cows & termites!
• feed a continuous stream of gas sample into a GC
with a FID
• hand held field gas chromatographs now available
which allow sampling and analysis to be done in
the field – eliminating sampling error
 Air Quality Measurement
Gases – Fluoride
• AS2618.2-1984 which is suitable for determining
levels of 0.1µg/m3 or greater
• automatic sampler draws ambient air through an
inlet tube which passes it through an acid
impregnated paper tape (initial filter tape) to
collect particulate fluorides and then through an
alkali-impregnated paper tape (final filter tape) to
collect acidic gaseous fluorides
• New methods impinge the gas and use F- ISE
 Air Quality Measurement
Gases – Hydrogen Sulfide
• Automatic Intermittent Sampling Gas
Chromatographic Method as outlined in
AS3580.8.1 - 1990
• applicable to ambient air with H2S
concentrations in the range 0.003 - 2ppm
and is totally specific
• GC is designed to sample air automatically
at least ten times per hour
In source testing: The representative sample problem
is equally difficult

1- If the gas flow in large industrial smokestack is

steady, well mixed across the diameter of the stack. It
can be taken a representative sample any time and at
any place.

2- Most of such stacks have variation in velocities and

concentrations from point to point, and from time to
time.
Isokinetic Sampling

• In stack sampling for particulates, one must

maintain isokinetic flow into the sampling probe.
In this case, many separate measurements Must be
made and averaged.
In newer plants, designers sometimes
considered the problems of obtaining a
uniform gas flow and have provided access
and a suitable location for the source
sampler to place the required instruments.
PES111: Air Quality Modeling and Climate Change

Air Quality Measurement

Ashutosh Kumar, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor, School of Energy & Environment (SEE)
Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology, Patiala, India

THAPAR INSTITUTE PES111 By Ashutosh Kumar, Ph.D.

OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Deemed to be University) AQM&CC Assistant Professor, SEE 1
Air Quality Measurement
High and Low Volume Samplers
For collection of air particle samples
Difference is the amount of air sampled
High volume samplers: 1500 m3 of air over 24 h
Low volume samplers: 24 m3 of air over 24 h
Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSP)
Measures total amount of particles suspended in the
atmosphere
May also be used to determine the levels of chemical
elements (Pb or other metals) and compounds in the
particles
THAPAR INSTITUTE PES111 By Ashutosh Kumar, Ph.D.
OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Deemed to be University) AQM&CC Assistant Professor, SEE 2
Air Quality Measurement (Cont.)

H i g h Vo l u m e
Samplers for TSP
Measurement
Unlikely to collect
airborne particles with
aerodynamic diameter
>100 µm due to the
design of the air inlet
Sampling usually takes
place at 6-day intervals
because filters are
changed manually
Adapted from https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/monitoring/air/air-monitoring/measuring/samplers)
THAPAR INSTITUTE PES111 By Ashutosh Kumar, Ph.D.
OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Deemed to be University) AQM&CC Assistant Professor, SEE 3
Air Quality Measurement (Cont.)

High Volume Samplers for PM10

Air sample passes through a size-selective inlet
The inlet removes particles >10µm aerodynamic
diameter by using their relatively greater inertia to trap
them on a greased plate
Smaller particles pass through the instrument onto the
pre-weighed filter
Measuring the volume of air sampled and weighing the
filters before and after sampling determines the
concentration of PM10 particles in the air

THAPAR INSTITUTE PES111 By Ashutosh Kumar, Ph.D.

OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Deemed to be University) AQM&CC Assistant Professor, SEE 4
Air Quality Measurement (Cont.)
Step 1 and 2:

Adapted from https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/monitoring/air/air-monitoring/measuring/samplers)

THAPAR INSTITUTE PES111 By Ashutosh Kumar, Ph.D.
OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Deemed to be University) AQM&CC Assistant Professor, SEE 5
Air Quality Measurement (Cont.)
Step 3:

Adapted from https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/monitoring/air/air-monitoring/measuring/samplers)

THAPAR INSTITUTE PES111 By Ashutosh Kumar, Ph.D.
OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Deemed to be University) AQM&CC Assistant Professor, SEE 6
Isokinetic Sampling

Principles:
To capture the particles passing through a defined area
for a defined time without disturbing their paths
The velocity of the air going into the sampling probe
nozzle is equal to the velocity of the undisturbed air at
that point (cross section of Duct/Stack)
The air is disturbed as little as possible so that the same
particles (no more and no less) go into the nozzle as
would have passed the area of the nozzle had it not been
there
Adapted from https://www.airflowsciences.com/services/field-testing/isokinetic)

THAPAR INSTITUTE PES111 By Ashutosh Kumar, Ph.D.

OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Deemed to be University) AQM&CC Assistant Professor, SEE 7
Isokinetic Sampling (Cont.)

Adapted from https://www.airflowsciences.com/services/field-testing/isokinetic)

THAPAR INSTITUTE PES111 By Ashutosh Kumar, Ph.D.
OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Deemed to be University) AQM&CC Assistant Professor, SEE 8
Thank You
Thank you