1.

INTRODUCTION

Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It

joins different metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and
with or without the use of filler metal.

The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated
either from combustion of gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical
reaction.

During some type of welding processes, pressure may also be employed, but
this is not an essential requirement for all welding processes.

Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the
components.

Some of the typical applications of welding include the fabrication of ships,

pressure vessels, automobile bodies, off-shore platform, bridges, welded pipes,
sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives, etc.

The weldability may be defined as property of a metal which indicates the

ease with which it can be welded with other similar or dissimilar metals.

Weldability of a material depends upon various factors like the metallurgical

changes that occur due to welding, changes in hardness in and around the weld,
gas evolution and absorption, extent of oxidation, and the effect on cracking
tendency of the joint.

Plain low carbon steel (C-0.12%) has the best weldability amongst metals.
Generally it is seen that the materials with high castability usually have low
weldability.
 2. TERMINOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF WELDING PROCESS
The terminological elements of welding process used with common welding
joints such as base metal, fusion zone, weld face, root face, root opening toe and
root are depicted in Fig 1.

Fig 1. Terminolgy

2.1 Edge preparations

For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared first. Different
edge preparations may be used for welding butt joints, which are given in Fig 2.

Fig 2. Edge preparation

2.2 Welding joints
Some common welding joints are shown in Fig. 3. Welding joints are of
generally of two major kinds namely lap joint and butt joint. The main types are
described as under.

2.2.1 Lap weld joint

Single-Lap Joint
This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate, is not recommended for
most work. The single lap has very little resistance to bending. It can be used
satisfactorily for joining two cylinders that fit inside one another.
Double-Lap Joint
This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the disadvantage that it requires
twice as much welding.
Tee Fillet Weld
This type of joint, although widely used, should not be employed if an
alternative design is possible.

2.2.2 Butt weld joint

Single-Vee Butt Weld

It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the vee depends upon the
technique being used, the plates being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.

Double-Vee Butt Weld

It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be performed on
both sides of the plate. The top vee angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom
angle is 80°, depending on the technique being used.
Fig. 3. Welding joints.

2.3 Welding Positions

As shown in Fig. 4, there are four types of welding positions, which are given
as:
1. Flat or down hand position
2. Horizontal position
3. Vertical position
4. Overhead position

Fig. 4. Welding positions

2.3.1 Flat or Downhand Welding Position

The flat position or down hand position is one in which the welding is
performed from the upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is
approximately horizontal.
This is the simplest and the most convenient position for welding. Using this
technique, excellent welded joints at a fast speed with minimum risk of fatigue
to the welders can be obtained.

2.3.2 Horizontal Welding Position

In horizontal position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the deposited
weld head is horizontal.
The metal deposition rate in horizontal welding is next to that achieved in flat or
downhand welding position. This position of welding is most commonly used in
welding vessels and reservoirs.

2.3.3 Veritical Welding Position

In vertical position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the weld is
deposited upon a vertical surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in
this position due to the effect of the force of gravity on the molten metal.
The welder must constantly control the metal so that it does not run or drop
from the weld. Vertical welding may be of two types viz., vertical-up and
vertical-down. Vertical-up welding is preferred when strength is the major
consideration. The vertical-down welding is used for a sealing operation and for
welding sheet metal.

2.3.4 Overhead Welding Position

The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the vertical
position.Here the pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater. The
force of the flame against the weld serves to counteract the pull of gravity. In
overhead position, the plane of the workpiece is horizontal. But the welding is
carried out from the underside. The electrode is held with its welding end
upward. It is a good practice to use very short arc and basic coated electrodes
for overhead welding.

3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING

Advantages
1. Welding is more economical and is much faster process as compared to other
processes (riveting, bolting, casting etc.)
2. Welding, if properly controlled results permanent joints having strength equal
or sometimes more than base metal.
3. Large number of metals and alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined
by welding.
4. General welding equipment is not very costly.
5. Portable welding equipments can be easily made available.
6. Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
7. Welding can join welding jobs through spots, as continuous pressure tight
seams, end-to-end and in a number of other configurations.
8. Welding can also be mechanized.

Disadvantages

1. It results in residual stresses and distortion of the workpieces.

2. Welded joint needs stress relieving and heat treatment.
3. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
4. Jigs, and fixtures may also be needed to hold and position the parts to be
welded
5. Edges preparation of the welding jobs are required before welding
6. Skilled welder is required for production of good welding
7. Heat during welding produces metallurgical changes as the structure of the
welded joint is not same as that of the parent metal.

4. CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES

(A) Welding Processes

1. Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding Processes

1 Air-acetylene welding
2 Oxy-acetylene welding
3 Oxy-hydrogen welding
4 Pressure gas welding

2. Arc Welding Processes

1. Carbon Arc Welding
2. Shielded Metal Arc Welding
3. Submerged Arc Welding
4. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
5. Gas Metal Arc Welding
6. Plasma Arc Welding
7. Atomic Hydrogen Welding
8. Electro-slag Welding
9. Stud Arc Welding
10. Electro-gas Welding
3. Resistance Welding
1. Spot Welding
2. Seam Welding
3. Projection Welding
4. Resistance Butt Welding
5. Flash Butt Welding
6. Percussion Welding
7. High Frequency Resistance Welding
8. High Frequency Induction Welding

4. Solid-State Welding Processes

1. Forge Welding
2. Cold Pressure Welding
3. Friction Welding
4. Explosive Welding
5. Diffusion Welding
6. Cold Pressure Welding
7. Thermo-compression Welding

5. Thermit Welding Processes

1. Thermit Welding
2. Pressure Thermit Welding

6. Radiant Energy Welding Processes

1. Laser Welding
2. Electron Beam Welding

(B) Allied Processes

1. Metal Joining or Metal Depositing Processes

1. Soldering
2. Brazing
3. Braze Welding
4. Adhesive Bonding
5. Metal Spraying
6. Surfacing

2. Thermal Cuting Processes

1. Gas Cutting
2. Arc Cutting
5. GAS WELDING PROCESSES

A fusion welding process which joins metals, using the heat of combustion of
an oxygen /air and fuel gas (i.e. acetylene, hydrogen propane or butane) mixture
is usually referred as ‘gas welding’.
The intense heat (flame) thus produced melts and fuses together the edges of the
parts to be welded, generally with the addition of a filler metal.

Operation of gas welding is shown in Fig.5.

The fuel gas generally employed is acetylene; however gases other than
acetylene can also be used though with lower flame temperature.

Oxy-acetylene flame is the most versatile and hottest of all the flames produced
by the combination of oxygen and other fuel gases.

Other gases such as Hydrogen, Propane, Butane, Natural gas etc., may be used
for some welding and brazing applications.

Fig. 5. Gas welding

5.1 Oxy-Acetylene Welding

In this process, acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the

welding torch and ignited. The flame resulting at the tip of the torch is
sufficiently hot to melt and join the parent metal. The oxy-acetylene flame
reaches a temperature of about 3300°C and thus can melt most of the ferrous
and non-ferrous metals in common use. A filler metal rod or welding
rod is generally added to the molten metal pool to build up the seam slightly for
greater strength.
5.1.1 Types of Welding Flames

In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important means to control the

welding joint and the welding process. The correct type of flame is essential for
the production of satisfactory welds. The flame must be of the proper size,
shape and condition in order to operate with maximum efficiency. There are
three basic types of oxy-acetylene flames.
1. Neutral welding flame (Acetylene and oxygen in equal proportions).
2. Carburizing welding flame or reducing (excess of acetylene).
3. Oxidizing welding flame (excess of oxygen).

Fig.6 Gas welding flames

Neutral Welding Flame

A neutral flame results when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and

acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip.

The temperature of the neutral flame is of the order of about 5900°F (3260°C).
It has a clear, well defined inner cone, indicating that the combustion is
complete.
The inner cone is light blue in color. It is surrounded by an outer flame
envelope, produced by the combination of oxygen in the air and superheated
carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases from the inner cone. This envelope is
Usually a much darker blue than the inner cone.
A neutral flame is named so because it affects no chemical change on the
molten metal and, therefore will not oxidize or carburize the metal.

The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of mild steel, stainless
steel, cast Iron, copper, and aluminium.

Carburising or Reducing Welding Flame

The carburizing or reducing flame has excess of acetylene and can be
recognized by acetylene feather, which exists between the inner cone and the
outer envelope.
The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is usually
much brighter in color.
With iron and steel, carburizing flame produces very hard, brittle substance
known as iron carbide.
A reducing flame may be distinguished from carburizing flame by the fact that a
carburizing flame contains more acetylene than a reducing flame. A reducing
flame has an approximate temperature of 3038°C.
A carburizing-flame is used in the welding of lead and for carburizing (surface
hardening) purpose.
A reducing flame, on the other hand, does not carburize the metal; rather it
ensures the absence of the oxidizing condition. It is used for welding with low
alloy steel rods and for welding those metals, (e.g., non-ferrous) that do not tend
to absorb carbon.
This flame is very well used for welding high carbon steel.

Oxidising Welding flame

The oxidizing flame has an excess of oxygen over the acetylene.
An oxidizing flame can be recognized by the small cone, which is shorter, much
bluer in color and more pointed than that of the neutral flame. The outer flame
envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out at the end.
Such a flame makes a loud roaring sound.
It is the hottest flame (temperature as high as 6300°F) produced by any oxy-fuel
gas source. But the excess oxygen especially at high temperatures tends to
combine with many metals to form hard, brittle, low strength oxides.

Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the surrounding area
to have a scummy or dirty appearance. For these reasons, an oxidizing flame is
of limited use in welding. It is not used in the welding of steel. A slightly
oxidizing flame is helpful when welding (i) Copper-base metals (ii) Zinc-base
metals and (iii) A few types of ferrous metals such as manganese steel and cast
iron. The oxidizing atmosphere in these cases, create a base metal oxide that
protects the base metal.