INTRODUCTIO

N TO
RESEARCH
By Ma. Niña I. Adriano
WHAT IS RESEARCH?

⦁ Research is an organized and

systematic way of finding answers to
questions.
BENEFITS OF RESEARCH
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(REPLICABLE)

1. Identification of general problem/question

2. Literature review
3. Specify questions/hypotheses
4. Determination of design/methodology
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis/presentation
7. Interpretation of findings
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
1. Purpose clearly defined.
2. Research process detailed.
3. Research design thoroughly planned.
4. High ethical standards applied.
5. Limitations frankly revealed.
6. Adequate analysis for decision maker’s
needs.
7. Findings presented unambiguously.
8. Conclusions justified.
9. Researcher’s experience reflected.
NARROWING DOWN YOUR RESEARCH
TITLE
⦁ Teacher’s Daily Lesson Log Template
Generator and Portal
⦁ The Effectiveness of Modern Teaching
Method in Learning Mandarin as Foreign
Language of the English Majoring Students of
Bulacan State University Bustos Campus
amidst the presented issues due to Distance
Learning
⦁ The impact of Distance Learning on the
Academic Integrity of College Students as
perceived by BSEd major in English
SAMPLE TITLES

⦁ Factors Influencing the Students' Decision

to Drop Out in time of Pandemic
⦁ The Impact of Online Learning
Environment on the Learning Outcomes
of the Students
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
⦁ A research question is a question that provides
an explicit statement of what it is the researcher
wants to know about.
⦁ A research purpose can be presented as a
statement (for example, ‘I want to find out whether
(or why) . . .’), but a question forces the researcher
to be more explicit about what is to be
investigated.
⦁ A research question must have a question mark
at the end of it or else it is not a question. It must
be interrogatory.
⦁ A hypothesis is in a sense a form of research
question, but it is not stated as a question and
provides an anticipation of what will be found out
Lesson 2
RESEARCH APPROACHES
⦁ Research approaches are plans and the procedures for
research that span the steps from broad assumptions to
detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation.
⦁ The overall decision involves which approach should be
used to study a topic. Informing this decision should be
the philosophical assumptions the researcher brings to
the study; procedures of inquiry (called research
designs); and specific research methods of data
collection, analysis, and interpretation.
⦁ The selection of a research approach is also based on the
nature of the research problem or issue being
addressed, the researchers’ personal experiences, and
the audiences for the study.
RESEARCH APPROACHES
⦁ Qualitative research is an approach for
exploring and understanding the meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to a social or
human problem.
⦁ The process of research involves emerging
questions and procedures, data typically
collected in the participant’s setting, data
analysis inductively building from particulars to
general themes, and the researcher making
interpretations of the meaning of the data.
⦁ The final written report has a flexible structure.
Those who engage in this form of inquiry support a
way of looking at research that honors an inductive
style, a focus on individual meaning, and the
importance of reporting the complexity of a
situation.
RESEARCH APPROACHES
⦁ Quantitative research is an approach for
testing objective theories by examining the
relationship among variables.
⦁ These variables, in turn, can be measured,
typically on instruments, so that numbered data
can be analyzed using statistical procedures.
⦁ The final written report has a set structure
consisting of introduction, literature and theory,
methods, results, and discussion.
⦁ Like qualitative researchers, those who engage in
this form of inquiry have assumptions about
testing theories deductively, building in
protections against bias, controlling for
alternative or counterfactual explanations, and
being able to generalize and replicate the
findings.
RESEARCH APPROACHES
⦁ Mixed methods research is an approach to
inquiry involving collecting both
quantitative and qualitative data,
integrating the two forms of data, and using
distinct designs that may involve
philosophical assumptions and theoretical
frameworks.
⦁ The core assumption of this form of inquiry
is that the integration of qualitative and
quantitative data yields additional insight
beyond the information provided by either
the quantitative or qualitative data alone.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUALI AND
QUANTI
QUANTITATIVE DESIGNS
⦁ Survey research provides a quantitative or numeric
description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a
population by studying a sample of that population. It
includes cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using
questionnaires or structured interviews for data
collection—with the intent of generalizing from a sample
to a population (Fowler, 2008).
⦁ Experimental research seeks to determine if a specific
treatment influences an outcome. The researcher
assesses this by providing a specific treatment to one
group and withholding it from another and then
determining how both groups scored on an outcome.
⦁ Experiments include true experiments, with the random
assignment of subjects to treatment conditions, and
quasi-experiments that use nonrandomized
assignments (Keppel, 1991). Included within quasi-
experiments are single-subject designs and action
researches.
QUALITATIVE APPROACHES
⦁ Narrative research is a design of inquiry
from the humanities in which the researcher
studies the lives of individuals and asks one
or more individuals to provide stories about
their lives (Riessman, 2008).
⦁ This information is then often retold or
restoried by the researcher into a
narrative chronology.
⦁ Often, in the end, the narrative combines
views from the participant’s life with those
of the researcher’s life in a collaborative
narrative (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).
QUALITATIVE APPROACHES
⦁ Phenomenological research is a design of
inquiry coming from philosophy and
psychology in which the researcher describes
the lived experiences of individuals about a
phenomenon as described by participants.
⦁ This description culminates in the essence of
the experiences for several individuals who
have all experienced the phenomenon.
⦁ This design has strong philosophical
underpinnings and typically
involves conducting interviews
(Giorgi, 2009; Moustakas, 1994).
QUALITATIVE APPROACHES
⦁ Grounded theory is a design of inquiry
from sociology in which the researcher
derives a general, abstract theory of a
process, action, or
interaction grounded in the views of
participants.
⦁ This process involves using multiple stages
of data collection and the refinement and
interrelationship of categories of
information (Charmaz, 2006; Corbin &
Strauss, 2007, 2015).
QUALITATIVE APPROACHES

⦁ Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming

from anthropology and sociology in which
the researcher studies the shared patterns
of behaviors, language, and actions of an
intact cultural group in a natural setting
over a prolonged period of time.
⦁ Data collection often
involves observations and
interviews.
QUALITATIVE APPROACHES
⦁ Case studies are a design of inquiry found in
many fields, especially evaluation, in which
the researcher develops an in-depth
analysis of a case, often a program, event,
activity, process, or one or more individuals.
⦁ Cases are bounded by time and activity, and
researchers collect detailed information
using a variety of data collection
procedures over a sustained period of time
(Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009, 2012, 2014).
MIXED-METHODS DESIGN
⦁ Convergent mixed methods is a form of
mixed methods design in which the
researcher converges or merges quantitative
and qualitative data in order to provide a
comprehensive analysis of the research
problem.
⦁ In this design, the investigator typically
collects both forms of data at roughly the
same time and then integrates the
information in the interpretation of the overall
results.
⦁ Contradictions or incongruent findings are
MIXED-METHODS DESIGN
⦁ Explanatory sequential mixed methods is one in which
the researcher first conducts quantitative research,
analyzes the results and then builds on the results to
explain them in more detail with qualitative research.
⦁ It is considered explanatory because the initial
quantitative data results are explained further with the
qualitative data.
⦁ It is considered sequential because the initial
quantitative phase is followed by the qualitative phase.
⦁ This type of design is popular in fields with a strong
quantitative orientation (hence the project begins with
quantitative research), but it presents challenges of
identifying the quantitative results to further explore
and the unequal sample sizes for each phase of the
study.
 MIXED-METHODS DESIGN
⦁ Exploratory sequential mixed methods is the reverse
sequence from the explanatory sequential design. In
the exploratory sequential approach the researcher
first begins with a qualitative research phase and
explores the views of participants. The data are then
analyzed, and the information used to build into a
second, quantitative phase.
⦁ The qualitative phase may be used to build an
instrument that best fits the sample under study, to
identify appropriate instruments to use in the
follow- up quantitative phase, to develop an
intervention for an experiment, to design an app or
website, or to specify variables that need to go into
a follow-up
FIRST STEP: CONCEPTUALIZATION

⦁ Conceptualization, the art and practice of

discovery, is the first and some may
argue the most difficult part of research.
⦁ It is the process of not only selecting a
topic, but formulating a defensible and
researchable research problem
⦁ Good conceptualization involves moving
from a general topic to a clear research
problem.
SO WHAT IS YOUR TOPIC?

⦁ Inquiry-based learning in a blended

learning environment
⦁ Modular Approach in DepEd
⦁ Influence of Parental Support in
Pupils’ Studies

***Use literature in research

conceptualization
THE PROBLEM AND ITS One challenge that the
BACKGROUND education sector is facing
during this pandemic is the
use of modular approach in
learning for elementary
students.

Most General
While modular approach is ideal
for students who have poor to no
Less general internet access, it nevertheless
needs parental support and
intervention.

Concrete This is the situation in Sabang

Elementary School where majority of
the pupils who are guided by their
Research parents in their studies apparently
Rationale perform well, while those that are not
perform poorly.
Given this context, this study aims to find out
the differences in the performance of students
who experience parental support in their
studies as against pupils who lack support.
TASK 1 – APPLYING WHAT YOU
LEARNED!
⦁ In your respective
group, talk about
a research topic
that interests you.
⦁ Be sure to start with a
problem.
⦁ Try to narrow down
your topic.
⦁ Provide a context and a
rationale
⦁ Choose a
representative in your
group, and present your
RESEARCH QUESTION
A research question is the question around which you
center your research. It should be:
⦁ clear: it provides enough specifics that one’s audience
can easily understand its purpose without needing
additional explanation.
⦁ focused: it is narrow enough that it can be
answered thoroughly in the space the writing task
allows.
⦁ concise: it is expressed in the fewest possible words.
⦁ complex: it is not answerable with a simple “yes” or
“no,” but rather requires synthesis and analysis of
ideas and sources prior to composition of an answer.
⦁ arguable: its potential answers are open to debate
rather than accepted facts.
You should ask a question about an issue that you are
genuinely curious and/or passionate about.
SAMPLE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
⦁ Unclear: How should social networking sites
address the harm they cause?
⦁ Clear: What action should social
networking sites like MySpace and
Facebook take to protect users’ personal
information and privacy?
⦁ Unfocused: What is the effect on the
environment from global warming?
⦁ Focused: What is the most significant effect
of glacial melting on the lives of penguins in
Antarctica?
SAMPLE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

⦁ Too simple: How are doctors addressing

diabetes in the U.S.?
⦁ Appropriately Complex: What main
environmental, behavioral, and genetic
factors predict whether Americans will
develop diabetes, and how can these
commonalities be used to aid the
medical community in prevention of the
disease?
SAMPLE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

⦁ What is the effect of the intervention on

students’ reading performance?
⦁ What is the effect of the remedial
reading program on Grade 8 students’
level of reading comprehension?
RESEARCH QUESTIONS

⦁ In research, you have one main

research question and a number of sub-
research questions
⦁ If you have three variables, you need to
have a research question for each, plus
one question that asks about the
relationship of the variables.
⦁ Ideal number of research questions is
three to five.
HOW TO FORMULATE
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Process Example
Choose a Topic Students’ competence in doing
research
Narrow your topic Students’ competence in doing
using and or or research
(variables) and research training
Narrow your topic Lyceum of Subic students’
by asking 5Ws competence in
+1H doing research proposals (AR)
Ask a question What is the effect of research
you will be training on Lyceum of Subic
interested in students’ competence in doing
researching research?
FORMULATING SUB-RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
Variables Example
Students’ What is the level of Lyceum of
competence in Subic students’ competence
writing research in conducting research?
proposal
Research What is the level of Lyceum of Subic
writeshop students’ in conducting research
training after the research writeshop
training?
Relationship of Is there a significant difference
the between the level of Lyceum of Subic
variables students’ competence in conducting
action research before and after the
AR training?
SUPPLY THE EXAMPLE

Process Example
Choose a Topic Modular learning approach
Narrow your topic
using and or or
(variables)
Narrow your topic
by asking 5Ws
+1H
Ask a question
you will be
interested in
researching
HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

⦁ State your predictions about the possible

outcome of your study.
⦁ Propose a relationship between two or
more variables. An independent
variable is something the researcher
changes or controls. A dependent
variable is something the researcher
observes and measures.
⦁ Should be specific and testable.
HOW TO WRITE A HYPOTHESIS
Possible research Null Hypothesis
outcome
What is the effect of the The action research training
research training on Sabang has no effect on Sabang
Elementary teachers’ Elementary teachers’
competence at developing competence at developing
action research proposals? research proposals.
Possible research Alternative Hypothesis
outcome
What is the effect of action The action research training
research training on Sabang has a significant effect on
Elementary teachers’ Sabang Elementary teachers’
competence at developing competence at developing
action research proposals? research proposals.
TASK 3. WRITE YOUR MAIN
HYPOTHESIS
Possible research Null Hypothesis
outcome

Alternative Hypothesis
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

⦁ The CARS model – Creating a Research

Space

Move 1 Background

Move 2
Motivation
Move 3
Focus of the
research
MOVE 1: ESTABLISH A RESEARCH
TERRITORY (WHY IS THIS RESEARCH
IMPORTANT?)

Language for Establishing a Research

Territory
Blended learning has been extensively
studied...
Interest in online learning has been
growing...
Recent studies have focused on
differentiated instruction
Parental support has become a
MOVE 2: ESTABLISH A NICHE (WHAT
ARE THE GAPS?)

⦁ The niche is the reason or

motivation for the research.
⦁ How does your research relate to
the background you have given
⦁ Highlight gaps/problems in current
knowledge that justify or explain
the need for further investigation.
LANGUAGE FOR ESTABLISHING A NICHE

⦁ Previous studies of have

not examined...
⦁ Such studies are
unsatisfactory because...
⦁ One question that needs to be asked,
however, is...
⦁ Research on has mostly
MOVE 3: OCCUPY THE NICHE

⦁ Explain how you are responding to the

need for further investigation.
⦁ Explain how your research addresses the
need you identified in the previous step
⦁ List your specific research objectives,
questions, or methods.
HOW TO OCCUPY THE NICHE
Strategies for Occupying Language for Occupying
the Niche the Niche

Outline purpose(s) of your The purpose of this

research literature review is to...
List research questions or This study aims to...
hypotheses
Announce principal The evidence collected
research findings from this study
demonstrates...

Indicate the structure of This review

your o u t li n e s / e
F ea k . A c a de m i c
rAedsaepaterdcfhropmr: xWarimtinginfoer sG.r.a.duate
oSwcealsess, John and Christine
Students. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2013. Print.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

⦁ Should be current (within the last ten years

except for seminal studies)
⦁ Should be sourced from reputable journals
⦁ Should be sourced from literature (books,
articles, anything that are not journals)
⦁ Sources are Google scholars, Proquest,
ejournals.ph, among others
ICE
BREAKER
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

⦁ Theory is “a set of interrelated

constructs (variables), definitions, and
propositions that presents a systematic
view of phenomena by specifying
relations among variables, with the
purpose of explaining natural
phenomena”
⦁ Example is Pavlov’s Stimulus-Response
Theory
⦁ Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

It’s a map that

tells you where
you are going
and how to get
there
successfully.
 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
⦁ A written or visual representation of an
expected relationship between variables.
⦁ Variables are simply the characteristics
or properties that you want to study.
⦁ Generally developed based on a literature
review of existing studies and theories
about the topic.
EXAMPLE OF A CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK

IV DV

Arrow – signifies causative

Measurable, relationship
observable Line – signifies relationship
WHAT DO THE ARROWS SIGNIFY?
THE IPO MODEL
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE
MODEL?
ANOTHER EXAMPLE

Circles indicate that the variables are latent

(i.e. unobserved and then estimated).
CONCEPTUAL PARADIGM IN AR

Research training Students’ competence in cond

IV DV

This is the most common type of conceptual

paradigm in action research, with the arrow
signifying causative relationship.
HOW MUCH DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE
TOPICS?
TASK 2: IDENTIFYING VARIABLES,
CREATING A CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK, FORMULATING RESEARCH
QUESTIONS & HYPOTHESES
1.Using the topic that you presented,
identify the variables (characteristics
that you will investigate in the study).
2.Create a conceptual paradigm
showing the connection of variables.
3.Formulate three or four research
questions.
4. Present your group output.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
⦁ 1st paragraph – why is it important to
conduct the study
⦁ 2nd paragraph – main beneficiary (Sabang
Elem School)
⦁ 3rd paragraph – secondary beneficiary
⦁ 4th paragraph – importance to
proponents/researchers
⦁ 5th paragraph – importance to future
researchers
ANOTHER FORMAT FOR SIGNIFICANCE OF
THE STUDY
Sabang elementary school teachers. The
result of this study would benefit Sabang
elementary School teachers since their
competence at developing research would
improve and thereby enhance their teaching
practice.
Sabang elementary pupils. The students
of Sabang Elementary school would greatly
benefit from the study since they would be at
the receiving end of improved instruction
brought about by the research results.
SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
⦁ Scope broadly refers to the extent to
which you plan to study/research your
topic. This is done mainly to keep your
research practical and feasible.
⦁ It comes before the conduct of the study.

Eg. Location – it covers only Lyceum of

Subic
students
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
⦁ Limitations of the study refers to the
shortcomings of the study – things you believe
the research lacked or ways in which it could
have been better. It comes after the study.
⦁ Eg. Number of participants (not everyone
returned the survey questionnaire)
⦁ Sampling method – non-random sampling was
used, therefore findings are not generalizable
SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
This part provides the coverage and
the focus of the study.

1. General purpose of the study

2. The population or sample that you are
studying
3. The duration of the study
4. The topics or theories that you
will discuss
5. The geographical location covered in the
study
HOW ARE YOU?
THE METHOD SECTION
PURPOSE OF THE METHOD SECTION

⦁ The purpose of the methods

section is to describe your study so
that the readers can identify
exactly what you did.
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this
session, students are
expected to:
⦁ explore the different
parts/sections of
Methods;
⦁ identify the important
considerations in
writing the various
parts/sections of
Methods; and
⦁ write the Methods part
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Analysis
 1: TYPE OF RESEARCH
3 General Types of
Educational
Research
1) Descriptive —
survey, historical,
content analysis,
qualitative
(ethnographic,
narrative,
phenomenological,
grounded theory, and
case study)
2) Associational —
correlational, causal-
comparative
3) Intervention —
experimental, quasi-
experimental, action
research (sort of)
Source:
 2: RESPONDENTS
Who will be my
respondents?

Group
Comparison
a) Ex Post Facto (Causal-
Comparative): Groups are
already formed.
b) Experimental: Individuals
are randomly assigned.
c) Quasi-Experimental:
Groups are randomly
assigned.
Source:
3: SAMPLING METHODS
The main purpose of
survey research is to
describe the
characteristics of a
population.

This is usually
accomplished by
collecting data from a
sample. Therefore,
the first step in
sampling is to define
the population.
Source:
3: SAMPLING METHODS
Population Sample
Definiti The group Subsets of
on consisting of all people usually
people to whom used to conduct
the researchers studies.
wish to apply
their findings.
Data Parameters / Statistics /
Descriptive Inferential
No. of N
Example: we=were300interested in n
he= 20 level
reading
lfsubject
3rdt s in Bustos, the of ion would be all
grader populat n.uconn.edu/types-of-
3: SAMPLING METHODS
Choosing a Sample
1) Simple Random Sampling
2) Stratified Random Sampling
3)Convenience Sampling
4)Purposive Sampling

Source:
3: SAMPLING METHODS
1) SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• Each subject in the population has an
equal chance of being selected
regardless of what other subjects
have or will be selected. While this is
desirable, it may not be possible.

• Example: “Fishbowl” method can also

be employed.

Source:
3: SAMPLING METHODS
2) STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

Sample = 200 teachers

Elementary (200 X 50%) = 100
teachers
Junior high school (200 x 30%) =
60 teachers
Senior high school (200 x 20%) =
40 teachers

The main reason we do stratified is to

better understand each of the subgroups
(strata).
 3: SAMPLING METHODS
3) CONVENIENCE SAMPLING – Subjects are
selected because they are easily accessible. This
is one of the weakest sampling procedures. An
example might be surveying students in one’s
class. Generalization to a population can seldom
be made with this procedure.

“Researchers often need to select a convenience

sample or face the possibility that they will be
unable to do the study. Although a sample
randomly drawn from a population is more
desirable, it usually is better to do a study with a
convenience sample than to do no study at all–
assuming, of course, that the sample suits the
purpose of the study”S(oGuarclle, :Borg, & Gall,
1996, p.
 3: SAMPLING METHODS
4) PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
Subjects are selected because of
some characteristics.

Purposive sampling is popular in

qualitative research.

Source:
Task 1: Discuss with your groupmates
the possible intervention/strategy you
wish to do a research on.
What is your target population?
What sampling method will you
use?
5: INSTRUMENT
Characteristics of a Good
Research Instrument
⦁ Valid and reliable

⦁ Based on a conceptual
framework, or the
researcher's understanding
of how the particular
variables in the study connect
with each other
⦁ Must gather data suitable for
and relevant to the research
5: INSTRUMENT
Characteristics of a Good
Research Instrument
⦁ Able to test hypothesis
and/or answer proposed
research questions under
investigation
⦁ Free of bias and
appropriate for the context,
culture, and diversity of the
study site
⦁ Contains clear and
definite instructions to
use the instrument
5: INSTRUMENT
The kind of instrument you will use
depends on the kind of data you wish to
analyze.
1)List of Interview
Questions
2)Observation
Sheet / Checklist
3)Survey
Questionnaire
5: INSTRUMENT
Interviews
Structured Interview: A formal set
of questions posed to each
interviewee and recorded using a
standardized procedure.
Unstructured Interview: A less
formal set of questions; the
interviewer modifies the sequence
and wording of questions.
Non-Directive Interview: An
unguided interview, including open-
ended questions and use of
spontaneous engagement.
5: INSTRUMENT

Interviews
Focus Interview: An emphasis on
the interviewees subjective and
personal responses where the
interviewer engages to elicit
more information.
Focus Group Interview: A group
of selected participants are
asked about their opinion or
perceptions concerning a
particular topic.
5: INSTRUMENT
Observation
Structured Observations: Research
conducted at a specific place, time,
where participants are observed in
a standardised procedure. Rather
than writing a detailed description
of all behaviors observed,
researchers code observed
behaviors according to a previously
agreed upon scale.
Naturalistic Observation: The study
the spontaneous behavior of
participants in natural surroundings.
The researcher simply records what
5: INSTRUMENT
Observation
Participant Observation: A
variation on natural
observations where the
researcher joins in and becomes
part of the group they are
studying to get a deeper insight
into their lives.
5: INSTRUMENT
Survey Questionnaire
Free-Answer: Also referred
to as open-ended
questions, these include
unrestricted, essay, or
unguided questions.
Guided Response Type:
Recall-type questions
asking the participant to
recall a set of categories.
Multiple-choice or multiple
response questions.
NOTE: You may adopt or
6: DATA
COLLECTION
PROCEDURE

Existing Sources of
Data
• Attendance
• Grades
• + and – parent
communications
• Office referrals /
reports
• Retentions
• Special program
6: DATA
COLLECTION
PROCEDURE

Inventive Sources of
Data
❑ Interviews with parents
❑ Library use, by
grade, class
❑ Minutes of meetings
❑ Nature and amount of
in-school assistance
related to the
innovation
6: DATA
COLLECTION
PROCEDURE

Inventive Sources of
Data
❑ Record of peer
observations
❑ Student journals
❑ Teacher journals
❑ Videotapes of students:
whole class instruction
❑ Videotapes of students:
Differentiated
6: DATA
COLLECTION
PROCEDURE
From whom do we
collect data?
⮚ From everyone
when we are
concerned about
each student’s
performance.
⮚ From a sample
when we need to
increase our
6: DATA
COLLECTION
PROCEDURE
How often?
⮚ At regular
intervals

⮚ At critical
points
 7: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
⦁ Researchers are bound by
rules of ethics.
⦁ We usually cannot collect data
from minors without parental or
guardian permission.
⦁ All research participants must
give their permission to be
part of a study and they must
be given pertinent information
to make an “informed” consent
to participate.
⦁ Research participants have the
right to refuse to participate
Source: without penalty if they wish.
https://researchbasics.education.uconn.edu
 7: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
⦁ Participants should be
protected from physical or
psychological harm
(including loss of dignity, loss
of autonomy, and loss of
self- esteem).
⦁ Researchers must ensure
protection of privacy and
confidentiality.
⦁ Participants must be
protected against
Source: unjustifiable deception.
https://researchbasics.education.uconn.edu
8: DATA ANALYSIS

2 Types of Data
1) Quantitative
data –
ordinal,
interval, and
ratio
2) Qualitative
data –Texts,
pictures,
sounds
8: DATA ANALYSIS
8: DATA ANALYSIS

Phases (of Examples of Procedure

TA) for Each Step
1) Transcribing data:
Familiarizatio reading and re-reading;
n noting down initial
codes
2) Generating Coding interesting
Initial Codes features in the data in a
systematic fashion
across the data set,
collating
Source: Braun & Clarke. 2006). data
6-step Guide to Goodrelevant
Thematic Analysis.
 to
each code
3) Searching Collating codes into
for potential
8: DATA ANALYSIS
Phases (of Examples of Procedure
TA) for
Each
Step
4) Involved Checking if the themes
Reviewing work in relation to the
Themes coded extracts and the
entire data- set;
generate a thematic
map
5) Defining Ongoing analysis to
and Naming refine the specifics for
Source: Braun & Clarke. 2006). 6-step Guide to Good Thematic Analysis.
Themes each theme; generation
of clear names
for each theme
6) Producing Final opportunity for
analysis
8: DATA ANALYSIS

Organizing Data
⦁ Keep it simple.
⦁ Disaggregate numbers from
interviews and other
qualitative types of data.
⦁ Plan plenty of time to look
over and organize the
data.
⦁ Seek technical assistance if
needed.
8: DATA ANALYSIS
Analyzing Data
⦁ What important points do the data
reveal?
⦁ What patterns/trends do you note?
What might be some possible
explanations?
⦁ Do the data vary by sources?
Why might the variations exist?
⦁ Are there any results that are
different from what you expected?
What might be some hypotheses
to explain the difference (s)?
⦁ What actions appear to
be indicated?
8: DATA ANALYSIS

Taking Action
⦁ Do the data warrant action?
⦁ What might be some
short- term actions?
⦁ What might be some
long- term actions?
⦁ How will we know if our
actions have been effective?
⦁ What benchmarks might we
expect to see along the way
to effectiveness ?
WHAT TYPE OF DATA DO
YOU NEED FOR YOUR
RESEARCH? HOW DO YOU
PLAN TO COLLECT AND
ANALYZE YOUR NEEDED
DATA?
SHARE YOUR ANSWERS
WITH THE GROUP.
“Research teaches a man to admit he
is
wrong
and to be proud of the fact that he
does so,
rather than try with all his energy
to defend an unsound plan
because he is afraid that admission of
error
is a confession of weakness
when rather it is a sign of strength.”
- H.E Stocher
Thank you very
much!
REFERENCES:
⦁ Gall, M. D., Borg, W.R., & Gall, J.P.
(1996). Educational Research:
An
Introduction. White Plains, NY: Longman.
⦁ Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation
and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications.
⦁ Columbia University. Research instrument
examples.
https://www.tc.columbia.edu/media/administr
ation/institutional-review-board-/irb-
submission---documents/Published_Study-
Material-Examples.pdf