❑Our parents have been using tamarind or lemon juice to give

shiny look to the copper vessels.

❑Our mothers never store pickles in metal containers.
❑Common salt and sugar has often been used as an effective
preservative. th
ACIDS AND BASES :- Robert Boyle – 17 century - first to label substances
as Acids And Bases.
Acids Bases
(i) taste sour (i) taste bitter
(ii) are corrosive to metals (ii) feel slippery or soapy
(iii) change blue litmus red (iii) change red litmus blue
(iv) become less acidic on mixing with (iv) become less basic on mixing with
bases acids
While Robert Boyle was successful in characterising
acids and bases he could not explain their behaviour on
the basis of their chemical structure. This was
accomplished by Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius in
the late nineteenth century. He proposed that on
dissolving in water, many compounds dissociate and
form ions and their properties are mainly the
properties of the ions they form. Governed by this, he
identified the ions furnished by acids and bases
responsible for their characteristic behaviour and gave
their definitions.
Acids: - An acid is a substance that furnishes hydrogen ions ( H+ )
when dissolved in water.
Aqueous solution hydrochloric HCl (aq) dissociates as: -

EXAMPLES: -
(i) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) in gastric juice
(ii) Carbonic acid (H2CO3) in soft drinks
(iii) Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in lemon and many fruit
(iv) Citric acid in oranges and lemons
(v) Acetic acid in vinegar
(vi) Tannic acid in tea
(vii) Nitric acid (HNO3) used in laboratories
(viii) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) used in laboratories
Bases: - A Base is a substance that furnishes hydroxide ions ( OH – )

when dissolved in water.

Sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq), in its aqueous solutions, dissociates as: -

EXAMPLES: -
(i) Sodium hydroxide { NaOH } or caustic soda used in washing soaps.
(ii) Potassium hydroxide { KOH } or potash used in bathing soaps.
(iii) Calcium hydroxide { Ca(OH)2 } or lime water used in white wash.
(iv) Magnesium hydroxide { Mg(OH) 2 } or milk of magnesia used to
control acidity.
(v) Ammonium hydroxide { NH 4OH } used in hair dyes.
Indicators: - Substances that show one colour in an acidic
medium & another colour in a basic medium are
called acid-base indicators.

Colour in acidic Colour in Neutral Colour in Basic

Indicator
solutions solutions solutions
Litmus Red Purple Blue

Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink

Methyl orange Red Orange Yellow

 PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
Properties of Acids: -

1. Taste : - SOUR
2. Action on Indicators: -
3. Conduction of electricity and dissociation of acids: -
When acids are dissolved in water they produce H+ ions which help in
conducting the electricity. This process is known as dissociation. These ions
do not exist as H+ in the solution but combine with water molecules as shown
below:

The H3O+ ions are called hydronium ions. These ions are also
represented as H+(aq).
NOTE: - All hydrogen-containing compounds are not acids. Eg, Ethyl alcohol
(C2H5OH) and glucose (C6H12O6) contain hydrogen but do not produce H+ ion on
dissolving in water. Their solutions do not conduct electricity and are not acidic.
 Strong and Weak acids

Strong Acids Weak Acids

The acids which completely dissociate The acids which dissociate partially
in water are called strong acids in water are called weak acids.
Some strong acids All organic acids like acetic acid and some
1. HCl Hydrochloric Acid inorganic acids are weak acids because
2. HBr Hydrobromic Acid their dissociation is only partial.
3. HI Hydroiodic Acid Some Weak acids
4. HClO4 Perchloric Acid (a) CH3COOH Ethanoic (acetic) acid,
5. HClO3 Chloric Acid (b) HF Hydrofluoric acid
6. H2SO4 Sulphuric Acid (c) HCN Hydrocynic acid
7. HNO3 Nitric Acid (d) C6H5COOH Benzoic acid
4. Reaction of Acids with Metals: -
Observations: -
➢ When dilute sulphuric acid is added to zinc
granules, hydrogen gas is formed. The gas
bubbles rise through the solution.
➢ When the burning match stick is
brought near the mouth of the test tube
the gas in the test tube burns with a
‘pop’ sound. This confirms that the gas
that evolved is hydrogen gas.
In General, Metal displaces hydrogen from
acids and hydrogen gas is released. The
metal combines with the remaining part of
the acid and forms a compound called salt.
5. Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Observations: -

On passing the evolved carbon dioxide gas

through lime water, Ca(OH)2, the later turns
milky due to the formation of white
precipitate of calcium carbonate.
If excess of carbon dioxide gas is passed through lime water, the white
precipitate of calcium carbonate disappears due to the formation of water
soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate.

Metal carbonate + Acid Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Metal hydrogen carbonate + Acid Salt + Water +

+ Carbon dioxide
6. Reaction of Acids with metal oxides: -
Observations: -
➢ When a mixture of dilute HCl and copper oxide is
mixed, the black particles of copper oxide can be seen
suspended in colourless dilute hydrochloric acid.
➢ As the reaction proceeds, the black particles slowly
dissolve and the colour of the solution becomes bluish
green due to the formation of copper (II) chloride
(cupric chloride) – a salt.
7. Reaction of acids with bases: -
Observations: -
➢ When a drop of phenolphthalein is added to a solution of NaOH the solution becomes pink in
colour.
➢ On adding HCl, the colour of the solution fades due to the reaction between HCl and NaOH.
➢ When the whole of NaOH has reacted with HCl, the solution becomes colourless.
➢ On adding NaOH, the solution becomes pink again.
Neutralisation reaction: - The reaction between an acid and a base
to give salt and water is known as a neutralisation reaction.
8. Corrosive Nature: -
The ability of acids to attack various substances like metals, metal oxides, and
hydroxides is referred to as their corrosive nature.

Question: - ‘Strong’ is different from ‘corrosive’. Justify this statement for Acids
Solution: - Corrosive action of acids is NOT related to their strength. It is
related to the negatively charged part of the acid. For example, hydrofluoric
acid, (HF )is a weak acid. Yet, it is so corrosive that it attacks and dissolves
even glass. The fluoride ion attacks the silicon atom in silica glass while the
hydrogen ion attacks the oxygen of silica (SiO2) in the glass.
 PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
Properties of Bases: -

1. Taste & Touch: - BITTER TASTE & SOAPY TO TOUCH

2. Action on Indicators: -
3. Conduction of electricity and dissociation of bases: -
When bases are dissolved in water they produce OH– ions which
help in conducting the electricity.

NOTE: -
✓All bases DO NOT dissolve in water.
✓ An alkali is a base that dissolves in water.
✓All alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies.
 Strong and Weak Bases

Strong Base Weak Base

These bases are completely dissociated Weak bases do not furnish OH – ions
in water to form the cation and by dissociation.
hydroxide ion (OH–).
For example, potassium hydroxide dissociates as

1. LiOH Lithium hydroxide

2. NaOH Sodium hydroxide The two half arrows are used in the
3. KOH Potassium hydroxide
equation to indicate that equilibrium is
4. RbOH Rubidium hydroxide
5. CsOH Caesium hydroxide reached before the reaction is completed.
6. Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide Examples of weak bases
7. Sr(OH)2 Strontium hydroxide (i) NH4OH, (ii) Cu(OH)2
8. Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide (iii) Cr(OH)3 (iv) Zn(OH)2 etc.
4. Reaction of Bases with Metals: -
Sodium hydroxide reacts with zinc as shown below:

Bases react with active metals liberating hydrogen gas.

5. Reaction of Bases with Non-Metal Oxides: -
Bases react with oxides of non-metals like CO2, SO2, SO3, P2O5 etc. to
form salt and water.
6. Reaction of Bases with Acids: -
7. Caustic Nature: -

➢Strong bases like sodium hydroxide and potassium

hydroxide are corrosive towards organic matter and
break down the proteins of the skin and flesh to a
pasty mass.
➢This action is called caustic action and it is due to this
property that sodium hydroxide is called ‘caustic soda’
and potassium hydroxide is called ‘caustic potash’.
The term ‘caustic’ is not used for the corrosive action of acids.
 Neutral, Acidic and Basic Solutions
(i) Neutral solutions
In all neutral aqueous solutions, the concentrations of H +(aq) & OH–
(aq) ions remain equal i.e.
[H+] = [OH– ]
(ii) Acidic solutions
+
Acids furnish H (aq) ions in their solutions resulting in an increase
in their concentration.
[H+] > [OH– ]
(iii) Basic solutions
Bases furnish OH–(aq) ions in their solutions resulting in an increase
in their concentration.
[H+] < [OH– ]
pH Scale
 Importance of pH in everyday life
(a) pH in humans and animals
➢ Most of the biochemical reactions taking place in our body are in a narrow
pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. Even a small change in pH disturbs these processes.

(b) Acid Rain

➢ When the pH of rain-water falls below 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid
rain flows into rivers, the pH of the river water also falls and it becomes
acidic. As a result, the survival of aquatic life becomes difficult.

(c) pH in plants
➢ Plants have healthy growth only when the soil has a specific pH range
which should be neither highly alkaline nor highly acidic.
(d) In digestive system
Our stomach produce hydrochloric acid which
helps in the digestion of food. When we eat
spicy food, the stomach produces too much
acid which causes ‘acidity’ i.e. irritation and
sometimes pain too. To get rid of this we use
‘antacids’ which are bases like ‘milk of
magnesia’ (suspension of magnesium
hydroxide in water).
(e) Self defence of animals and plants
➢A Bee sting causes severe pain and a burning sensation. It
is due to the presence of methanoic acid in it. The use of a
mild base like baking soda can provides relief from pain.
➢Some plants like ‘nettle plant’ have fine stinging hair
which injects ethanoic acid into the body of any animal or
human being that comes in its contact. This causes severe
pain and a burning sensation.
✓The leaves of the dock plant that grows near the nettle
plant when rubbed on the affected area provide relief.
(f) Tooth decay
➢ Tooth enamel is made of calcium phosphate which is the
hardest substance in our body and can withstand the effect of
various food articles that we eat.

➢ If the mouth is not washed properly after every meal, the food
particles and sugar remaining in the mouth undergo
degradation due to the bacteria present in the mouth.

➢ This process produces acids and the pH goes below 5.5.

➢ The acidic condition thus created corrodes the tooth enamel

and in the long run, can result in tooth decay.
 SALTS
Salts are ionic compounds made of a cation other than H +
–
ion and an anion other than OH ion.
Formation of salts: -
1. By Neutralization of acids and bases
2. By action of acids on metals

3. By action of acids on metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

Type of salt and the nature of its aqueous solution

Salt of Nature of pH
S.No
Acid Base Salt Solution (at 25°C)
1. Strong Strong Neutral pH = 7
2. Weak Strong Basic pH > 7
3. Strong Weak Acidic pH < 7
4. Weak Weak More information required ---------
Sodium Hydroxide - NaOH
 Sodium Hydroxide - NaOH
(a) Manufacture: -
✓ When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium
chloride (called brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide.
✓ The process is called the chlor-alkali process because of the
products formed – chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium
hydroxide.
✓ Chlorine gas is given off at the anode, and hydrogen gas at the
cathode.
✓ Sodium hydroxide solution is formed near the cathode.
 SOME COMMONLY USED SALTS
1. Baking soda - Sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3
(a) Manufacture: -

✓ Baking soda is manufactured by Solvay’s process.

✓ It is mainly used for manufacturing washing soda but baking
soda is obtained as an intermediate.
Action of heat:- On heating, sodium hydrogen carbonate is
converted into sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide is given off.

QUESTION: - What is the difference between Baking Soda

and Baking Powder?
Answer: - On heating during baking, baking soda gives off
carbon dioxide. It is this carbon dioxide that raises the dough.
The sodium carbonate produced on heating the baking soda
gives a bitter taste. Therefore, instead of using baking soda
alone, baking powder is used. The tartaric acid present in it
neutralises the sodium carbonate to avoid its bitter taste. Cakes
and pastries are made fluffy and soft by using baking powder.
(b) Uses
1. Used for cooking certain foods.
2. For making baking powder (a mixture of sodium
hydrogen carbonate and tartaric acid).
3. In medicines - Being a mild and non-corrosive base,
baking soda is used in medicines to neutralise the
excessive acid in the stomach and provide relief. Mixed
with solid edible acids such as citric or tartaric acid, it is
used in effervescent drinks to cure indigestion.
4. In soda acid fire extinguishers
 SOME COMMONLY USED SALTS
2. Washing soda - Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 . 10H2O
(a) Manufacture: -
✓ Washing soda is manufactured by Solvay’s process.
✓ Sodium carbonate is obtained by calcination (strong heating in
a furnace in the absence of air) of sodium hydrogen carbonate
and then recrystallising from water:
(b) Uses
1. It is used in the manufacture of caustic
soda, glass, soap, borax powders, and in the
paper industry.
2. For removing the permanent hardness of
the water.
3. As a cleansing agent for domestic purpose.
 SOME COMMONLY USED SALTS
3. Plaster of Paris - Calcium sulphate hemi hydrate,
𝟏
CaSO4 . H2O Or 2CaSO4 . H2O
(a) Manufacture: - 𝟐

✓ The only difference between gypsum (CaSO4 . 2H2O) and plaster

𝟏
of Paris (CaSO4 . H2O ) is in the less amount of water of
𝟐
crystallization.
✓ When gypsum is heated at about 100° (373 K) temperature, it
loses a part of its water of crystallization to form:
(b) Uses
1. In making casts for the manufacture of toys and statues.
2. In medicine for making plaster casts to hold fractured bones
in place while they set. It is also used for making casts in
dentistry.
3. For making the surface of walls and ceiling smooth.
4. For making decorative designs on ceilings, walls, and pillars.
5. For making‘ chalk’ for writing on the blackboard.
6. For making fire proof materials.
 SOME COMMONLY USED SALTS
4. Bleaching Powder - Calcium oxychloride, CaOCl2
(a) Manufacture: -
✓ It is manufactured by Hasen-Clever Method..
✓ Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry
slaked lime Ca(OH)2
(b) Uses

1. In the textile industry for bleaching of cotton and linen.

2. In the paper industry for bleaching of wood pulp.

3. In making wool unshrinkable.

4. Used as disinfectant and germicide for sterilization of water.

5. For the manufacture of chloroform.

6. Used as an oxidizing agent in the chemical industry.

1. Why should curd and sour substances
not be kept in brass and copper vessels?

Ans: -The acids present in the sour foodstuffs

like curd and sour substances, react with
copper or brass vessels to form toxic products
by liberating hydrogen gas. The production of
toxic products spoils the food and is even
injurious to our health.
2. Which gas is usually liberated when an
acid reacts with a metal? Illustrate with an
example. How will you test for the presence
of this gas?

3. Metal compound A reacts with dilute

hydrochloric acid to produce effervescence.
The gas evolved extinguishes a burning
candle. Write a balanced chemical equation
for the reaction if one of the compounds
formed is calcium chloride.
4. Why do HCl, HNO3, etc., show acidic
characters in aqueous solutions while
solutions of compounds like alcohol and
glucose do not show acidic character?

5. Why does an aqueous solution of acid

conduct electricity?

6. Why does dry HCl gas not change the

colour of the dry litmus paper?
5. Why does an aqueous solution of acid
conduct electricity?
Ans: - In an aqueous solution, acids
dissociate to create H⁺ ions which joins with a
water molecule to generate the hydronium ion
(H3O ). This H3O is responsible for electrical
+ +

conduction.
6. Why does dry HCl gas not change the
colour of the dry litmus paper?

Ans: - Dry HCL does not dissociate to give

H ions. Acids dissociate to give ions only in
+

the aqueous solution. So, colour of litmus will

not show any change in colour.
 7. While diluting an acid, why is it recommended
that the acid should be added to water and not
water to the acid?
Ans: - The reaction of acid and water is an
exothermic reaction. So, when water is added to
acid, the heat evolved changes water(in small
quantity) to steam explosively which can splash
the acid on our face or clothes and cause acid
burns. But when acid is added to water, the heat
evolved get absorbed by large amount of water
already present in the container.
8. How is the concentration of
hydronium ions (H 3O ) affected when
+

a solution of an acid is diluted?

9. How is the concentration of hydroxide

–
ions ( OH ) affected when excess base is
dissolved in a solution of sodium
hydroxide?
10. You have two solutions, A & B. The pH of
solution A is 6 & pH of solution B is 8. Which
solution has more hydrogen ion
concentration? Which of these is acidic and
which one is basic?

11. Do basic solutions also have H + (aq) ions? If

yes, then why are these basic?
12. What effect does the concentration of H (aq)
+

ions have on the nature of the solution?

Ans: - If the concentration of hydrogen ions in a

solution increases, the solution becomes acidic;
conversely, if the concentration of hydrogen
ions in a solution falls, the solution becomes
basic.
13. Under what soil condition do you think a
farmer would treat the soil of his fields with
quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime
(calcium hydroxide) or chalk (calcium
carbonate)?

Ans: - If the soil is acidic, it affects the growth of

cultivation. In order to neutralize the acidic
effect, the farmer would treat the soil with
quicklime or slaked lime or chalk.
14. What is the common name of the
compound CaOCl2?

15. Name the substance which, on treatment

with chlorine yields bleaching powder.

16. Name the sodium compound which is

used for softening hard water.
17. What will happen if a solution of
sodium hydrocarbonate is heated? Give
the equation of the reaction involved.

18. Write an equation to show the

reaction between Plaster of Paris and
water.
 EXERCISES
1. A solution turns red litmus blue, its pH is
likely to be
(a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 10

2. A solution reacts with crushed egg-shells

to give a gas that turns lime-water milky.
The solution contains

(a) NaCl (b) HCl (c) LiCl (d) KCl

 EXERCISES
3. 10 mL of a solution of NaOH is found to be
completely neutralised by 8 mL of a given solution
of HCl. If we take 20 mL of the same solution of
NaOH, the amount HCl solution (the same solution
as before) required to neutralise it will be

(a) 4 mL (b) 8 mL (c) 12 mL d) 16 mL

4. Which one of the following types of
medicines is used for treating
indigestion?
(a)Antibiotic (b) Analgesic

(c) Antacid (d) Antiseptic

5. Write word equations and then balanced
equations for the reaction taking place when –
(a) dilute sulphuric acid reacts with zinc granules.
(b) dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium
ribbon.
(c) dilute sulphuric acid reacts with aluminum
powder.
(d) dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with iron filings.
6. Compounds such as alcohols and
glucose also contain hydrogen but are
not categorised as acids. Describe an
activity to prove it.
7. Why does distilled water not conduct
electricity, whereas rain water does?
8. Why do acids not show acidic
behaviour in the absence of water?
9. Five solutions A,B,C,D and E when tested with
a universal indicator showed pH as 4,1,11,7 and
9, respectively. Which solution is
(a) neutral?
(b) strongly alkaline?
10. Equal lengths of magnesium ribbons are taken in test tubes A and B. Hydrochloric
acid (HCl) is added to test tube A, while acetic acid (CH3COOH) is added to test
tube B. Amount and concentration taken for both the acids are same. In which test

(c) strongly acidic?

tube will the fizzing occur more vigorously and why?
11. Fresh milk has a pH of 6. How do you think the pH will change as it turns into
curd? Explain your answer.

(d) weakly acidic?

(e) weakly alkaline?
Arrange the pH in increasing order of hydrogen-
ion concentration.
11. Fresh milk has a pH of 6. How do you think
the pH will change as it turns into curd?
Explain your answer.
Ans: - The pH of fresh milk is 6 which is acidic
in nature. This milk is converted to curd by
the action of bacteria which further
increases the acidity of the curd and
decreases its pH value from 6 and it becomes
less than 6.
12. A milkman adds a very small amount of
baking soda to fresh milk.
(a) Why does he shift the pH of the fresh milk
from 6 to slightly alkaline?
(b) Why does this milk take a long time to set
as curd?
Ans: - (a) He does this so that the milk can be
kept safer for drinking for a relatively longer
time.
12. A milkman adds a very small amount of baking
soda to fresh milk.
(b) Why does this milk take a long time to set as
curd?
Ans: - (b) For curdling milk, an acidic medium
is required. When small quantity of baking
soda is added, the medium becomes slightly
basic. All the acids present are neutralised.
Due to this, a long time is required for this milk
(containing small amount of baking soda) to
set.
13. Plaster of Paris should be stored
in a moisture-proof container.
Explain why ?
10. Equal lengths of magnesium ribbons are taken in test tubes A and B. Hydrochloric

14. What is a neutralisation reaction?

acid (HCl) is added to test tube A, while acetic acid (CH3COOH) is added to test
tube B. Amount and concentration taken for both the acids are same. In which test
tube will the fizzing occur more vigorously and why?
11. Fresh milk has a pH of 6. How do you think the pH will change as it turns into

Give two examples.

curd? Explain your answer.

15. Give two important uses of

washing soda and baking soda.