Q.1 What Is A Norm-Referenced Test?

Discuss Its Purposes,

Content, Item Characteristics And Scoring Interpretation.
Test

A test is a set or collection of questions, tasks, or problems that are designed to see if a
person understands a subject or to measure their ability to do something. An examination or test
is an educational assessment intended to measure a test-taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude,
physical fitness, or classification in many other topics.

Norm-Referenced Test

A norm-referenced test is a type of assessment used in education that allows teachers to

compare a student’s results to someone else in their peer group. Often used in conjunction with a
criterion-referenced test, which assesses student progress compared to some predetermined
standard, a norm-referenced test allows an educator to see how a student measures up against
someone in a similar cohort. A norm-referenced test refers to a method of evaluation that
produces results allowing an educator to see if a student or group of students has performed
better or worse than a controlled, reference group. Norm-referenced tests, sometimes called
NRTs, utilize multiple-choice format and some open-ended questions to obtain results.
Scholastic Assessment Tests and Graduate Record Examinations may be considered examples of
norm-referenced tests.

A norm-referenced test is a type of test, assessment, or evaluation which yields an

estimate of the position of the tested individual in a predefined population, with respect to the
trait being measured. Assigning scores on such tests may be described as relative
grading, marking on a curve or grading on a curve. It is a method of assigning grades to the
students in a class in such a way as to obtain or approach a pre-specified distribution of these
grades having a specific mean and derivation properties, such as a normal distribution. The term
"curve" refers to the bell curve, the graphical representation of the probability density of the
normal distribution, but this method can be used to achieve any desired distribution of the grades
for example, a uniform distribution. The estimate is derived from the analysis of test scores and
possibly other relevant data from a sample drawn from the population. That is, this type of test
identifies whether the test taker performed better or worse than other test takers, not whether the
test taker knows either more or less material than is necessary for a given purpose. The
term normative assessment is used when the reference population is the peers of the test taker.

A norm-referenced test scores a test by comparing a person's performance to others who

are similar. You can remember norm-referenced by thinking of the word 'normal.' The object of a
norm-referenced test is to compare a person's performance to what is normal for other people
like him or her. Think of it’s kind of like a race. We don't know if she finished in 30 seconds or
30 minutes; we only know that she finished after two other runners and ahead of everyone else.
Norm-referenced tests are a good way to compensate for any mistakes that might be made in
designing the measurement tool. Norm-referenced refers to standardized tests that are designed
to compare and rank test takers in relation to one another. Norm-referenced tests report whether
test takers performed better or worse than a hypothetical average student, which is determined by
comparing scores against the performance results of a statistically selected group of test takers,
typically of the same age or grade level, who have already taken the exam.

Calculating norm-referenced scores is called the “norming process,” and the comparison
group is known as the “norming group.” Norming groups typically comprise only a small subset
of previous test takers, not all or even most previous test takers. Test developers use a variety of
statistical methods to select norming groups, interpret raw scores, and determine performance
levels. Norm-referenced scores are generally reported as a percentage or percentile ranking. For
example, a student who scores in the seventieth percentile performed as well or better than
seventy percent of other test takers of the same age or grade level, and thirty percent of students
performed better. Norm-referenced testing is a category of testing method/evaluation/assessment
technique is used to rank an individual who happens to exist within a predefined group. A good
example of such a technique testing is one that can determine all students and rank them in descending
order by using the end of semester exams and pick out the best performing student out of the lot.
Therefore this testing technique can determine who performed better or worse than others relative to
the whole predefined population. Consequently, in simple layman terms, NRT is a testing technique
that is used to compare performance between peers or individuals who are subjected to the same
learning conditions
Purposes:

The purpose of norm reference test is to rank each student with respect to the
achievement of others in broad areas of knowledge. The purpose of it to discriminate between
high and low achievers. The major reason for using a norm-referenced test is to classify
students. Norm Reference Tests are designed to highlight achievement differences between and
among students to produce a dependable rank order of students across a continuum of
achievement from high achievers to low achievers. School systems might want to classify
students in this way so that they can be properly placed in remedial or gifted programs. These
types of tests are also used to help teachers select students for different ability level reading or
mathematics instructional groups. With norm-referenced tests, a representative group of students
is given the test prior to its availability to the public. The scores of the students who take the test
after publication are then compared to those of the norm group. While norm-referenced tests
ascertain the rank of students, criterion-referenced tests determine what test takers can do and
what they know, not how they compare to others.

Most commonly, norm-referenced tests use a national peer group. The key goal of these
tests is to compare one student's performance to others in a predetermined peer group. Students
take an assessment. Teachers can then analyze their scores to learn more about the students'
performance. Norm-referenced measures compare a person’s knowledge or skills to the
knowledge or skills of the norm group. The composition of the norm group depends on the
assessment. For student assessments, the norm group is often a nationally representative sample
of several thousand students in the same grade. Norm groups may also be further narrowed by
age, English Language Learner status, socioeconomic level, race, or many other characteristics.
Technique is used to rank an individual who happens to exist within a predefined group

Content:

Measures broad skill areas sampled from a variety of textbooks, syllabi, and the judgments
of curriculum experts. This type of test determines a student's placement on a normal distribution
curve. Students compete against each other on this type of assessment. This is what is being
referred to with the phrase, 'grading on a curve'. Norm-referenced tests compare an examinee’s
performance to that of other examinees. Standardized examinations such as the SAT are norm-
referenced tests. The goal is to rank the set of examinees so that decisions about their opportunity
for success can be made. Deals with broad skills areas with samples from a
variety of textbooks.

Item characteristics:

Each skill is usually tested by less than four items. Items vary in difficulty. Items are
selected that discriminate between high and low achievers. A norm-referenced test is a uniform
test. It ranks and compares students in relation to one another. Also, they measure performance
on the basis of the theoretical average. Besides, it compares the result of a statistically selected
group. They measure the performance of a student in comparison to all students. But it does not
define the meaning of all. Thus, they measure the success of an educational restructuring against
fixed aims. It means that the norms were traditionally set. And the score level is set at 50 percent.
But, this goal is really high to achieve if we talk about all the students.

The norms for grading are set by teachers according to them. But they have to judge the
performance of students. Also, the level of knowledge of both is different. The difficulty level of
scores changes from year to year. Also, the passing rates of students vary from class to class.
Likewise, 4th grade has different difficulty level and 10th grade has a different difficulty level.
In norm reference test the students have fear of failure. Besides, it compares their performance
with other students. Give students a chance to improve their performance. Also, students can
know how much they have to prepare to compete with others. It means that students should take
their performance confidently. Also, they should work hard to improve their performance.

Scope interpretation:

Each individual is compared with other examinees and assigned a score--usually

expressed as a percentile, a grade equivalent score, or a stanine. Student achievement is reported
for broad skill areas, although some normreferenced tests do report student achievement for
individual skills. The advantage of a norm-referenced test is that it shows us how our student is
doing related to other students across the country. They are good for using the placement of
students at the beginning and then again four or six months later, or at the end of the year. This
will show growth over the period of the time. Norm-referenced tests along with informal
observational evaluation are useful for showing student growth over time. They aren't to be used
for grading though they can be one element in a total grade. One must remember we can't expect
great growth, if any, over short periods of times, particularly as shown on a norm-referenced test.
Compare each individual test giver with other test givers. It expresses
scores in percentage or an equal grade. Achievement report of students is
for broad areas. But some report for individual skills.

Conclusion

A norm-referenced test scores a test by comparing a person's performance to others who

are similar. You can remember norm-referenced by thinking of the word 'normal.' The object of a
norm-referenced test is to compare a person's performance to what is normal for other people
like him or her. Norm-referenced tests are a good way to compensate for any mistakes that might
be made in designing the measurement tool. Therefore this testing technique can determine who
performed better or worse than others relative to the whole predefined population.

Reference
1. Popham, J. W. (1975). Educational evaluation. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall, Inc.
2. Bond, L. (1996). Norm-and criterion-referenced testing. Practical Assessment, Research
& Evaluation, 5
Q.2 Discuss Different Domains Of Learning Objectives As
Conceived By Bloom, With Reference To Science Education.
Learning Objectives

Education is, without any doubt, a purposeful activity. Every step of this activity has
particular purpose. Therefore learning objectives are a prime and integral part of teaching
learning process. A learning objective refers to the statement of what students will obtain
through instruction of certain content. In other words ‘an objective is a description of a
performance you want learners to be able to exhibit before you consider them competent. An
objective describes an intended result of instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself.
Learning objectives have a unique importance. The role learning objectives play includes but is
not limited to the following three: firstly, they guide and direct for the selection of instructional
content and procedures. Secondly, they facilitate the appropriate evaluation of the instruction.
Thirdly, learning objectives help the students to organize their efforts to accomplish the intent of
the instruction.

Characteristics of the learning Objectives:

Good objectives have three essential characteristics:

1. Behaviour - Firstly, an objective must explain the competency to be learned, the intended
change in the behaviour of the learners. For this purpose it is necessary to use the verb in
the statement of the objective which identifies an observable behaviour of the learner.

2. Criterion - Secondly, an objective must clarify the intended degree of performance. In

other words objective should not only indicate the change in the behaviour of the students
but also the level or degree of that change as well. For this purpose the statement of the
objective must indicate a degree of accuracy, a quantity or proportion of correct
responses or the like.

3. Conditions - Thirdly, an objective should describe the conditions under which the
learning will occur. In other words, under what circumstances the learner will develop the
competency? What will the learner be given or already be expected to know to
accomplish the learning? For example, a condition could be stated as, told a case study,
 shown a diagram, given a map, after listening a lecture or observing a demonstration,
after through reading, etc.

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:

Benjamin Bloom formulated a classification of "the goals of the educational process".

Eventually, Bloom established a hierarchy of educational objectives for categorizing level of
abstraction of questions that commonly occur in educational settings. This classification is
generally referred to as Bloom's Taxonomy. Taxonomy means 'a set of classification principles',
or 'structure'. The followings are six levels in this taxonomy: Knowledge, Comprehension,
Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. The detail is given below: Cognitive domain:
The cognitive domain; Bloom, 1956 involves the development of intellectual skills. This
includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in
the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six levels of this domain starting
from the simplest cognitive behaviour to the most complex. The levels can be thought of as
degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next ones can
take place. Affective domain: The affective domain is related to the manner in which we deal
with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and
attitudes. The five levels of this domain include: receiving, responding, valuing, organization,
and characterizing by value. Psychomotor domain: Focus is on physical and kinesthetic skills.
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill
areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision,
distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. There are seven levels of this domain from the
simplest behaviour to the most complex. Domain levels include: Perception, set, guided
response, mechanism, complex or overt response, adaptation

Domains of Learning Objectives

Conventionally, objectives are classified in three domains i.e. cognitive, affective and
psychomotor. This classification is based upon the work of Benjamin Bloom and others.
Beginning in 1948, a group of educators undertook the task of classifying education goals and
objectives. The intent was to develop a classification system for three domains: the cognitive, the
affective, and the psychomotor. Work on the cognitive domain was completed in 1956 and is
commonly referred to as Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain although; the full title was
Taxonomy of educational objectives. There are, then, a number of reasons for trying to
differentiate domains of the learning process that are orthogonal to content, but that at the same
time are in opposition to the notion that all learning is the same. The major idea of the taxonomy
is that what educators want students to know can be arranged in a hierarchy from less to more
complex. Cognitive Objectives deal with intellectual results, knowledge, concepts and
understanding.

Cognitive domain:

The cognitive domain includes the intellectual aspects of learning. Regular classroom
learning is generally in the cognitive domain. Six levels are recognized in the cognitive domain.

1. Knowledge: The lowest level of objectives. The first level of learning is knowledge.
Knowledge can be characterized as awareness of specifics and of the ways and means of
dealing with specifics. The knowledge level focuses on memory or recall where the
learner recognizes information, ideas, principles in the approximate form in which they
were learned.

2. Comprehension: Comprehension is the next level of learning and encompasses

understanding. Has the knowledge been internalized or understood? The student should
be able to translate, comprehend, or interpret information based on the knowledge
understanding more than just what something is

3. Application: Application is the use of knowledge. Can the student use the knowledge in
a new situation? It can also be the application of theory to solve a real world problem.
The student selects, transfers, and uses data and principles to complete solve a problem.
showing that you can use your knowledge in different situations

4. Analysis: Analysis involves taking apart a piece of knowledge, the investigation of parts
of a concept. It can only occur if the student has obtained knowledge of and comprehends
a concept. The student examines, classifies, hypothesizes, collects data, and draws
conclusions. Being able to take apart a complex problem or situation into its component
parts

5. Synthesis: Synthesis is the creative act. It’s the taking of knowledge and the creation of
something new. It is an inductive process one of building rather than one of breaking
 down. The student originates, integrates, and combines ideas into something that is new
to him/her. Being able to structure a result drawing on information from a variety of areas

6. Evaluation: Evaluation is judgment or decision making. The student appraises, assesses

or criticizes on a basis of specific standards and criteria being able to make judgments--
the highest cognitive level

Affective Domain

Objectives include the feeling, interests, attitudes, and appreciations that may result from
science instruction. The affective domain concerns itself with feelings and attitudes. Evaluation
in the affective domain requires the teacher to observe the behavior of students asking what they
do or say that makes the teacher think they have a positive attitude or a negative attitude. There
are five levels in the affective domain described as they apply to science related material.
1. Receiving: student is aware of the existence of the material and is willing to be involved.
Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.

Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly
introduced people

Keywords: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names,
points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.

2. Responding: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a
particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding,
willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding

Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals,

concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and
practices them.

Keywords: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels,
performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes student is
reacting to the material in one of three ways o Acquiescence: the student does what is
asked o Willingness: the student goes above and beyond what is required o Satisfaction:
the student does science activities for pleasure and enjoyment

3. Valuing: student consistently behaves in a way indicating a preference for science. : The
worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This
ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is
based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are
expressed in the learner’s overt behavior and are often identifiable.

Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual

and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a
plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management
on matters that one feels strongly about.

Keywords: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates,

invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works
4. Organizing: student brings together different values to form a value system. Organizes
values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them,
and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and
synthesizing values.

Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior.
Accepts responsibility for one’s behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in
solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony
with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the
organization, family, and self.

Keywords: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains,

formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares,
relates, synthesizes.

5. Characterizing: individual forms a lifestyle based on the value system. Has a value
system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable,
and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned
with the student's general patterns of adjustment

Examples: Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group

activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays
a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and
changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they
look.

Keywords: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices,

proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verified.
Psychomotor Domain

It stresses motor development, muscular coordination, and physical skills. The

psychomotor domain deals with the ability to manipulate physical objects in a science laboratory.
This aspect is the most recent and has undergone several major revisions in the past few decades.
A brief way to look at the psychomotor domain is the three steps below.

 Teacher demonstrates a laboratory method to a student.

 Student practices the method under supervision.

 Student becomes proficient in the method and no longer needs direct, intensive supervision.

1. Reflex Movements: reactions that are not learned, such as involuntary reaction
Examples: instinctive, segmental, intersegmental and super segmental response
Keywords: react, response
2. Basic Fundamental Movement: Basic fundamental movement such as walking,
grasping, locomotor movements, nonlocomotor movements, manipulative movements
Keywords: grasp, throw, and walk
3. Perceptual Abilities: respond to stimulus such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic or tactile
discrimination. Kinesthetic, visual, auditory and tactile discrimination and coordinated
abilities
Keywords: catch a ball, draw or write
4. Physical Abilities: stamina that must be developed for further development such as
strength and agility. Endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility
Keywords: agility, strength.
5. Skilled Movements: Simple, compound, and complex adaptive skills
Keywords: Assemble, calibrate, construct, dissect, modify.
6. No-discursive Communication: Expressive and interpretive movement
Keywords : Arrange, compose, create, originate, design
Conclusion
The cognitive domain; Bloom, 1956 involves the development of intellectual skills. This
includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in
the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six levels of this domain starting
from the simplest cognitive behaviour to the most complex. The levels can be thought of as
degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next ones can
take place. Affective domain: The affective domain is related to the manner in which we deal
with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and
attitudes. The five levels of this domain include: receiving, responding, valuing, organization,
and characterizing by value. Psychomotor domain: Focus is on physical and kinesthetic skills.
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill
areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision,
distance, procedures, or techniques in execution
Q.3 In What Way The Assessment Of Knowledge Objectives In
Science Education Is Important? Discuss Its Need And Significance.
ASSESSING KNOWLEDGE OBJECTIVES
Knowledge Objectives are the intended learning aims or goals of
the Learning Element identified and grouped in terms of the primary
focus of each aim or goal – so the teacher is prompted to identify
Experiential, Conceptual, Analytical and Applied objectives. The
Knowledge Objectives should be closely aligned to the learning
activities-Knowledge Processes, which they preface and mirror, and
echoed in the Knowledge Outcomes which are designed to indicate
achievement of the Knowledge Objectives. .The phrase “knowledge
objectives,” as used in this book implies recall or recognition of specific
elements in a subject area. Perhaps the widest range of types of things
which are taught for the purpose of immediate recall appears in the
taxonomy of educational objectives. The objective of the ability to recall
does not in itself suggest either the existence or the nonexistence of the
capability of using or applying that knowledge. Certainly any self
respecting educator –or educational system –would expect acquired
knowledge to be useful in some fashion, whether for the solution of
problems (knowledge of the relationship between temperature and
pressure) or for personal enjoyment (recall of lines from poem by E. A.
Robinson). It is true that much of what we term knowledge is forgotten
after a period of disuse, but this does not deny that such knowledge was
a worthy outcome at the time it was learned. For example, most of you
had a course of mathematics at one time which require recall of general
quadratic equation, ax2+bx+c=0. Unless you have been engaged in
work (or games) which use it or unless you are mathematics
practitioner, the chances are that you could not have recalled it exactly
at this point. However, when you took algebra, it was important to
“know” it both for the solving of exercises and for more general purpose
of acquiring usable concepts about relationships between first order and
second order equations. 64 Although many of the specifics which we
learn to recall or recognize during our formal instruction are forgotten
within few months or years, knowledge of them at the time of learning is
extremely important for the development of ideas which do stay with us
for interpretative and associational uses. Therefore during the
instruction period, it is important for the teacher to test such knowledge
as one facet of the evaluation of student’s learning. In many cases
assessment of recall of specific facts is more a function of formative
evaluation than a summative evaluation. We need to have evidence of
whether the student can recall certain terms, facts, or methods in order
to make inferences about difficulties or their treatments. In some cases,
perhaps in many, the underling knowledge may be important only
during the learning process, but at that point it is essential. Thus testing
for it is highly desirable if one is to understand what is happening to the
students. The recall of specific and isolable bits of information refers
primarily to what might be called the hard core of facts or information in
each field of knowledge. Such information represents the elements the
specialist must use in communicating about his field, in understanding
it, and in organizing it systematically. These specifics are usually quite
serviceable to people working in the field in the very form in which they
are presented and need little or no alteration from one use or
application to another. Such specifics also become the basic elements
the student or the learner must know if he is to be acquainted with the
field or to solve any of the problems in it. The specifics usually are
symbols which have some concrete referents and are, for the most part,
at a relatively low level of abstraction. There is a tremendous wealth of
these specifics and there must always be some selection for educational
purposes, since it is almost inconceivable that a student can learn all of
the specifics relevant to a particular field. As our knowledge of sciences
and humanities increases, even specialist have great difficulty in
 keeping up with all the new specifics found or developed in the field. For
classification purposes, the specifics may be distinguished from the
more complex classes of knowledge by virtue of their very specificity,
that is, they can be isolated as elements or bits which have some
meaning and value themselves. The cognitive domain as proposed by
Bloom includes remembering, reasoning, problem solving, concept
formation and creative thinking. It is arranged in the following six
divisions. 1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5.
Synthesis 1 6. Evaluation
Need
Clearly identifying the Knowledge Objectives means the teacher is upfront
and explicit about their purpose. The Knowledge Objectives serve to
guide the rest of the design process – if an activity-Knowledge Process
does not serve an objective, if it does not enable an objective to be
met then the teacher is prompted to consider its need. Encouraging
teachers to identify the focus of their objectives – experiential,
conceptual, analytical or applied – scaffolds more complex
considerations regarding the purpose or intent of their objectives.
Q.4 Discuss Comprehension In The Context Of Its Three Levels.
Develop Three Objectives Of Each Level On Any Topic Of
Science.
Comprehension
Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may be shown by
translating material from one form to another (words or numbers), by interpreting material
(explaining or summarizing, and by estimating future trends (predicting consequences or
effects). These learning outcomes go one step beyond simple remembering of material, and
represent the lowest level of understanding. Illustrative General Instructional Objectives
Understands facts and principles. Interprets verbal material. Interprets charts and graphs.
Translates verbal material to mathematical formulas. Estimates consequences implied in data.
Justifies methods and procedures. Comprehension is understanding more than just what
something is. According to the taxonomy of educational objectives, the following verbs may be
used to write objectives for comprehension skill: associate, classify, convert, describe,
differentiate, discuss, distinguish, estimate, explain, express, extend, group, identify, indicate,
order, paraphrase, predict, report, restate, retell, review, select, summarize, translate, and
understand.
Examples: To choose, to compare, to classify, to describe, to demonstrate, to determine, to
discuss, to discriminate, to explain, to express, to identify, to indicate, to interpret, to label, to
locate, to pick, to recognize, to relate, to report, to respond, to restate, to review, to select, to tell,
to translate.
Levels of comprehension
Comprehension is Sub-Divided into Three Levels: A. Translation—accuracy with which the
communication is paraphrased from one language to form another B. Interpretation—explanation
or summarization of a communication, and C. Extrapolation—extension of trends beyond given
data to determine implications.
4.2.1 Translation: Translation involves students ability to paraphrase or describe other things
into an easily understandable language. You are “translating” when you are describing in your
own words, or presenting a written content in the form of a picture, diagram, graph or an
equation.
4.2.2 Interpretation: Interpretation involves not only the students’ ability to rephrase or
translate a communication but also his ability to “identify and comprehend the major ideas which
are included in it as well as understand their interrelationships”. What is to be interpreted may be
presented in a variety of forms ranging from paragraphs to tables, charts, graphs, or even
cartoons. The response format may be either objective or subjective.
4.2.3 Extrapolation: In “extrapolation”, the learner is expected to go somewhat beyond the data
presented and to “read in” to the communication implications that may or may not be there in the
literal sense. There should, of course, be some basis in the given data for inferences that the
learner makes.

Q.5 What Are Higher Ability Skills? In What Manner These Are
Dissimilar From Other Skills?
Higher-order abilities basically mean such thinking that takes place in the higher-levels of the
hierarchy of cognitive processing. Bloom’s Taxonomy is the most widely accepted hierarchical
arrangement of this sort in education and it can be viewed as a continuum of thinking skills
starting with knowledge-level thinking and moving eventually to evaluation-level of thinking.
When we promote higher-order abilities then, we are simply promoting thinking, along with the
teaching methodologies that promote such thinking, that takes place at the higher levels of the
hierarchy just provided, notably application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Critical/creative/constructive thinking is closely related to higher-order thinking; they are
actually inseparable. Critical/creative/constructive thinking simply means thinking processes that
progress upward in the given direction. First one critically analyzes the knowledge, information,
or situation. Then they creatively consider possible next-step options, and then finally, they
construct a new product, decision, direction, or value. The assessment of Higher-order cognitive
skills are said to be more difficult to measure than simpler skills; they involve the orchestration
and practical use of simpler skills, which are easier to teach and to assess.