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F&W Lecture - 2

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19 views17 pages

F&W Lecture - 2

Uploaded by

diablovanced
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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ECE230: Fields & Waves (Lect.

2, Winter
2025)

Instructor: Sayak Bhattacharya

1
Fields

2
Fields

3
Unified theory of electricity and magnetism: bit of a history

• 1785 : Charles-Augustin de Coulomb reports inverse square law for


charges
• 1800 : Alessandro Volta invents battery
• 1820 : Hans Christian Ørsted shows deflection of compass needle
brought in the proximity of a current carrying wire
• 1820 : Ampere shows two parallel current-carrying wire
attracts/repel depending on the direction of the current
• 1831 : Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction

4
Unified theory of electricity and magnetism: Maxwell’s equa-
tions

Figure 3: James Clerk Maxwell (1831 1879)

5
Unified theory of electricity and magnetism: Maxwell’s equa-
tions

Figure 4: James Clerk Maxwell, A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic


Field, Royal Society Publishing (1865)

6
Oliver Heaviside: condensed form of Maxwell’s equations
(1885)

r
• ~—.E
~ =
e0

• ~—.B
~ =0
∂B
~
• ~— ⇥ E
~ =
∂t
⇣ ⌘
~ = µ0 J~ + ∂ D
• ~— ⇥ B
~
∂t

7
Gradient operator

⇣ ⌘
∂f
• df = ∂ x dx + ∂∂ fy dy + ∂∂ fz dz = (—f
~ ).dr
~

~ ) points to the direction of rate of maximum increase of the


• (—f
scalar field f (for a level surface, this direction is along surface
normal)

8
Potential

• In one dimension, you have learnt: E ~ = df x̂


dx
⇣ ⌘
∂f ∂f ∂f ~
∂ y + ∂ z ẑ = —f
~ =
• Generalize this to 3D: E x̂ + ŷ
∂x

9
Cylindrical coordinate system

• 0r <•
• 0  f < 2p
• •<z <• 10
Cylindrical coordinate system

• Differential length: ~dl = dr r̂ + rdf f̂ + dz ẑ


~ 1 = rdf dz r̂, ds
• Differential areas: ds ~ 2 = drdz f̂ , ds
~ 3 = rdf dr ẑ
• Differential volume: dv = rdf drdz

11
Spherical coordinate system

• 0  r < •, 0  q < p, 0  f < 2p


• Differential length: ~dl = dr rˆ + rdq q̂ + r sin q df f̂
~ 1 = r 2 sin q dq df rˆ, ds
• Differential areas: ds ~ 2 = r sin q drdf q̂ ,
ds3 = rdq dr f̂
~
• Differential solid angle: d⌦ = ds r2
1
= sin q dq df
12
Line integral

R B
• Few examples you encountered already: Work= F~ .~dl, electrostatic
A
RB
potential (fAB ) = ~ .~dl
E
A
• In general, depends on the path taken.

13
Conservative field

~ = ~—U
• Assume, V
RB B B
• ~ .~dl =R (~—U).~dl =R dU = UB
V UA ——— Only depends on the
A A A
end points, path independent!
• Such a field that can be written as a gradient of a scalar is called
conservative field.
HB
• What about ~ .~dl? This is simply,
V
A
RB RA
dU+ dU = UB UA + UA UB = 0
A B
• Gravitational and electric fields are conservative. Each can be
written as gradient of a scalar quantity (potential). Work done in
moving a mass in a G-field/ charge in an E-field along a closed path
is zero. Also, potential difference between two points doesn’t depend
on the path taken to move the mass/charge.

14
Flux of a vector field

R
• Open surface: ~ .ds
V ~
Sopen
H
• Closed surface: ~ .ds
V ~
Sclosed

15
Divergence

• If you add up the ⇣


outgoing fluxes though
⌘ all the surfaces,
H
~ = Lt ∂ Vx + ∂ Vy + ∂ Vz dv
~ .ds
V
dv !0 ∂x ∂y ∂z
Sclosed
⇣ ⌘
• Let’s introduce the divergence operator ~—. ⌘ x̂ ∂∂x + ŷ ∂∂y + ẑ ∂∂z .

16
Divergence

• If you add up the ⇣ outgoing fluxes though ⌘ all the surfaces,


H
~ = Lt ∂ Vx + ∂ Vy + ∂ Vz dv
~ .ds
V
Sclosed dv !0 ∂ x ∂y ∂z
⇣ ⌘
• Let’s introduce the divergence operator ~—. ⌘ x̂ ∂∂x + ŷ ∂∂y + ẑ ∂∂z .
(note the ’dot’ at the end of this operator)
H
• Total outgoing flux: ~ .ds
V ~ =
Sclosed
⇣ ⌘
Lt x̂ ∂∂x + ŷ ∂∂y + ẑ ∂∂z . (x̂Vx + ŷ Vy + ẑVz ) dv = Lt (~—.V~ )dv
dv !0 H
dv !0
~ .ds
V ~
Sclosed
• ~—.V
~ = Lt
dv ——— Definition of divergence
dv !0 17

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