METALS

Some metals occur naturally in a free uncombined state while others are found
combined with other elements. Compounds in which metals can be extracted are
called ores.

Chief Ores of Metals

An ore from which a metal can be obtained on a commercial scale is referred to as the
chief ore.
The table below gives the chief ores of some common metals.
Metal Ores of the metal Formula of ores
Sodium Sodium chloride NaCl
Rock salt*
Aluminium Bauxite* Al2O3. 2H2O
Mica K2Al2.Si6O6
Corundum Al2O3
Zinc Zinc blende* ZnS
Calamine* ZnCO3
Zinc oxide ZnO
Iron Haematite* Fe2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4
Siderite FeCO3
Pyrite FeS2
Copper Copper pyrites* CuFeS2
Malachite CuCO3Cu(OH)2
Cuprite Cu2O
Azurite Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2
Lead Galena* PbS
Cerussite PbCO3
Anglesite PbSO4
* Chief ore
Before any extraction process is carried out, qualitative and quantitative analysis is
done to determine the metal present and the quantity of the metal in the ore.

General Methods of Extraction

Extraction of metals involves several stages. The stages involved include:
(a) Mining the metal ores from the earth’s crust.
(b) Concentrating the ores to remove most of the impurities. The process of
concentrating an ore may include:
(i) Removing any magnetic materials with a magnet.
(ii) Dissolving the mineral in a suitable solvent.
(iii) Washing with water to remove earthy matter.
(iv) Froth flotation. The ore is ground into a fine powder. It is then mixed with
water containing special oils such as pine oil as frothing agents. A froth rich in
 2 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

minerals is formed at the top while the impurities sink to the bottom. The froth
is skimmed and dried. Copper pyrites, zinc blende and galena one
concentrated this way.
(c) Roasting the ore to obtain metal oxides.
(d) Reducing the oxide using suitable reducing agents to obtain the desired metals.
(e) In case of more reactive metals, electrolytic extraction is applied.

The method of extraction of a metal depends on the metal’s reactivity. The most
reactive metals such as sodium are obtained by electrolysis. The less reactive
metals such as iron are extracted by reduction of their oxides using suitable
reducing agents.
This can be summarized in the table below.
Metal Main Main constituent Methods of extraction
ore compound in ore
Sodium Rock salt Sodium chloride, NaCl Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
Aluminiu Bauxite Hydrated aluminium Electrolysis of aluminium oxide in molten
m oxide, Al2O3.2H2O cryolite.
Zinc Zinc Zinc sulphide, ZnS Roasting in air followed by reduction of
blende zinc oxide by carbon
Iron Haematit Iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3 Reduction of iron (III) oxide by carbon (II)
e oxide.
Copper Copper Copper (II) sulphide, Heating copper sulphide in regulated
pyrites CuFeS2 amounts of air to form copper (II) oxide,
Reduction of copper (II) oxide by the
copper sulphide.
Malachite Basic copper (II) Heating in air followed by reduction by
carbonate, carbon.
CuCO3.Cu(OH)3

Sodium
Occurrence
Sodium occurs as dissolved chloride in sea water and salt lakes. It also occurs as a
double salt, NaHCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O (trona) in salty lakes in the Rift valley such as
Lake Magadi. Sodium also occurs as rock salt (solid sodium chloride) at various
places and as saltpetre (solid sodium nitrate).
Saltpetre is mainly found in Chile, hence its common name, Chile saltpetre. The
chief ore from which sodium is extracted is rock salt.
Extraction
Sodium metal is extracted by the Down’s process where molten sodium chloride is
electrolysed.
 The Down’s cell consists of an iron
shell lined with heat bricks on the
outside to maintain the high
temperature so that the
electrolyte does not crystallise.
 METALS 3

At the centre of the cell is a carbon anode surrounded by a steel cathode.

 Calcium chloride is added to the sodium chloride to lower the melting point
of sodium chloride from about 800°C to 600°C. This is economical because it
saves on electricity used in heating.
During electrolysis, sodium metal forms at the cathode whereas chlorine gas forms at
the anode.
At the Anode At the cathode
– -
2Cl (aq) Cl2(g) + 2e 2Na+(aq) + 2e– 2Na(l)
 A steel diaphragm is suspended between the electrodes to prevent sodium
and chlorine from recombining.
Molten sodium is less dense than molten sodium chloride, hence it rises to the top
of the cathode from where it is periodically removed. However, chlorine is not
allowed into the atmosphere because it is a poisonous gas and hazardous to the
environment.
Liquid calcium metal may also be produced at the cathode. However, calcium liquid
does not mix with sodium liquid as it is much denser. In addition, calcium has a
higher melting point compared to sodium. During cooling, calcium crystallises
first leaving liquid sodium which is trapped.

Uses of Sodium
1. Manufacture of sodium compounds such as sodium cyanide (NaCN) and sodium
peroxide (Na2O2). Sodium cyanide is used in the extraction of gold.
2. An alloy of sodium with lead is used in the manufacture of tetraethyl lead
(Pb(C2H5)2 used as an anti-knock additive in petrol. This has been discontinued as
use of leaded fuel has been phased out.
3. Making an alloy of sodium and potassium which is used as a coolant in nuclear
reactors because the alloy is a liquid over a wide range of temperatures.
4. Sodium vapour is used in street lamps which give yellow orange light.
5. Sodium is used as a reducing agent in some reactions such as reduction of
titanium(IV) chloride to form titanium metal.
6. Sodium hydroxide, a compound of sodium, is used in the manufacture of
detergents, paper glass and artificial silk.

Aluminium
Occurrence
Chief ore is bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) found in France, South America, Jamaica and
Ghana.
Bauxite ore has impurities of iron(III) oxide and silica (SiO2). Other ores are
mica(K2Al2Si6O6) and corundum (Al2O3).
Extraction
Aluminum is extracted by the electrolytic method because it is a reactive metal.
The ore is concentrated before it is electrolysed.
Bauxite is ground into a fine powder and then dissolved in hot concentrated
sodium hydroxide under pressure.
 4 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

The amphoteric aluminium oxide and acidic silicon (IV) oxide dissolve in the base
while iron(III) oxide which is insoluble in the base is filtered out as red mud.
Al2O3(s) + 2OH–(aq) + 3H2O(s) 2[Al(OH)4]-(aq)
– 2–
SiO2(s) + 2OH (aq) SiO3 (aq) + H2O(g)
Carbon(IV) oxide gas is bubbled through the filtrate to precipitate the aluminium
hydroxide.
2[Al(OH)4] –(aq) + CO2(g) 2Al(OH)3(s) + CO32–(aq) + H2O(l)
Alternatively, aluminium hydroxide may be precipitated by seeding process using
pure aluminium hydroxide crystals

The Aluminium hydroxide is then heated to obtain aluminium oxide, (Al2O3).

2Al(OH)3(s) Al2O3(s) + 3H2O(l)
The Aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite (Na3,AlF6) to lower its melting
point from 2015°C to around 800°C to save on the amount of heat needed to melt
it.
The molten mixture is then
electrolysed in a steel tank lined
with graphite which acts as the
cathode. Graphite rods dipping
into the electrolyte act as the
anode.
During electrolysis, aluminium is
deposited at the cathode and
oxygen is liberated at the anode.

At the anode At the cathode

2– –
6O 6O(g) +12e 4Al3+(l) + 12e- 4Al(s)
6O(g) 3O2(g)
At the high temperature of about 800°C, the oxygen evolved reacts with the carbon
electrode to form carbon(IV) oxide. This corrodes the carbon anode which should be
replaced from time to time.
Uses of Aluminium
1. An alloy of aluminum and magnesium is used in making parts of aeroplanes,
railway trucks, trains, buses, tankers, furniture and cars because of its low density.
Aluminium can easily be stretched due to its low tensile strength; therefore,
its alloys such as duralumin are used as they are light, hard and strong.
Duralumin is used in the construction of aircraft and car window frames.
2. For cooking vessels such as sufurias, because it is a good conductor of heat. It is
NOT easily corroded by cooking liquids because of the unreative coating of
aluminium oxide.
3. For making overhead cables, because it is light and is a good conductor of
electricity.
4. As a reducing agent in the thermite process in the extraction of some
elements such as chromium, iron, cobalt, manganese and titanium.
Cr2O3(s) +2Al(s) 2Cr(s) + Al2O3(s)
5. Corundum (emery) is a natural oxide of aluminium which is useful as an
abrasive.
 METALS 5

Iron
Occurrence
Iron is the second most abundant metal after aluminium. The chief ore is haematite
(Fe2O3). The other ores are Magnetite (Fe3O4) and siderite (FeCO3).
The ores of iron contain silica (SiO2) and aluminium oxide as impurities.
Extraction
Iron is usually extracted from its oxides or siderite. When extracting iron from siderite,
the ore is first roasted in air to convert it to iron(II) oxide which is the stable oxide
of iron.
The siderite (carbonate) is first decomposed by heat to form iron(II) oxide and
carbon(IV) oxide.
FeCO3(s) FeO(s) +CO2(g)
Iron(II) oxide is then oxidised by oxygen in the atmosphere to form iron(III)
oxide. (haematite).
4FeO(s) + O2(s) 2Fe2O3(g)
Iron(III) oxide is also mined as the ore. The iron(III) oxide obtained by either method is
ground into a powder then mixed with limestone and coke then fed into a
furnace from the top.
The mixture is heated by blasts of hot air at temperatures of between 800°C –
1000°C from the bottom of the furnace.
The blast furnace is about 30 m high. It is
made of steel and the inner side is lined
with bricks made from magnesium oxide
which conserve heat energy in order to
maintain the optimum temperature
needed for the reduction of iron(III) oxide.

In the blast furnace three important reactions

take place.
1. At the bottom of the furnace, coke
(carbon) is oxidised to carbon(IV)
oxide. The reaction raises the
temperature of the furnace to 1600
°C since it is exothermic.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆Hθ = – 393 kJ mol-1
2. In the middle part of the furnace, carbon (IV) oxide is reduced by coke to
carbon(II) oxide and the temperature drops to about 1000°C since the
reaction is endothermic.
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g) ∆Hθ = –283 kJ mol-1
3. At the upper part of the furnace where the temperature has fallen to about 700
°C, iron(III) oxide is reduced to iron metal. Both carbon and carbon(II)
oxide act as reducing agents.
2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) 4Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
Carbon(II) oxide is the main reducing agent because of the large surface that is
in contact with the iron(III) oxide.
 6 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

The iron produced falls to the lower part of the furnace where the temperatures are
high enough to keep it molten. The carbon(IV) oxide produced is recycled.
The limestone fed into the furnace alongside coke and iron(II) oxide is decomposed by
heat in the furnace to form calcium oxide and carbon(IV) oxide.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Calcium oxide being basic reacts with acidic and amphoteric oxide in the furnace to
form slag.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(l)
CaO(s) + Al2O3(s) CaAl2O4(l)
The slag formed is tapped off at a higher level of the furnace because of its lower
density.
The iron obtained from the blast furnace is 90–95% pure and it is called “pig Iron”.
The main impurities in pig iron are carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur and
phosphorus, depending on the composition of the original ore.
These impurities considerably affect the properties of iron by making it less hard
and brittle as well as lowering the melting point of the iron.

Uses of Iron
Cast Iron (Pig Iron)
This is the name given to the iron after it has been produced in the blast furnace. It
contains about 3–5% carbon 1% silicon and 2% phosphorus. Although this type of iron
has the disadvantages of being very brittle, it is extremely hard and is used in making
furnaces, gates drainage pipes, engine blocks, iron boxes, etc. An important use of
cast iron is the manufacture of wrought iron and steel railings for balconies.
Wrought Iron
Contains about 0.1% carbon. It is malleable and thus can be easily forged (moulded)
and welded. It is used to make iron nails, iron sheets, horse shoes and agricultural
implements, wrought iron is becoming less important due to increased use of mild
steel.
Steel
The name is given to many different alloys whose main component is iron. The other
substances may be carbon, vanadium, manganese, tungsten, nickel and chromium.
Mild steel contains about 0.3% carbon. Special steel contains a small percentage of
carbon together with other substances.
Mild steel is used to make nails, car bodies, railway lines, ship bodies, gliders, rods
for reinforced concrete, pipes. Mild steel contains 99.75% iron and 0.75% carbon. It is
easily worked on.
Stainless steel
Stainless steel contains 74% iron, 18% chromium and 8% nickel. Stainless steel
containing 10–12% chromium and some nickel is used to make cutlery, sinks and vats.
Steel containing 5–18% tungsten is used for making high speed cutting and drilling
tools because it is tough and hard.
Cobalt Steel
This contains about 97.5% iron and 2.5% cobalt. It is tough and hard. It is highly
magnetic and so it is used to make electromagnets.
 METALS 7

Zinc
Occurrence
It occurs in many parts of the world as calamine (zinc carbonate), zinc blende (zinc
sulphide). Zinc blende is often found mixed with galena (PbS). The chief ores of zinc
are calamine and zinc blende.
Extraction
The ore is concentrated by froth floatation. The concentrated ore is then roasted to
form the metal oxide.
In the case of calamine, carbonate decomposes to zinc oxide and carbon(IV) oxide.
ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) +CO2(g)
In the case of zinc blende, two reactions occur:
(i) Zinc sulphide is roasted in air to produce zinc oxide and sulphur(IV) oxide gas.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2ZnO(s) +2SO2(g)
(ii) The impurity, lead(II) sulphide in the ore produces lead(II) oxide and sulphur(IV)
oxide.
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Zinc metal may be obtained from the oxide either by reduction using carbon or
carbon monoxide or it may be converted to zinc sulphate and electrolysed.

(a) Reduction using carbon and carbon(II) oxide

Zinc oxide from the roaster is mixed with coke and limestone and heated in a blast
furnace where it is reduced to zinc.
ZnO(s) + C(s) Zn(g) +CO(g)
ZnO(s) + CO(g) Zn(g) +CO2(g)
The limestone decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon(IV) oxide.

The carbon(IV) oxide is reduced by coke to carbon(II) oxide.

CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
The carbon(II) oxide and the coke are the reducing agents.
Zinc has a boiling point of
913°C. At the furnace
temperatures which are
maintained above 1,000°C,
zinc exists in vapour form.
The zinc vapour leaves at the
top of the furnace with the hot
gases.
It is cooled very rapidly to
600°C by mixing it with a
spray of molten lead. The
lead spray condenses the
zinc and prevents it from
being re-oxidised.
 8 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

At this temperature liquid zinc separates and settles above the molten lead since it is
less dense and is run off.
The zinc can be purified by distillation. The lead produced during the extraction is
a liquid at the furnace temperatures and it trickles to the bottom of the furnace from
where it is taped off. Calcium oxide combines with silica and is removed as slag.

(b) Electrolytic Extraction of Zinc

The zinc oxide obtained from the roaster is converted to zinc sulphate.
ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Any lead oxide present reacts with the acid to form lead(II) sulphate which is
insoluble and is therefore precipitated.
PbO(s) + H2O4(aq) PbSO4(s) + H2O(l)
The zinc sulphate is then dissolved in water and the solution electrolysed. The
cathode is made of lead containing 1% silver and the anode is made of
aluminium sheets. The electrode reactions are:
Cathode
Zinc ions are discharged.
2Zn2+(aq) + 4e- Zn(s)
If graphite electrode were used, hydrogen gas would have been evolved
instead. Zinc is stripped off the cathode regularly. The metal is about 99.5% pure.
Anode
Hydroxide ions are discharged in preference to sulphate ions.
4OH–(aq) 2H2O(l) +O2(g) + 4e–
Over 80% of zinc is extracted by the electrolytic methods.

Flow-chart to summarise the extraction of zinc

Uses of Zinc
1. Zinc is used to galvanise iron to prevent it from rusting.
2. To make brass, an alloy of copper and zinc.
3. Making of outer casing in dry batteries.

Lead
Its chief ore is galena(PbS). Other ores of less industrial importance are cerussite
(PbCO3) and anglesite (PbSO4).
Extraction
 METALS 9

The ore is first ground into a fine powder and then concentrated through froth
floatation. The concentrated ore is then roasted in air to obtain lead(II) oxide and
sulphur(IV) oxide.
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) 2PbO(s) +2SO2(g)
The lead(II) oxide from the roaster is mixed with coke and calcium carbonate
(limestone). The mixture is then heated in a blast furnace.
The lead(II) oxide is reduced by the coke to lead.
2PbO(s) +C(s) Pb(s) +CO2(g)
Iron is added to the blast furnace to reduce any remaining lead sulphide to lead.
Fe(s) + PbS(s) FeS(l) + Pb(s)
Calcium oxide combine with silica to form calcium silicate.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(l)
The iron(II) sulphide and calcium silicate form slag which is tapped off separately
from the lead. The lead produced by the method is not pure.
Pure lead is obtained by blowing a blast of air through the molten impure lead.
Oxygen in the air oxidises the impurities into compounds which are less dense
than lead. These compounds float on the molten lead and are skimmed off.

More pure lead can be obtained by

electrolysis.The cathode is made of a
pure strip of lead while the impure
lead is made the anode. At the
cathode, lead is deposited while at the
anode lead dissolves.

At the cathode: Pb2+(aq) + 2e- Pb(s)

At the anode: Pb(s) Pb2+(aq) + 2e-

Uses of Lead
1. Manufacture of storage batteries (lead acid accumulators) .
2. It is used in ammunition (shot and bullets) and as a constituent of solder, type
metal, bearing alloys, fusible alloys, and pewter.
3. In heavy and industrial machinery, sheets and other parts made from
lead compounds may be used to dampen noise and vibration.
4. Lead Pipes-Lead pipes due to its corrosion resistant properties are used for
carriage of corrosive chemicals at chemical plants.
5. Lead Sheet is used in the building industry for flashings or weathering to prevent
water penetration & for roofing and cladding. By virtue of its resistance to
chemical corrosion, Lead Sheet also finds use for the lining of chemical
treatment baths, acid plants and storage vessels.
6. Because lead effectively absorbs electromagnetic radiation of short wavelengths,
it is used as a protective shielding around nuclear reactors, particle accelerators,
 10 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

X-ray equipment, and containers used for transporting and storing radioactive
materials.

Copper

Occurrence
Copper ores include, pyrites (CuFeS2), cuprite (Cu2O2), chalcocite (Cu2S) and
malachite (CuCO3.Cu(OH)2. It also occurs in uncombined state in various parts of
the world such as Canada, USA, Zambia, Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC).
Impurities in copper ores may include traces of gold and silver.
The chief ore of copper is copper pyrites.

Extraction
Copper is mostly extracted from copper pyrites. The ore is first crushed into a fine
powder and concentrated by froth flotation. The concentrated ore is then roasted
in a limited supply of air to obtain copper(I) sulphide and iron(II) oxide
2CuFeS2(s) + 4O2(g) Cu2S(s) + 2FeO(s) + 3SO2(g)
Silica (SiO2) is then added and the mixture is heated in the absence of air. The
silica reacts with iron(II) oxide to form iron(II) silicate which separates out as a
slag leaving behind the copper(I) sulphide.
FeO(l) + SiO2(l) FeSiO3(l)
The copper(I) sulphide is then heated in a regulated supply of air where some
of it is converted to copper(I) oxide.
2Cu2S(l)) + 3O2(g) 2Cu2O(l) + 2SO2(g)
The copper(I) oxide then reacts with the remaining copper(I) sulphide to form
copper metal and sulphur(VI) oxide.
Cu2 S(l) + 2Cu2O(l) 6Cu(l) + SO2(g)
The sulphur(IV) oxide produced in the process is either fed into adjacent
sulphuric(IV) acid plant or scrubbed using calcium hydroxide.
SO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaSO3(s) + H2O(l)
The copper obtained in this process is about 97.5% pure. This is called blister
copper.
It is refined by electrolysis to obtain
99.8% pure copper. During the
refining, stripes of pure copper are
used as the cathode whereas the
anode is made of the impure copper.
Copper(II) sulphate solution is used
as the electrolyte.

During electrolysis, the impure copper anode goes into solution as copper ions
while copper metal is deposited on the pure copper cathodes.
At the anode: Cu(s) Cu 2+(aq) + 2e–
2+
At the cathode Cu (aq) + 2e– Cu(s)
Traces of gold and silver collect as a sludge at the bottom of the electrolytic cell.
 METALS 11

Where copper carbonate is the chief ore, it is roasted first to obtain

copper(II) oxide.
CuCO3 (s) CuO(s) +CO2(g)
The copper(II) oxide is then reduced to copper metal using coke and carbon(II) oxide
as reducing agents.
2CuO(s) + C(s) Cu(s) + CO2(g)
CuO(s) + CO(g) Cu(s) + CO2(g)

Uses of Copper
1. Making electrical wires and contacts in switches, plugs and sockets because
copper is a good conductor of electricity. Pure copper is necessary for this use
because impurities increase electrical resistance.
2. Making soldering instruments due to its high thermal conductivity.
3. Making alloys such as brass (Cu and Zn), bronze (Cu and Sn), German silver (Cu,
Zn and Ni), etc.
4. Making coins and ornaments.

Properties of Some Metals

Physical Properties of Metals
Physical properties of metals depend on the size of the atoms, their electron
arrangement and the crystal lattice.
 Metals generally have high melting and boiling points due to strong metallic
bonds.
 They are good conductors of both heat and electricity due to the presence of
delocalised valence electrons in the metallic lattice. The number of delocalised
electrons and their ease of movement within the lattice account for the difference
in electrical conductivity.
Metal Melting Boiling Thermal & Densi Malleabili Ductili
point point Electrical ty ty ty
-
(°C) (°C) conductivity (gcm
3
)
Sodium 97.8 890 Good 0.97 - -
Aluminiu 660 2 470 Very good 2.70 Malleable Ductile
m
Zinc 1 535 3 000 Good 2.86 Malleable Ductile
Iron 420 907 Good 2.14 Malleable Ductile
Copper 1083 2 395 Very good 8.90 Malleable Ductile
 The metals generally have high density. Differences in density in metals are
mainly due to different atomic masses, packing of the atoms in the metallic lattice
and the size of the atoms.
 Metals can be pressed into sheets and also drawn into wires. These
properties are referred to as malleability and ductility respectively.

Chemical Properties of Metals

 12 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Reactions with air

Freshly cut or polished surfaces of metals have a shiny appearance. Sodium rapidly
tarnishes in dry air forming sodium oxide.
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
In moist air, both sodium metal and sodium oxide react with water vapour to form
sodium hydroxide.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Na2O(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
The resulting alkali absorbs acidic carbon(IV) oxide in the air to form sodium
carbonate.
2NaOH(aq) + CO2 (g) Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l)
When heated in air sodium readily burn with a yellow flame to form mainly sodium
peroxide.
2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s)
Polished aluminium is immediately coated by aluminium oxide. If heated to 800 °C,
aluminium burns to form aluminium oxide and aluminium nitride.
4Al(s) +3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)
2Al(s) + N2(g) 2AlN(s)
Zinc tarnishes very slowly in air due to the formation of zinc oxide. When heated,
zinc burns to form zinc oxide
2Zn(s) + O2(g) 2ZnO(s)
Iron rusts in the presence of moist air to form hydrated iron(III) oxide, Fe 2O3.H2O(s).
3Fe(s) + 2H2O(l) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3.H2O(s)
When heated, iron reacts with oxygen to form tri-iron tetraoxide, Fe 3O4.
3Fe(s) + 2O2(g) Fe3O4(s)
Copper forms a black coating of copper(II) oxide when heated in air. Finely divided
copper burns with a blue flame to form copper(II) oxide.

Reactions with cold water and steam

Sodium reacts vigorously with cold water liberating hydrogen gas.The resulting
solution is alkaline(basic). The alkaline solution is sodium hydroxide.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH + H2 (g)
Aluminium, zinc and iron do not readily react with cold water.
Aluminium does not react with cold water because of a thin layer of aluminium
oxide on its surface. If the thin layer of aluminium oxide is removed, aluminium
reacts with cold water very slowly liberating hydrogen gas.
Copper does not react with cold water.
 METALS 13

Aluminium, zinc and iron react with steam liberating hydrogen gas and forming metals
oxides.
2Al(s) + 3H2O(g) Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2O(g) ZnO(s) + H2(g)
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Copper does not react with steam at all.
Among the metals discussed, sodium is the most reactive while copper is the least
reactive.

Sodium Most reactive

Aluminium
Zinc Decreasing order of reactivity
Iron
Copper Least Reactive

The position of aluminium is not easy to determine in this experiment because its
reaction with cold water and steam are impaired due to the presence of an oxide
coating.
During the reaction between the metal and water, the reactive metals displace
hydrogen to form the hydroxides of the metals.
Copper does not react with water because it is low in the reactivity series.
If hydrogen is put together with metals in order of reactivity, its position would be
higher than that of copper.
Sodium Most reactive
Aluminium
Zinc Decreasing order of reactivity
Iron
Hydrogen
Copper Least Reactive

Reaction with chlorine

Hot sodium metal reacts with chlorine to form white fumes of sodium chloride.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
Hot copper glows red in chlorine gas forming brown copper(II) chloride which turns
green in the presence of moisture.

Hot zinc reacts with chlorine gas to form white zinc chloride.
 14 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Zn(s) + Cl2(g) ZnCl2(s)

Hot iron glows red in chlorine gas. This is because the reaction is exothermic.
During the reaction brown fumes are observed. The fumes solidify on the cooler parts
of the tube to form black crystals of iron(III) chloride.
Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
Hot aluminium burns in chlorine to form a white solid which sublimes and condenses
on the cooler parts of the apparatus.
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2AlCl3(s)
Both iron(III) chloride and aluminium chloride are observed to fume when exposed in
damp air. This is because both chlorides are readily hydrolysed by water vapour to
produce hydrogen chloride gas.
FeCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) Fe(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(g)
AlCl3(s) +3H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(g)

Reactions with acids

Polished aluminium reacts very slowly with dilute hydrochloric acid to liberate
hydrogen gas and form aluminium chloride.
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
There is no apparent reaction between aluminium and dilute sulphuric(VI)
acid.
There is also no apparent reaction between aluminium and nitric(V) acid at any
concentration. This is because nitric(V) acid is a strong oxidising agent. A thin
layer of aluminium oxide forms on the metal surface immediately it comes into
contact with the acid.

Aluminium reduces hot concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid to sulphur(IV) oxide and is

itself oxidized to aluminium sulphate.
2Al(s) + 6H2SO4(l) Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 6H2O(l) + 3SO2(g)
Iron reacts with both dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric (VI) acid to liberate
hydrogen gas.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Iron reduces hot concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid to sulphur(IV) oxide and is itself
oxidised to iron(II) sulphate.
2Fe(s) + 6H2SO4(s) Fe2(SO4)3 + 6H2O(l) + 3SO2(g)
Dilute nitric(V) acid reacts with iron to form a mixture of nitrogen(I) oxide and
nitrogen(II) oxide.
There is no apparent reaction between iron and concentrated nitric(V) acid.
The concentrated acid oxidises iron and forms a thin layer of impervious tri-
iron tetraoxide, Fe3O4, which prevents further reaction.

Zinc reacts with both dilute hydrochloric acid and sulphuric(VI) acid to liberate
hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Zinc reduces concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid to sulphur(IV) oxide gas and is itself
oxidised to zinc sulphate.
 METALS 15

Zn(s) + 2H2SO4(l) ZnSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)

Zinc reacts with 50% concentrated nitric(V) acid to liberate nitrogen (II) oxide gas.
3Zn(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 2NO(g)
Copper does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sulphuric(VI) acid
or very dilute (less than 50%) nitric(V) acid. It however reacts with nitric(V) acid
at 50% concentration to liberate nitrogen(II) oxide.
3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 2NO(g)
With concentrated nitric(V) acid and sulphuric(VI) acid, nitrogen(IV) oxide and
sulphur(IV) oxides are produced respectively.
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(l) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l) CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2SO2(g)

Effects of Extraction of Metals on the Environment

Extraction of metals leads to land pollution, air pollution and water pollution.
Mining of the ores from the ground may lead to gaping holes being left in the ground if
not refilled with earth. If undesired earthy material accompanying the ores are
carelessly disposed of, it may lead to serious land pollution.
Roasting of the ores, reduction of the oxide and electrolysis of chlorides leads to
evolution of gaseous by-products such as sulphur(IV) oxides, carbon(IV) oxide gas and
chlorine gas. These gaseous products could lead to air pollution if allowed to escape
into the atmosphere This could lead to acid rain effects.
The gaseous by-products such as chlorine gas and sulphur(IV) oxide gas are fed into
hydrochloric acid and sulphuric(VI) acid plants respectively.
Solid by-products such as slag could lead to land pollution if not disposed off safely.
Conversely, solid by products can be disposed off carefully by either burning them or
making other uses of them. For example, slag may be used in carpeting roads.

Review Exercises
1. 2006 Q 21
(a) Explain why the metals magnesium and aluminium are good conductors of
electricity.
(1 mark)
 16 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

(b) Other than cost, give two reasons why aluminium is used for making electric
cables while magnesium is not
(2 marks)

2. 2006 Q 6 P2
The extraction of iron from its ores takes place in the blast furnace. Study it and
answer the questions that follow.

(a) Name:
(i) One of the substances in the slag; (1 mark)
(ii) Another iron ore material used in the blast furnace; (1
mark)
(iii)One gas which is recycled. (1 mark)

(b) Describe the process which leads to the formation of iron in the blast
furnace.
(3 marks)
(c) State the purpose of limestone in the blast furnace. (2
marks)

(d) Give a reason why the melting point of the iron obtained from the blast
furnace is 1200 °C while that of pure iron is 1535 °C
(1 mark)
(e) State two uses of steel (2
marks)

3. 2007 Q 19 P1
The flow chart below shows steps used in the extraction of zinc from one of its
ores.

(a) Name the process that is used in step 2 to concentrate the ore. (1
mark)
(b) Write an equation for the reaction which takes place in step 3.
 METALS 17

(1 mark)
(c) Name one use of zinc other than galvanizing. (1
mark)
4. 2007 Q 3 P2
The flow chart below shows a sequence of chemical reactions starting with
copper study it and answer the questions that follow.

(a) (a) In step 1, excess 3M nitric acid was added to 0.5g of copper powder.
(i) State two observations which were made when the reaction was in
progress
(2marks)
(ii) Explain why dilute hydrochloric acid cannot be used in step 1
(1mark)
(iii)I. Write the equation for the reaction that took place in step 1
(1mark)
II. Calculate the volume of 3M nitric that was needed to react
completely with 0.5g of copper powder. (Cu = 63.5)
(3 marks)

(b) Give the names of the types of reactions that took place in steps 4 and 5. (1
mark)

(c) Apart from the good conductivity of electricity, state two other properties
that make it possible for copper to be extensively used in the electrical
industry. (2marks)

5. 2008 Q 28 P1
During the extraction of aluminium from its ores; the ore is first purified to obtain
alumina.

(a) Name
(i) Substance C1 (1 mark)
(ii) Process D1 (1 mark)
(b) Give two reasons why aluminium is used extensively in the making of
cooking pans. (1 mark)
 18 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

6. 2009 Q 7 P2
Iron is obtained from hematite using a blast furnace shown in figure 5 below.

(a) Four raw materials are required for the production of iron. Three of these are
iron oxide, hot air and limestone. Give the name of the fourth raw material.
(1 mark)

(b) Write an equation for the reaction in which carbon (IV) oxide is converted
into carbon (II) oxide.
(1 mark)

(c) Explain why the temperature in the region marked Y is higher than of the
incoming hot air.
(2 marks)

(d) State one physical property of molten slag other than density that allows it
to be separated from molten iron as shown in the figure 5.
(1 mark)

(e) One of the components of the waste gases is Nitrogen (IV) oxide. Describe
the adverse effect it has on the environment. (2
marks)

(f) Iron from the blast furnace contains about 5% carbon

(i) Describe how the carbon content is reduced (2
 METALS 19

marks)
(ii) Why is it necessary to reduce the carbon content? (1
mark)

7. 2010 Q 6 P2
The melting and boiling points of zinc are 419 °C and 907 °C respectively.
One of the ores of zinc is zinc blende. To extract zinc, the ore is first roasted in
air before feeding it into a furnace.

(a) (i) Write the formula of the main zinc compound in zinc blende.
(1 mark)
(ii) Explain using an equation why it is necessary to roast the ore in air
before introducing it into the furnace.
(2 marks)

(b) The diagram below shows a simplified furnace used in the extraction of zinc.
Study it and answer the questions that follows:

(i) Name two other substances that are also introduced into the furnace
together with roasted ore.
(1 mark)
(ii) The main reducing agent in the furnace is carbon (II) oxide. Write two
equations showing how it is formed.
(2 marks)
(iii)In which physical state is zinc at point Y in the furnace? Give a reason. (1
mark)
(iv) Suggest a value for the temperature at point X in the furnace. Give a
reason.
(1 mark)
(v) State and explain one environmental effect that may arise from the
extraction of zinc from zinc blende
(2 marks)
(vi) Give two industrial uses of zinc. (1 mark)
 20 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

8. 2011 Q 27 P1
The flow chart below shows some processes involved in the industrial extraction
of zinc metal.

(a) Name one ore from which zinc is extracted. (1

mark)
(b) Write the equation of the reaction taking place in unit II. (1
mark)
(c) Name two uses of zinc metal. (1
mark)
9. 2012 Q22 P1
Aluminium is both malleable and ductile.
(a) What is meant by?
(i) Malleable: (1 mark)
(ii) Ductile (1
mark)
(b) State one use of aluminium based on:
(i) malleability (½
mark)
(ii) ductility (½
mark)

10. 2013 Q22 P1

(a) Name two ores from which copper is extracted. (1
mark)
(b) During extraction of copper metal, the ore is subjected to froth flotation.
Give a reason why this process is necessary. (1
mark)
(c) Name one alloy of copper and state its use. (1
mark)

11. 2014 Q10 P1

One of the ores of copper has formula, CuFeS 2.
(a) Describe how iron in the ore is removed during concentration of copper
metal.
(1 mark)
(b) State two environmental problems associated with extraction of copper
metal.
(2 marks)
12. 2014 Q6 P2, 2016 P2 Q12.
The diagram below represents a set-up of an electrolytic cell that can be used in
the production of aluminium
 METALS 21

(a) One the diagram, label the anode. (1

mark)
(b) Write the equation for the reaction at the anode. (1
mark)

(c) Give a reason why the electrolytic process is not carried out below 950
°C. (1 mark)

(d) Give a reason why the production of aluminium is not carried out using
reduction process. (1
mark)
(e) Give two reasons why only the aluminium ions are discharged. (2
marks)

(f) State two properties of duralumin that makes it suitable for use in
aircraft industry.
(1 mark)
(g) Name two environmental effects caused by extraction of aluminium. (2
marks)

13. 2015 Q2 P1
(a) Name the raw material from which sodium is extracted. (1
mark)
(b) Give a reason why sodium is extracted using electrolysis. (1
mark)
(c) Give two uses of sodium metal. (1 mark)

14. 2015 Q16 P1

The flow chart below shows various reactions of aluminium metal. Study it and
answer the questions that follow.

(a) (i) Other than water, name another reagent that could be R. (1
mark)
 22 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

(ii) Write the formula of reagent Q. (1 mark)

(b) Write an equation or the reaction in step 5. (1
mark)

15. 2017 P1 Q27.

(a) Name two ores in which sodium occurs. (1
mark)
(b) During extraction of sodium using the down's process, calcium chloride is
added to the ore. Give a reason for the addition of calcium chloride.
(1 mark)
(c) State two uses of sodium. (1
mark)

16. 2017 P2 Q6.

The following steps were used to analyse a metal ore.
(i) An ore of a metal was roasted in a stream of oxygen. A gas with a pungent
smell was formed which turned acidified potassium dichromate (VI) green.
(ii) The residue left after roasting was dissolved in hot dilute nitric(V) acid.
Crystals were obtained from the solution.
(iii)Some crystals were dried and heated. A brown acidic gas and a colourless gas
were evolved and a yellow solid remained.
(iv) The solid was yellow when cold.
(v) The yellow solid was heated with powered charcoal. Shiny beads were
formed.

(a) Name the:

(i) Gas formed when the ore was roasted in air; (1 mark)
(ii) Gases evolved when crystals in step (iii) were heated; (2
marks)
(iii) Yellow solid formed in step (iii); (1 mark)
(iv) Shiny beads in step (iv). (1 mark)

(b) The yellow solid from procedure (iii) was separated, dried, melted and
the melt electrolysed using graphite electrodes.
(i) Describe the observations made at each electrode. (2
marks)
(ii) Write the equation for the reaction that took place at the anode. (1
mark)

(c) Some crystals formed in step (ii) were dissolved in water, and a portion of
it reacted with potassium iodide solution. A yellow precipitate was formed.
Write an ionic equation for this reaction.
(1 mark)

(d) To another portion of the solution from (f), sodium hydroxide solution was
added drop by drop until there was no further change. Describe the
observation made.
(1 mark)
(e) To a further portion of the solution from (f), a piece of zinc foil was
added.
(i) Name the type of reaction taking place. (1
mark)
(ii) Write an ionic equation for the above reaction. (1
mark)
 METALS 23

17. 2018 P1 Q 20.

(a) Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the following equation.
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq)→ ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Identify the reducing agent. Give a reason for the answer. (2
marks)

(b) Iron sheets are dipped in molten zinc to prevent rusting. Name this
process.
(1 mark)

18. 2018 P1 Q24.

(a) Name two ores of iron. (1 mark)
(b) Describe how the amount of iron in a sample of iron(III) oxide can be
determined. (2
marks)

19. 2019 P1 Q3.

The flow chart in Figure 1 represents some stages in the extraction of copper
metal. Study it and answer the questions that follow.

(a) Identify:
(i) The copper ore; (1 mark)
(ii) Process B; (½
mark)
(iii) Solid C. (½
mark)
(b) Write an equation for the reaction that forms the slag. (1
mark)

20. 2019 P2 Q2.

(a) Zinc occurs mainly as zinc blende. Name one other ore from which zinc
can be extracted.
(1 mark)
(b) The flow chart in Figure 2 shows the various stages in the extraction of
zinc metal. Study it and answer the questions that follow.

(i) Write an equation for the reaction which occurs in the roasting
chamber.
 24 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

(1 mark)
(ii) Describe the process that takes place in the blast furnace. (3
marks)
(iii) Explain why molten lead is added to the condenser. (1
mark)
(iv) State two uses of zinc. (1
mark)
(v) Give one reason why the extraction of zinc causes pollution to the
environment. (1 mark)

(b) Explain the observations made when zinc metal is added to hot sodium
hydroxide. (2
marks)