1.

Heredity and Evolution

Ø Heredity and Hereditary Changes Ø Transcription, Translation &
Translocation
Ø Evolution Ø Evidences of Evolution
Ø Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection Ø Lamarckism
Ø Speciation Ø Human Evolution

1. Which component of the cellular nucleus of living organisms

Can you recall? carries hereditary characters?
2. What do we call to the process of transfer of physical and
mental characters from parents to the progeny?
3. Which are the components the DNA molecule?
Heredity and hereditary changes
You know that heredity is the transfer of biological characters from one generation to
another via genes. Gregor Johann Mendel is pioneer of the modern genetics. It took a long
time to understand the conclusions of his research about heredity. In 1901, the reasons behind
the sudden changes were understood due to the mutational theory of Hugo de Vries. Meanwhile
in 1902, Walter Sutton observed the paired chromosomes in the cells of grasshopper; until
then it was not known to anyone. Research started in the direction of finding the nature of
genetic material when it was proved that genes are carried via chromosomes. Through which
1944, trio of scientists Oswald Avery, Mclyn McCarty and Colin McLeod proved that except
viruses, all living organisms have DNA as genetic material.
In 1961, the French geneticists Francois Jacob and Jack Monod proposed a model for
process of protein synthesis with the help of DNA in bacterial cells. It helped to uncover the
genetic codes hidden in DNA. Thereby, the technique of recombinant DNA technology
emerged which has vast scope in the field of genetic engineering.
The science of heredity is useful for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of hereditary
disorders, production of hybrid varieties of animals and plants and in industrial processes in
which microbes are used.

Transcription, Translation and Translocation

1. Sketch and explain the structure of DNA and various types of RNA.
Can you tell? 2. Explain the meaning of genetic disorders and give names of some
disorders.
With the help of RNA, the genes present in the form of DNA participate in the functioning
of cell and thereby control the structure and functioning of the body. Information about protein
synthesis is stored in the DNA and synthesis of appropriate proteins as per requirement is
necessary for body. These proteins are synthesized by DNA through the RNA. This is called
as ‘Central Dogma’. mRNA is produced as per the sequence of nucleotides on DNA. Only one
of the two strands of DNA is used in this process. The sequence of nucleotides in mRNA being
produced is always complementary to the DNA strand used for synthesis. Besides, there is
uracil in RNA instead of thymine of DNA. This process of RNA synthesis is called as
‘transcription’.

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 ` The mRNA formed in nucleus comes in
RNA Polymerase RNA Nucleotides cytoplasm. It brings in the coded message
from DNA. The message contains the codes
for amino acids. The code for each amino
acid consists of three nucleotides. It is called
as ‘triplet codon’.
Dr Har Govind Khorana, a scientist of
Transcription Indian origin has made an important
contribution in discovery of triplet codons
for 20 amino acids. For this work, he has
1.1 Transcription
been awarded with the Nobel Prize in 1968,
along with two other scientists.
Nucleus
Each mRNA is made up of thousands of
triplet codons. As per the message on mRNA,
amino acids are supplied by the tRNA. For
this purpose, tRNA has ‘anticodon’ having
tRNA mRNA complementary sequence to the codon on
Amino Acid mRNA. This is called as ‘translation’. The
Ribosome
amino acids brought in by tRNA are bonded
together by peptide bonds with the help of
rRNA. During this process, the ribosome
mRNA Codon keeps on moving from one end of mRNA to
other end by the distance of one triplet codon.
1.2 Translation & Translocation This is called as ‘translocation’. Such many
chains come together to form complex
proteins. These proteins control various
Main Sequence functions in the body of living organisms
and their appearance too.
Living organisms can produce new
individuals like themselves due to genes
Replacement
only and some of those genes are transmitted
to the next generation without any changes.
Due to this, some of the characters of parents
are transmitted to their offsprings. However,
sometimes sudden changes occur in those
genes. Sometimes, any nucleotide of the
1.3 Mutation gene changes its position that causes a minor
change which is nothing but the ‘mutation’.
Some mutations may be minor but some may be considerable. Ex. Mutation may cause
the genetic disorders like sickle cell anaemia.

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 1. What is the function of the appendix of our digestive system?
Can you recall? 2. Are our wisdom teeth really useful for chewing the food?
3. Why did the huge animals like dinosaur become extinct?
Evolution 4. Why are many species of animals and birds getting extinct?
Evolution is the gradual change occurring in living organisms over a long duration. This is
a very slow-going process through which development of organisms is achieved. All the stages
in changes occurred in various components ranging from stars and planets in space to the
biosphere present on the Earth should be included in the study of evolution. Formation of new
species due to changes in specific characters of several generations of living organisms as a
response to natural selection, is called as evolution.
3.5 billion years ago, life had been non Internet is my friend
existent on the Earth. At the beginning, there
may have been only simple elements in the Collect the information from internet
ocean on the Earth and simple type of organic about Big-Bang theory related with the
and inorganic compounds may have been formation of stars and planets and present it
formed from those. Complex compounds like in your class.
proteins and nucleic acids may have formed
over the long period from those simple A peek into History
compounds. First primitive type of cells may Many philosophers and religious scholars
have been formed from the mixture of different have written their views about formation of
types of organic and inorganic compounds. life. There seems to be a thorough discussion
Number of those cells may have increased at over the formation of Universe, in various
the cost of surrounding chemicals. There may cultures like Indian, Chinese, Roman,
had been some differences among those cells Greek, etc. Various cultures have noted
and according to the principle of natural different type of information about planets,
selection, some may have shown good growth stars, the ‘panchmahabhuta’, living
and some may have perished which could not organisms, etc. in the form of poetry, stories
adjust with the surrounding. and religious / sacred books.
At present, crores of species of plants and
animals with huge diversity regarding shape Theory of Evolution:
and complexity are present on the Earth. According to this theory, first living material
Animal diversity ranges from the unicellular (protoplasm) has been formed in ocean. In
Amoeba and Paramecium to man and giant due course of time, unicellular organism was
whale. The plant diversity consists of various formed. Gradually, changes occurred in the
species ranging from unicellular Chlorella to unicellular organisms from which larger and
the huge banyan tree. The life exists on Earth more complex organisms were formed. All
everywhere from equator to both the poles. those changes were slow and gradual. Duration
Organisms are present at all the places like of all these changes is at most 300 crore years.
air, water, land, rock, etc. Humans have Changes and development in living organisms
shown curiosity about origin of life and had been all round and multi-dimensional
reasons for such a great diversity in life and this led to evolution of different types
present on the Earth since ancient period. of organisms. Hence, this overall process is
Different theories about origin and evolution called as evolution which is organizational.
of life have been proposed till today of which Progressive development of plants and animals
theory of 'Gradual development of living from the ancestors having different structural
organisms is accepted. and functional organization is called evolution.

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Evidences of evolution
Collective thinking upon all above mentioned theories implies that evolution
is everlasting process of changes. However, it needs proof to prove it. Following are
various proofs available in support of the theories mentioned above.
1. Morphological Evidences
Observe the following images and note the similarities between given
Try this animal images and plant images.
Various similarities like
structure of mouth, position of
eyes, structure of nostrils and
ear pinnae and thickly
distributed hairs on body are
seen in animals whereas
similarities in characters like
leaf shape, leaf venation, leaf
petiole, etc. occur in case of
plants. This indicates that there
are some similarities in those
groups and hence it proves that
their origin must be same and
1.4 Morphological evidences
must have common ancestors

2. Anatomical Evidences
If you carefully observe the
pictures, there doesn’t seem any
superficial similarity between human
hand, foreleg of ox, flipper of whale
and patagium of bat. Similarly, use of
each of those structures is different in
respective animals. However, there is
similarity in structure of bones and
joints in organs of each of those
Human foreleg Patagium Flipper
animals. This similarity indicates that
hand of ox of Bat of Whale those animals may have common
1.5 Structure of bones ancestor.

Can you tell? 1. Which are the different organs in body of organisms?
2. Is each of the organs useful to organism?

Use of ICT :
Collect the information of geological dating and Present it classroom.

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3. Vestigial Organs
Degenerated or underdeveloped useless organs of organisms are called as vestigial
organs. In living organisms, sudden development of new tissues or organs for living in
changing environment is not possible. Instead, existing organs undergo gradual changes.
Mostly, a specific structure in the body is useful under certain situation. However, same
structure under different situation may become useless or even harmful. Such structure begins
to degenerate under such situation as per the principle of natural selection. It takes thousands
of years for a structure to disappear. Such organs are seen in different phases of disappearance
in different animals. Such organ, though non-functional in certain organisms, it may be
functional in other organisms i.e. it is not vestigial in other organisms.
Appendix, which is useless to human, is useful and Small
fully functional organ in ruminants. Similarly, muscles of Intestine
ear pinna, which are useless to human, are useful in
monkeys for movement of ear pinna. Various vestigial
organs like tail-bone (coccyx), wisdom teeth, and body
hairs are present in body of human being. Large
Intestine Appendix
Ear
muscles
Wisdom teeth

Tail bone
(Coccyx)

1.6 Vestigial organs

Observe and discuss. Observe the following pictures.

Use of ICT
Find how the
vestigial organs in
certain animals are
functional in others.
Present the
information in your
class and send it to
others.
1.7 Some fossils
4. Palaeontological Evidences
A question may arise in your mind that which organisms existed millions of years
ago? How can we tell this? Now this secret has been hidden in the Earth. Large number of
organisms get buried due to disasters like flood, earthquake, volcano, etc. Remnants and
impressions of such organisms remain preserved underground. These are called as fossils.
Study of fossils is an important aspect of study of evolution.
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 Carbon consumption of animals and plants stops after death and since then, only the
decaying process of C-14 occurs continuously. In case of dead bodies of plants and animals,
instead of remaining constant, the ratio between C-14 and C-12 changes continuously as
C-12 is non-radioactive. The time passed since the death of a plant or animal can be
calculated by measuring the radioactivity of C-14 and ratio of C-14 to C-12 present in
their body. This is ‘carbon dating’ method. It is used in palaeontology and anthropology
for determining the age of human fossils and manuscripts. Once the age of fossil been
determined by such technique, it becomes easy to deduce the information about other
erstwhile organisms. It seems that vertebrates have been slowly originated from
invertebrates.

Aves Introduction to Scientists

(Birds) Cenozoic Carbon dating method
Mammals era is based upon the
radioactive decay of
Mesozoic naturally occurring C-14
Reptiles and it is developed by
era
Willard Libby.
He has been awarded
Amphibia with Nobel Prize (1960)
Pisces for this invention. The age
Palaeozoic of the materials determined
era by this method are
published in the journal
Invertebrates
‘Radio Carbon’

1.8 Sedimentary rocks and fossils

5. Connecting Links

Observe and discuss.

Observe the following pictures and discuss the
characters observed.

Duckbill Platypus Lungfish Peripatus

1.9 Some animals with special characteristics
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 Some plants and animals show some morphological characters by which they can be
related to two different groups; hence they are called as ‘connecting links’. Ex. In Peripatus,
characters like segmented body, thin cuticle, and parapodia-like organs are present.
Similarly, these animals show tracheal respiration and open circulatory system similar to
arthropods. This indicates that Peripatus is connecting link between annelida and arthropoda.
Similarly, duck billed platypus lays eggs like reptiles but shows relationship with mammals
too due to presence of mammary glands and hairs. Lung fish performs respiration with
lungs irrespective of being fish. These examples indicate that mammals are evolved from
reptiles and amphibians from fishes.

Observe and discuss. I

Carefully observe the stages of
embryonic development of
some animals shown in fig.
1.10
6. Embryological Evidences:
II
Comparative study of
embryonic developmental
stages of various vertebrates
given in the picture shows that
all embryos show extreme III
similarities during initial stages
and those similarities decrease
gradually. Similarities in initial Fish Salamander Tortoise Chicken Pig Cow Rabbit Man
stages indicate the common
origin of all these animals. 1.10 Embryos during different stages
Darwin’s theory of natural selection
Charles Darwin had collected innumerable specimens of plants and animals and
depending upon the observations of those specimens; he published the theory of natural
selection which preaches the survival of fittest. For this purpose, Darwin had published a
book titled ‘Origin of Species’. While explaining the concept, Darwin says that all the
organisms reproduce prolifically. All the organisms compete with each other in a life-
-threatening manner. In this competition, only those organisms sustain which show the
modifications essential for winning the competition. However, besides this, natural selection
also plays important role because nature selects only those organisms which are fit to live
and the rest perish. Sustaining and selected organisms can perform reproduction and thereby
give rise to the new species with their own specific characters. Darwin’s theory of natural
selection was widely accepted for long duration. However, some objections were raised
against the theory. Some of the main objections are-
1. Natural selection is not the only factor responsible for evolution.
2. Darwin did not mention any explanation about useful and useless modifications.
3. There is no explanation about slow changes and abrupt changes.
Irrespective of all these objections, Darwin’s work on evolution has been a milestone.
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 Introduction to Scientists
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)
This English biologist proposed the theory of evolution.
He showed that all the species of living organisms have been
gradually evolved over the period of thousands of years from
common ancestor. He proposed that principle of natural selection
is responsible for this evolution.

Lamarckism
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed that morphological changes occurring in living
organisms are responsible for evolution and the reason behind those morphological changes
is activities or laziness of that organism. He called this concept as principle of ‘use or disuse
of organs’.
Further, he said that the neck of giraffe has become Introduction to Scientists
too long due to browsing on leaves of tall plants by
extending their neck for several generations; similarly,
shoulders of the ironsmith have become very strong due
to frequent hammering movements. Wings of birds like
ostrich and emu have become weak due to no use. Legs
of the birds like swan and duck have become useful for
swimming due to living in water and snakes have lost their
legs by modifications in their body for burrowing habit.
All these examples are types of ‘acquired characters’ and
are transferred from one to another generation. This is
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)
called as theory of inheritance of acquired characters or
Lamarckism. Lamarck proposed that the
activities of the organisms
are responsible for their
evolution. This French
naturalist proposed that
each animal or plant
undergo some changes in
its life span and those
changes are transferred to
the next generation and
1.11 Giraffe
such changes occur in next
Development of organs due to specific activities or their subsequent generations too.
degeneration due to no use at all was widely accepted but
transfer of those characters from generation to generation
was rejected. Because it had been verified many times Internet is my friend
that modifications brought in us are not transferred to next
generation and thereby Lamarck’s theory was disproved. Collect the pictures and
information of various
The living organism can transfer the characters which it
species of monkeys from
has acquired, to the next generation. This is called ancestry of
internet.
acquired characters.
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Speciation
Formation of new species of plants and animals is the effect of evolution. Species is
the group of organisms that can produce fertile individuals through natural reproduction.
Each species grows in specific geographical conditions. Their food, habitat, reproductive
ability and period is different. However, genetic variation is responsible for formation of
new species from earlier one. Besides, geographical and reproductive changes are also
responsible. Similarly, geographical or reproductive isolation also leads to speciation
Human Evolution
The biodiversity that is known today has been said to be formed from very simple
unicellular organism due to evolution. In this evolution, origin of human evolution can be
shown as per the picture given below. Last dinosaurs disappeared approximately seven
crore years ago. At that time, monkey-like animals are said to be evolved from some
ancestors who were more or less similar to the modern lemurs. Tail of these monkey-like
animals of Africa is said to be disappeared about 4 crore years ago. They developed due to
enlargement in brain their hands were also improved and thus ape-like animals were
evolved. Meanwhile, these ape-like animals reached the South and North-East Asia and
finally evolved into gibbon and orang-utan.
Remaining ape-like animals stayed in Africa and from them, gorilla and chimpanzee
evolved about 2.5 crore years ago. Evolution of some of the 2 crore year old species of apes
seems to be occurred in different way. They had to use their hands more for eating food and
other work.

man with erect posture

Cro-Magnon man
50,000 Years ago
20,00,000 Years ago

15,00,000 Years ago

1,50,000 Years ago

40,00000 Years ago
1,00,00000Years ago

Austrelopithecus

Skilled Human
Ancient animals like lemurs

2,50,00000 Years ago

Neanderthal
Rama pithecus
4,00,00000Years ago
7,00,00000Years ago

Dryopithecus
Egyptopithecus

1.12 Journey of human

Those apes started to live on land as the forests started to decline due to dry environment.
Their pelvic girdle developed in such a way that they started to stand in erect posture in
grasslands and thereby their hands became available for use, anytime. These first human-
-like animals with erect posture which were using their hands have evolved about 2 crore
years ago.
First record of human-like animal is with us in the form of ‘Ramapithecus’ ape from
North India and East Africa. Afterwards, this ape grown up in size and became more
intelligent and thus the ape of South Africa evolved about 40 lakh years ago.
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 The morphology of these
human-like animals started to
appear like to be the member of
the genus Homo, about 20 lakh
years ago and thus skilled human
developed. About 15 lakh years
ago, human walking with erect
posture was evolved. It may have
existed in China and Indonesia of
Asian continent.
1.13 Development of human brain

Evolution of upright man continued in the direction

of developing its brain for the period of about 1 lakh
years and meanwhile it discovered the fire. Brain of 50
thousand year old man had been sufficiently evolved to
the extent that it could be considered as member of the
class- wise-man (Homo sapiens).
Neanderthal man can be considered as the first
example of wise-man. The Cro-Magnon man evolved
about 50 thousand years ago and afterwards, this
evolution had been faster than the earlier.
1.14 Neanderthal man
About 10 thousand years ago, wise-man started to practice the agriculture. It started
to rear the cattle-herds and established the cities. Cultural development took place. Art of

writing was invented about 5000 years ago and thus the history had been started. Modern
sciences emerged about 400 years ago and industrial society was established about 200
years ago and now we have reached at this stage, and still we are searching the details of
roots of human ancestry.

Exercise
1. Complete the following diagram. 2. Read the following statements and
justify the same in your own words
Morphological with the help of suitable examples.
a. Human evolution began
approximately 7 crore years ago.
b. Geographical and reproductive
Evidences isolation of organisms gradually
of leads to speciation.
Evolution c. Study of fossils is an important
aspect of study of evolution.
d. There is evidence of fatal
Similarities in
bones structure
science among chordates.

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3. Complete the statements by choosing 6. Define vestigial organs. Write names
correct options from bracket. of some vestigial organs in human
(Gene, Mutation, Translocation, body and write the names of those
Transcription, Gradual development, animals in whom same organs are
Appendix) functional.
a. The causality behind the sudden
changes was understood due to -- -- 7. Answer the following questions.
principle of Hugo de Vries. a. How are the hereditary changes
b. The proof for the fact that protein responsible for evolution?
synthesis occurs through -- --- was b. Explain the process of formation of
given by George Beadle and complex proteins.
Edward Tatum. c. Explain the theory of evolution and
c. Transfer of information from mention the proof supporting it.
molecule of DNA to mRNA is d. Explain with suitable examples
called as -- -- -- process. importance of anatomical
d. Evolution means -- -- -- --. evidences in evolution.
e. Vestigial organ -- -- -- present in e. Define fossil. Explain importance
of fossils as proof of evolution.
human body is proof of evolution.
f. Write evolutionary history of
modern man.
4. Write short notes based upon the
information known to you. Project :
a. Lamarckism 1. Make a presentation on human
b. Darwin’s theory of natural selection. evolution using various computer
c. Embryology. softwares and arrange a group
d. Evolution. discussion over it in the class
e. Connecting link. room.
2. Read the book – ‘Pruthvivar
5. Define heredity. Explain the Manus Uparach’ written by Late
mechanism of hereditary changes. Dr. Sureshchandra Nadkarni and
note your opinion on evolution.

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