Computer Networks

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 Syllabus
• OSI reference model , TCP/IP reference model
• Classification of networks
• Network topologies : Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh, Hybrid
• LAN components – Coaxial, twisted pair, optical fiber
cables.
• connectors – repeaters, hubs, switches, NIC
• Ethernet, token bus, token ring, inter network packet
exchange/sequenced packet exchange
• HTTP, FTP, SMTP, Telnet – TCP/IP addressing scheme –
IP address classes - sub netting

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 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a

distance. The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and
using the data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between
two devices via some form of transmission medium such as
a wire cable.

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Figure Components of a data communication system

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Figure Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

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NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.

A computer network is a group of two or more

interconnected computer systems. You can establish a
network connection using either cable or wireless media.
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Network Criteria

• Performance
– Depends on Network Elements
– Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
• Reliability
– Failure rate of network components
– Measured in terms of availability/robustness
• Security
– Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
– Errors
– Malicious users

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Physical Structures

• Type of Connection
– Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
– Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
• Physical Topology
– Connection of devices
– Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast

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Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

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Categories of topology

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A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

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Advantages:
• The network can be expanded without disrupting current users.
• Need extra capable compared with other LAN topologies.
• No traffic problem as nodes has dedicated links.
• Dedicated links help you to eliminate the traffic problem.
• A mesh topology is robust.
• It has multiple links, so if any single route is blocked, then other routes should be
used for data communication.
• P2P links make the fault identification isolation process easy.
• It helps you to avoid the chances of network failure by connecting all the systems
to a central node.
• Every system has its privacy and security.
Disadvantages:
• Installation is complex because every node is connected to every node.
• It is expensive due to the use of more cables. No proper utilization of systems.
• Complicated implementation.
• It requires more space for dedicated links.
• Because of the amount of cabling and the number of input-outputs, it is expensive
to implement.
• It requires a large space to run the cables.

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Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

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• In the star topology, all the computers connect with the help of a hub. This
cable is called a central node, and all other nodes are connected using this
central node. It is most popular on LAN networks as they are inexpensive
and easy to install.
Advantages:
• Here are pros/benefits of start topology:
• Easy to troubleshoot, set up, and modify.
• Only those nodes are affected, that has failed. Other nodes still work.
• Fast performance with few nodes and very low network traffic.
• In Star topology, addition, deletion, and moving of the devices are easy.
Disadvantages:
• Here are cons/drawbacks of using Star:
• If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are disabled.
• Cost of installation of star topology is costly.
• Heavy network traffic can sometimes slow the bus considerably.
• Performance depends on the hub's capacity
• A damaged cable or lack of proper termination may bring the network
down.

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Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

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• Bus topology uses a single cable which connects all the included nodes. The main
cable acts as a spine for the entire network. One of the computers in the network
acts as the computer server. When it has two endpoints, it is known as a linear bus
topology.
Advantages:
• Here are pros/benefits of using a bus topology:
• Cost of the cable is very less as compared to other topology, so it is widely used to
build small networks.
• Famous for LAN network because they are inexpensive and easy to install.
• It is widely used when a network installation is small, simple, or temporary.
• It is one of the passive topologies. So computers on the bus only listen for data
being sent, that are not responsible for moving the data from one computer to
others.
Disadvantages:
• Here are the cons/drawbacks of bus topology:
• In case if the common cable fails, then the entire system will crash down.
• When network traffic is heavy, it develops collisions in the network.
• Whenever network traffic is heavy, or nodes are too many, the performance time
of the network significantly decreases.
• Cables are always of a limited length.

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Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

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• In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighboring devices for communication purpose. It
is called a ring topology as its formation is like a ring. In this topology, every computer is connected
to another computer. Here, the last node is combined with a first one.
• This topology uses token to pass the information from one computer to another. In this topology, all
the messages travel through a ring in the same direction.
Advantages:
• Here are pros/benefits of ring topology:
• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• Adding or deleting a device in-ring topology needs you to move only two connections.
• The troubleshooting process is difficult in a ring topology.
• Failure of one computer can disturb the whole network.
• Offers equal access to all the computers of the networks
• Faster error checking and acknowledgment.
Disadvantages:
• Here are drawbacks/cons of ring topology:
• Unidirectional traffic.
• Break in a single ring can risk the breaking of the entire network
• Modern days high-speed LANs made this topology less popular.
• In the ring, topology signals are circulating at all times, which develops unwanted power
consumption.
• It is very difficult to troubleshoot the ring network.
• Adding or removing the computers can disturb the network activity.

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Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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Advantages:
• Here, are advantages/pros using Hybrid topology:
• Offers the easiest method for error detecting and
troubleshooting
• Highly effective and flexible networking topology
• It is scalable so you can increase your network
size
Disadvantages:
• The design of hybrid topology is complex
• It is one of the costliest processes
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 Categories of networks
• A computer network is a group of computers
linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share
their resources, data, and applications.
• A computer network can be categorized by their
size. A computer network is mainly of four types:
• LAN(Local Area Network)
• PAN(Personal Area Network)
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)

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LAN(Local Area Network)
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are
connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building.
It is a widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other
application.
The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer in someone's
home or office. In general, LAN will be used as one type of transmission medium.
It is a network which consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices across several
buildings.

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Characteristics of LAN
• Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:
• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
• LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and
ethernet.
Advantages of LAN
• Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:
• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the
licensed software for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server
computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among
all the LAN users.

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 Disadvantages of LAN

• Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer
resources, but the initial cost of installing Local Area
Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN
user, so it does not offer good privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an
organization in case LAN admin is not able to secure
centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration
as there are issues related to software setup and hardware
failures
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 PAN(Personal Area Network)
• PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer
network formed around a person.
• It generally consists of a computer, mobile, or
personal digital assistant.
• PAN can be used for establishing
communication among these personal devices
for connecting to a digital network and the
internet.

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Characteristics of PAN
• Below are the main characteristics of PAN:
• It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.
• Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding
of a single user.
• PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
• It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
• Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.
Advantages of PAN
• Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:
• PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
• It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
• Strictly restricted to a small area
Disadvantages of PAN
• Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:
• It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio
bands.
• Distance limits.

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There are two types of Personal Area Network:
• Wired Personal Area Network
• Wireless Personal Area Network
• Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is
developed by simply using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth.
It is a low range network.
• Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by
using the USB.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:
• Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a
person. For example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a
person establishes a network connection and then creates a connection
with another device to share the information.
• Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it
is also known as a home network. A home network is designed to
integrate the devices such as printers, computer, television but they are
not connected to the internet.
• Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the
internet and to a corporate network using a VPN

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MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a
larger geographic area by interconnecting a different
LAN to form a larger network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the
citizens and private industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other
through a telephone exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232,
Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

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 Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network
• MAN is used in communication between the
banks in a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the
military.

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Characteristics of MAN
• Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:
• It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
• Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Advantages of MAN
• Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:
• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic
cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater
access to WANs.
• The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
• A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
• Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:
• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to
another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

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 WAN(Wide Area Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a
large geographical area such as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the
LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location,
but it spans over a large geographical area through a
telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of
Business, government, and education.

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 Examples Of Wide Area Network

• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used

across a region or country.
• Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide
the internet services to the customers in
hundreds of cities by connecting their home with
fiber.
• Private network: A bank provides a private
network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased
line provided by the telecom company.
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Characteristics of WAN
• Below are the characteristics of WAN:
• The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the latest
files.
• Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.
Advantages of WAN
• Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:
• WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices situated at
longer distances can easily communicate.
• Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
• WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.
Disadvantages of WAN
• Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:
• The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
• It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and
wireless technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.
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OSI Model

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 What is OSI?
• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model
that describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular
network function.
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and
manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can
be performed independently.

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Characteristics of OSI Model:
•The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
•The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the
application layer interact with the software applications.
•The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the physical
layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and
is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the
physical medium.

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Physical layer

•The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to another node.
•It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
•It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
•It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

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 Functions of a Physical layer
• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or
more devices can be connected physically.
• Data Transmission: It defines the transmission
mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-
duplex mode between the two devices on the
network.
• Topology: It defines the way how network
devices are arranged.
• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used
for transmitting the information.
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 Data link Layer
• This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data
frames.
• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication between
two or more devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each
device that resides on a local network.
• It contains two sub-layers:
– Logical Link Control Layer
• It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of
the receiver that is receiving.
• It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the
header.
• It also provides flow control.

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Contd..
• Media Access Control Layer
– A Media access control layer is a link between the
Logical Link Control layer and the network's
physical layer.
– It is used for transferring the packets over the
network.

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 Functions of the Data-link layer
• Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as Frames.
The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the
frame contains the hardware destination and source address.

Header Packet Trailer

• Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.
• Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted.
It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed does not
exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
• Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before it is sent to
the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the
retransmission of the corrupted frames.
• Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel,
then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over the link at a
given time.

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Network Layer

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Contd..
• It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the
location of devices on the network.
• It determines the best path to move data from source to
the destination based on the network conditions, the
priority of service, and other factors.
• The n/w link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding
the packets.
• Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this
layer and used to provide the routing services within an
internetwork.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are known
as Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are
IPv4(32 bits) and Ipv6(128 bits).

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 Functions of Network Layer:

• Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of

the network layer. It provides a logical connection between
different devices.
• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination
address to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify
the device on the internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and
it determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from
source to the destination.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper
layer and converts them into packets. This process is known as
Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

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Transport Layer

•The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
•The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
•It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
•This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
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Contd..
• The two protocols used in this layer are:
• Transmission Control Protocol
– It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over
the internet.
– It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
– When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol
divides the data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment
travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in
different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
• User Datagram Protocol
– User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
– It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not
send any acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender
does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a
protocol unreliable.
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 Functions of Transport Layer
• Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the
transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another
computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that
contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the
network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the
responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper
layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence
number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the destination,
then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
• Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and
they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
• Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end
rather than across a single link.
• Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed
end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message
reach at the destination without any error.

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Session Layer

The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which
can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
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Presentation Layer

A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
It acts as a data translator for a network.
This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

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 Functions of Presentation layer
• Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the
information in the form of character strings, numbers and so on.
Different computers use different encoding methods, the
presentation layer handles the interoperability between the
different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-
dependent format into a common format and changes the common
format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
• Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is
a process of converting the sender-transmitted information into
another form and sends the resulting message over the network.
• Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the
data, i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data
compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio,
video.

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Application Layer

An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to

access network service.
It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
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 Functions of Application layer
• File transfer, access, and management
(FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve
the files from a computer and to manage the files
in a remote computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the
facility for email forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the
distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various
objects.
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 TCP/IP
• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model
• It was designed to describe the functions of the communication
system by dividing the communication procedure into smaller and
simpler components.
• But when we talk about the TCP/IP model, it was designed and
developed by Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based
on standard protocols.
• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains
four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer

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 Network Access Layer

• A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

• A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and
Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically through
the network.
• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the
data between two devices on the same network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating
the IP datagram into frames transmitted by the network
and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
• The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring,
FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

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 Internet Layer
• An internet layer is the second layer of the
TCP/IP model.
• An internet layer is also known as the network
layer.
• The main responsibility of the internet layer is
to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of
the route they take.

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 Protocols used in Internet layer
• IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP
suite.
Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
• IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP
addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide
internetwork routing.
• Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.
• Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer
protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data
into message known as IP datagram.
• Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link layer
protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than
the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel
over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate router. At the
receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.
• Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is
known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP
datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various
devices such as routers.

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 ARP Protocol
• ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
• ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the
physical address from the IP address.
• The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP
Protocol:
– ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical
address of the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the
network.
– ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the
ARP request and process the request, but only recipient
recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address in
the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address
both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

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 ICMP Protocol
• ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
• It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding
datagram problems back to the sender.
• A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router
is unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled
links, a device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to
inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
• An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
– ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
– ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding or not.
• The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct
them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
• ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate
routers because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and
destination but not of the router that it is passed to.

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 Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of
data which is being sent over the network.
• The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
– It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
– It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
– User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the sender
that user datagram has been damaged.
– UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program that
has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application
program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
– UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain
any ID of a data segment.

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• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
– It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
– It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver,
and it is active for the duration of the transmission.
– TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and
retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all
the segments must be received and acknowledged before
the transmission is considered to be completed and a
virtual circuit is discarded.
– At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into
smaller units known as segment, and each segment
contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
– At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and
reorders them based on sequence numbers.

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 Application Layer
• An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
• It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of
representation.
• This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
• When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with
another application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
• There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every
application cannot be placed inside the application layer except
those who interact with the communication system. For example:
text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web
browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network
where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

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 Protocols used in the application layer
• HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data over
the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a
Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where there
are rapid jumps from one document to another.
• SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail
is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail
address.
• DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of a
host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore,
the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
• TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local
computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at
the remote system.
• FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting
the files from one computer to another computer.

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 TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol. OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.

TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.

TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable

TCP/IP does not have very strict boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries

TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.

TCP/IP uses both session and presentation layer in

OSI uses different session and presentation layers.
the application layer itself.

TCP/IP developed protocols then model. OSI developed model then protocol.

Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide In OSI model, transport layer provides assurance
assurance delivery of packets. delivery of packets.

Connection less and connection oriented both

TCP/IP model network layer only provides
services are provided by network layer in OSI
connection less services.
model.

While in OSI model, Protocols are better covered

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP
and is easy to replace with the change in
model.
technology.

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LAN Components

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 What is Transmission media?
• Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
• The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form of bits
through LAN(Local Area Network).
• It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
• In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
• In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
• In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it
is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
• The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere, water, and
vacuum.
• The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the characteristics of
medium and signal.
• Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media, medium
characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics are more
important.
• Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of
installation and maintenance.
• The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, i.e., Physical
layer.

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 Factors need to be considered for
designing the transmission media
• Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the
greater the bandwidth of a medium, the higher the
data transmission rate of a signal.
• Transmission impairment: When the received signal is
not identical to the transmitted one due to the
transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will
get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
• Interference: An interference is defined as the process
of disrupting a signal when it travels over a
communication medium on the addition of some
unwanted signal.

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 Causes Of Transmission Impairment

• Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the

strength of the signal decreases with increasing the
distance which causes the loss of energy.
• Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the
shape of the signal. This type of distortion is examined from
different signals having different frequencies. Each
frequency component has its own propagation speed, so
they reach at a different time which leads to the delay
distortion.
• Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium,
some unwanted signal is added to it which creates the
noise.

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Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical
links.
Features:
High Speed
Secure
Used for comparatively shorter distances

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 (i) Twisted Pair Cable
• It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires
wound about each other.
• Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a
protective sheath.
• They are the most widely used Transmission Media
• A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other
transmission media.
• Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a
lightweight cable.
• The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to
3.5KHz.

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 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
• This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not
depend on a physical shield for this purpose.
• It is used for telephonic applications.
Following are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
• Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-
speed data.
• Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
• Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
• Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used
for long-distance communication.
• Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

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Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
• It is cheap.
• Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is
easy.
• It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
• This cable can only be used for shorter
distances because of attenuation.
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 Shielded Twisted Pair
• A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh
surrounding the wire that allows the higher transmission rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
• The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not
very low.
• An installation of STP is easy.
• It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
• It has a higher attenuation.
• It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages
• It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
• It has a higher attenuation rate.

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 Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for
example, TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
• The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors
parallel to each other.
• It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
• The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and
the outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is
made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner
conductor from the outer conductor.
• The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the
copper mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

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Coaxial cable is of two types:
Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single
signal at high speed.
Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple
signals simultaneously.
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
The data can be transmitted at high speed.
It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

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 Fibre Optic
• Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses light signals
for communication.
• Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres
coated in plastic that are used to send the data by
pulses of light.
• The plastic coating protects the optical fibres
from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference
from other types of wiring.
• Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than
copper wires.
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Basic elements of Fiber optic:
Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a
core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the
core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fibre.
Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The
main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and
extra fibre protection.
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 Following are the advantages of fibre optic
cable over copper:

• Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth

as compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as
compared to copper cable.
• Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light.
This allows the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher
speed.
• Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer
distance as compared to copper cable.
• Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the
copper cable as it is immune to any temperature changes while it
can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
• Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in
weight so it can withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.

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 Unguided Media
• It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded
transmission media.
• No physical medium is required for the
transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
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Radio waves
• Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are
transmitted in all the directions of free space.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are
propagated in all the directions.
• The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to
1 khz.
• In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving
antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the
sending antenna can be received by any receiving
antenna.
• An example of the radio wave is FM radio
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• Applications Of Radio waves:
• A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is
one sender and many receivers.
• An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples
of a radio wave.
• Advantages Of Radio transmission:
• Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area
networks and mobile cellular phones.
• Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate
the walls.
• Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

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Microwaves

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused
beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission
antenna to another.
Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range
from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna which is km away.
It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the
towers are the direct sight of each other.

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Characteristics of Microwave:
Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.
Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions and
antenna size.
Advantages Of Microwave:
Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable
in terrain is quite a difficult task.
Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can
catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather
condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.

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 Satellite Microwave Communication
• A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the
earth at a known height.
• Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it
offers more flexibility than cable and fibre optic
systems.
• We can communicate with any point on the globe by
using satellite communication.
How Does Satellite work?
• The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from
the earth station, and it amplifies the signal. The
amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth
station.
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Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
• The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial
microwave.
• The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from
the centre of the coverage area.
• Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication
applications.
• It is easy to install.
• It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting,
radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
• Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
• The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so
that it remains in orbit.
• The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another
launch of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

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 Infrared
• An infrared transmission is a wireless technology
used for communication over short ranges.
• The frequency of the infrared in the range from
300 GHz to 400 THz.
• It is used for short-range communication such as
data transfer between two cell phones, TV
remote operation, data transfer between a
computer and cell phone resides in the same
closed area.
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 Characteristics
• It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data
rate will be very high.
• Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls.
Therefore, the infrared communication in one
room cannot be interrupted by the nearby
rooms.
• An infrared communication provides better
security with minimum interference.
• Infrared communication is unreliable outside the
building because the sun rays will interfere with
the infrared waves.
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 Connectors
• 1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to
regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal
becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which
the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important
point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the
signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by
bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.
• 2. Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects
multiple wires coming from different branches, for example, the
connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs
cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected
devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected
through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence
to find out the best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage.

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 Types of Hub

• Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their own power supply
and can clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It
serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used
to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub :- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes
and power supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals
onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be
used to extend the distance between nodes.
• Intelligent Hub :- It works like active hubs and includes remote
management capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to
network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the
traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the
hub.

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 Bridge
• A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on
the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of
source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs
working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port,
thus making it a 2 port device.
• Types of Bridges
• Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are
completely unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge
is added or deleted from the network, reconfiguration of the stations is
unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge
forwarding and bridge learning.
• Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed
by the source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The
host can discover the frame by sending a special frame called the
discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all
possible paths to the destination.

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 Switch
• A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a
design that can boost its efficiency(a large number of
ports imply less traffic) and performance.
• A switch is a data link layer device.
• The switch can perform error checking before
forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it
does not forward packets that have errors and forward
good packets selectively to the correct port only.
• In other words, the switch divides the collision domain
of hosts, but broadcast domain remains the same.

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 Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect
LANs and WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on
which they make decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast
domains of hosts connected through it.
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• Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two
networks together that may work upon different networking models. They
basically work as the messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called
protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are
generally more complex than switches or routers. Gateway is also called a
protocol converter.
• Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines
features of both bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer
or a network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets
across networks, and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local
area network traffic.
• NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to
connect the computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to
establish a LAN. It has a unique id that is written on the chip, and it has a
connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface
between the computer and router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device
which means that it works on both physical and data link layer of the
network model.

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 Ethernet
• Ethernet is a type of communication protocol
that is created at Xerox PARC in 1973 by
Robert Metcalfe and others, which connects
computers on a network over a wired
connection.
• It is a widely used LAN protocol, which is also
known as Alto Aloha Network.
• It connects computers within the local area
network and wide area network

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Type of Speed Distance Topology Media
ethernet
Standard 10Mbps 100m to Bus, star Coaxial
2km cable, Fiber,
CAT2, UTP
Fast 100Mbps 100m to Point to STP,
5km point, star, CAT5,UTP,
ring Fiber
Gigabit 1Gbps 100m to Point to STP, Fiber
5km point, star
Ten-gigabit 10Gbps 300m to Point to Fiber
40km point, star

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 Advantages of Ethernet
• It is not much costly to form an Ethernet network. As
compared to other systems of connecting computers, it is
relatively inexpensive.
• Ethernet network provides high security for data as it uses
firewalls in terms of data security.
• Also, the Gigabit network allows the users to transmit data
at a speed of 1-100Gbps.
• In this network, the quality of the data transfer does
maintain.
• In this network, administration and maintenance are easier.
• The latest version of gigabit ethernet and wireless ethernet
have the potential to transmit data at the speed of 1-
100Gbps.
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 Disadvantages of Ethernet
• It needs deterministic service; therefore, it is not considered the best for real-time
applications.
• The wired Ethernet network restricts you in terms of distances, and it is best for
using in short distances.
• If you create a wired ethernet network that needs cables, hubs, switches, routers,
they increase the cost of installation.
• Data needs quick transfer in an interactive application, as well as data is very small.
• In ethernet network, any acknowledge is not sent by receiver after accepting a
packet.
• If you are planning to set up a wireless Ethernet network, it can be difficult if you
have no experience in the network field.
• Comparing with the wired Ethernet network, wireless network is not more secure.
• The full-duplex data communication mode is not supported by the 100Base-T4
version.
• Additionally, finding a problem is very difficult in an Ethernet network (if has), as it
is not easy to determine which node or cable is causing the problem.

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 Token Bus
• Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a popular standard for the
token passing LANs.
• In a token bus LAN, the physical media is a bus or a tree
and a logical ring is created using coaxial cable.
• The token is passed from one user to another in a
sequence (clockwise or anticlockwise).
• Each station knows the address of the station to its
“left” and “right” as per the sequence in the logical
ring.
• A station can only transmit data when it has the token

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Frame Format:

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Contd..
• Preamble – It is used for bit synchronization. It is 1 byte field.

• Start Delimiter – These bits marks the beginning of frame. It is 1 byte field.

• Frame Control – This field specifies the type of frame – data frame and control frames. It is 1 byte
field.

• Destination Address – This field contains the destination address. It is 2 to 6 bytes field.

• Source Address – This field contains the source address. It is 2 to 6 bytes field.

• Data – If 2 byte addresses are used then the field may be upto 8182 bytes and 8174 bytes in case of
6 byte addresses.

• Checksum – This field contains the checksum bits which is used to detect errors in the transmitted
data. It is 4 bytes field.

• End Delimiter – This field marks the end of frame. It is 1 byte field.

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 Token Ring
• Token Ring protocol is a communication protocol used
in Local Area Network (LAN).
• In a token ring protocol, the topology of the network is
used to define the order in which stations send.
• The stations are connected to one another in a single
ring. It uses a special three-byte frame called
a “token” that travels around a ring.
• It makes use of Token Passing controlled access
mechanism. Frames are also transmitted in the
direction of the token.
• This way they will circulate around the ring and reach
the station which is the destination
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Token Passing Mechanism in Token Ring
If a station has a frame to transmit when it receives a token, it sends the frame and then
passes the token to the next station; otherwise it simply passes the token to the next
station. Passing the token means receiving the token from the preceding station and
transmitting to the successor station. The data flow is unidirectional in the direction of
the token passing. In order that tokens are not circulated infinitely, they are removed
from the network once their purpose is completed.

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 IPX/SPX
• IPX is a networking protocol that conducts the activities and affairs
of the end-to-end process of timely, managed and secured data.
• Originally used by the Novell NetWare operating system and it was
later adopted by Windows.
• As they replaced NetWare LANS they became widely used on
networks deploying Microsoft Windows LANs.
• IPX/SPX or Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet
Exchange was developed by Novell to be a replacement to the
TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
• This was introduced in Novell’s networking software called Netware
in the early 1980s.
• IPX introduced in the 1980s remained fairly popular till the 1990s.
After which the TCP/IP protocol has largely replaced it.

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 Working of IPX
• IPX is the network layer and SPX is the transport layer of
the IPX/SPX network protocol.
• IPX and IP protocol have similar functions and this defines
how data is sent and received between devices.
• The transport layer protocol or SPX protocol is used to
establish and maintain a connection between devices.
• Together, they can be used to transfer data and create a
network connection between systems.
• IPX does not require a consistent connection to be
maintained while packets are being sent from one system
to another, this is what is called being connectionless.
• It can resume the transfer from the point where it was
interrupted due to bad connection or power loss.
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 Applications
• IPX provides peer-to-peer support connectivity. Like
IP, IPX also contains end-user data and is
connectionless, just like network addresses.
• Novell’s original NetWare client was written for DOS.
In the 1990s, video games like Quake, Descent, and
WarCraft 2 were supported with IPX for network
gaming. Kali was the name of a service used as an
emulator to let gamers play online

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 Advantages
• IPX/SPX was primarily designed for local area
networks (LANs) and is very efficient when used for this
only.
• IPX has a larger address space: 48 bits instead of 32 bits
in IPv4.
• IPX addresses incorporate the local MAC
address:compared to “address assignment” like with
IPv4.
• No BootP or DHCP in IPX. (DHCP was invented from
BootP was so that IPv4 could allow “plug-and-go”
network addressing like what IPX did. It was later
added in IPv6.)

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 Disadvantages
• Nowadays IPX is falling out of trend. TCP/IP is mostly
used because of its superior performance over wide
area networks and the Internet and its a more mature
protocol created with the same purpose in mind. The
real advantage of TCP/IP is interoperability and vendor-
independent open standards.
• With IPX applications and the use of the internet, the
costs are higher if you are implementing VPNs.
• Encapsulating and encrypting of IPX frames in an IP
packet requires expensive hardware than performing a
straight IPSec VPN.

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HTTP (Hyper text transfer protocol)
• HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.
• It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
• The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain
text, hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
• This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its
efficiency that allows us to use in a hypertext environment where there
are rapid jumps from one document to another document.
• HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to
another host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one
connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files.
• HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of MIME-like format.
• HTTP is similar to SMTP as the data is transferred between client and
server. The HTTP differs from the SMTP in the way the messages are sent
from the client to the server and from server to the client. SMTP messages
are stored and forwarded while HTTP messages are delivered immediately.

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 Features of HTTP:
• Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP
client initiates a request and waits for a response from the server.
When the server receives the request, the server processes the
request and sends back the response to the HTTP client after which
the client disconnects the connection. The connection between
client and server exist only during the current request and response
time only.
• Media independent: HTTP protocol is a media independent as data
can be sent as long as both the client and server know how to
handle the data content. It is required for both the client and server
to specify the content type in MIME-type header.
• Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server
know each other only during the current request. Due to this nature
of the protocol, both the client and server do not retain the
information between various requests of the web pages.

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 Methods (Request type)
Method Action
GET Requests a document from the server
HEAD Requests information about a document but not the document itself
POST Sends some information from the client to the server
PUT Sends a document from the server to the client
TRACE Echoes the incoming request
CONNECT Reserved
OPTION Inquires about available options

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Code Phrase Description

Informational

100 Continue The initial part of the request has been received, and the
client may continue with its request.

101 Switching The server is complying with a client request to switch

protocols defined in the upgrade header.

Success

200 OK The request is successful.

201 Created A new URL is created.

202 Accepted The request is accepted, but it is not immediately acted upon.

204 No content There is no content in the body.

Code Phrase Description

Redirection

301 Moved permanently The requested URL is no longer used by the server.

302 Moved temporarily The requested URL has moved temporarily.

304 Not modified The document has not been modified.

Client Error

400 Bad request There is a syntax error in the request.

401 Unauthorized The request lacks proper authorization.

403 Forbidden Service is denied.

404 Not found The document is not found.

405 Method not allowed The method is not supported in this URL.

406 Not acceptable The format requested is not acceptable.

Server Error

500 Internal server error There is an error, such as a crash, at the server site.

501 Not implemented The action requested cannot be performed.

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503 Service unavailable
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The service is temporarily unavailable, but may be requested

in the future.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
A client that wants to access the document in an internet needs an address and to facilitate the access
of documents, the HTTP uses the concept of Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard way of specifying any kind of information on the
internet.
The URL defines four parts: method, host computer, port, and path.
Method: The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document from a server. For example,
HTTP.
Host: The host is the computer where the information is stored, and the computer is given an alias
name. Web pages are mainly stored in the computers and the computers are given an alias name
that begins with the characters "www". This field is not mandatory.
Port: The URL can also contain the port number of the server, but it's an optional field. If the port
number is included, then it must come between the host and path and it should be separated from
the host by a colon.
Path: Path is the pathname of the file where the information is stored. The path itself contain slashes
that separate the directories from the subdirectories and files.

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FTP
•FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
•FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the files
from one host to another.
•It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the
computer that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
•It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.
Objectives of FTP
•It provides the sharing of files.
•It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
•It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.

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Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for communication.
Through control connection, we can transfer a line of command or line of response at a
time. The control connection is made between the control processes. The control
connection remains connected during the entire interactive FTP session.
Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data types may vary.
The data connection is made between data transfer processes. The data connection
opens when a command comes for transferring the files and closes when the file is
transferred.

FTP Clients
FTP client is a program that implements a file transfer protocol which allows you to
transfer files between two hosts on the internet.
It allows a user to connect to a remote host and upload or download the files.
It has a set of commands that we can use to connect to a host, transfer the files
between you and your host and close the connection.
The FTP program is also available as a built-in component in a Web browser. This GUI
based FTP client makes the file transfer very easy and also does not require to
remember the FTP commands.

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Advantages of FTP:
Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the fastest way
to transfer the files from one computer to another computer.
Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the operations to get the
entire file.
Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and password.
Therefore, we can say that FTP is more secure.
Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth. Suppose you
are a manager of the company, you send some information to all the employees, and
they all send information back on the same server.
Disadvantages of FTP:
The standard requirement of the industry is that all the FTP transmissions should be
encrypted. However, not all the FTP providers are equal and not all the providers offer
encryption. So, we will have to look out for the FTP providers that provides encryption.
FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a network. However,
the size limit of the file is 2GB that can be sent. It also doesn't allow you to run
simultaneous transfers to multiple receivers.
Passwords and file contents are sent in clear text that allows unwanted eavesdropping.
So, it is quite possible that attackers can carry out the brute force attack by trying to
guess the FTP password.
It is not compatible with every system.

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 SMTP
• SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• SMTP is a set of communication guidelines that allow software to transmit an
electronic mail over the internet is called Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• It is a program used for sending messages to other computer users based on e-
mail addresses.
• It provides a mail exchange between users on the same or different computers,
and it also supports:
– It can send a single message to one or more recipients.
– Sending message can include text, voice, video or graphics.
– It can also send the messages on networks outside the internet.
• The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up communication rules between
servers. The servers have a way of identifying themselves and announcing what
kind of communication they are trying to perform. They also have a way of
handling the errors such as incorrect email address. For example, if the recipient
address is wrong, then receiving server reply with an error message of some kind.

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Working of SMTP
Composition of Mail: A user sends an e-mail by composing an electronic mail message
using a Mail User Agent (MUA). Mail User Agent is a program which is used to send and
receive mail. The message contains two parts: body and header. The body is the main
part of the message while the header includes information such as the sender and
recipient address. The header also includes descriptive information such as the subject
of the message. In this case, the message body is like a letter and header is like an
envelope that contains the recipient's address.
Submission of Mail: After composing an email, the mail client then submits the
completed e-mail to the SMTP server by using SMTP on TCP port 25.

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Delivery of Mail: E-mail addresses contain two parts: username of the recipient and
domain name. For example, [email protected], where "vivek" is the username of the
recipient and "gmail.com" is the domain name.
If the domain name of the recipient's email address is different from the sender's
domain name, then MSA will send the mail to the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA). To relay
the email, the MTA will find the target domain. It checks the MX record from Domain
Name System to obtain the target domain. The MX record contains the domain name
and IP address of the recipient's domain. Once the record is located, MTA connects to
the exchange server to relay the message.
Receipt and Processing of Mail: Once the incoming message is received, the
exchange server delivers it to the incoming server (Mail Delivery Agent) which stores
the e-mail where it waits for the user to retrieve it.
Access and Retrieval of Mail: The stored email in MDA can be retrieved by using MUA
(Mail User Agent). MUA can be accessed by using login and password.

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 Telnet
• The main task of the internet is to provide services to users. For
example, users want to run different application programs at the
remote site and transfers a result to the local site. This requires a
client-server program such as FTP, SMTP. But this would not allow
us to create a specific program for each demand.
• The better solution is to provide a general client-server program
that lets the user access any application program on a remote
computer. Therefore, a program that allows a user to log on to a
remote computer. A popular client-server program Telnet is used to
meet such demands. Telnet is an abbreviation for Terminal
Network.
• Telnet provides a connection to the remote computer in such a way
that a local terminal appears to be at the remote side.

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 How remote login occurs
At the local site
• The user sends the keystrokes to the terminal driver, the characters are
then sent to the TELNET client. The TELNET client which in turn,
transforms the characters to a universal character set known as network
virtual terminal characters and delivers them to the local TCP/IP stack
At the remote site
• The commands in NVT forms are transmitted to the TCP/IP at the remote
machine. Here, the characters are delivered to the operating system and
then pass to the TELNET server. The TELNET server transforms the
characters which can be understandable by a remote computer. However,
the characters cannot be directly passed to the operating system as a
remote operating system does not receive the characters from the TELNET
server. Therefore it requires some piece of software that can accept the
characters from the TELNET server. The operating system then passes
these characters to the appropriate application program.

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SAIMEDHA - GATE,ECET,PSUs-
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• The network virtual terminal is an interface that defines how data
and commands are sent across the network.
• In today's world, systems are heterogeneous. For example, the
operating system accepts a special combination of characters such
as end-of-file token running a DOS operating system ctrl+z while the
token running a UNIX operating system is ctrl+d.
• TELNET solves this issue by defining a universal interface known as
network virtual interface.
• The TELNET client translates the characters that come from the
local terminal into NVT form and then delivers them to the
network. The Telnet server then translates the data from NVT form
into a form which can be understandable by a remote computer.

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 TCP/IP addressing
• TCP/IP includes an Internet addressing scheme that allows users and applications
to identify a specific network or host with which to communicate.
• An Internet address works like a postal address, allowing data to be routed to the
chosen destination. TCP/IP provides standards for assigning addresses to
networks, subnetworks, hosts, and sockets, and for using special addresses for
broadcasts and local loopback.
• Internet addresses are made up of a network address and a host (or local) address.
This two-part address allows a sender to specify the network as well as a specific
host on the network. A unique, official network address is assigned to each
network when it connects to other Internet networks. However, if a local network
is not going to connect to other Internet networks, it can be assigned any network
address that is convenient for local use.
• The Internet addressing scheme consists of Internet Protocol (IP) addresses and
two special cases of IP addresses: broadcast addresses and loopback addresses.

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SAIMEDHA - GATE,ECET,PSUs-
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Internet addresses
The Internet Protocol (IP) uses a 32-bit, two-part address field.
Subnet addresses
Subnet addressing allows an autonomous system made up of multiple networks to
share the same Internet address.
Broadcast addresses
The TCP/IP can send data to all hosts on a local network or to all hosts on all
directly connected networks. Such transmissions are called broadcast messages.
Local loopback addresses
The Internet Protocol defines the special network address, 127.0.0.1, as a local
loopback address.

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 Internet addresses
• The Internet Protocol (IP) uses a 32-bit, two-part address
field.
• The 32 bits are divided into four octets as in the following:
• 01111101 00001101 01001001 00001111
• These binary numbers translate into:
• 125 13 73 15
• The two parts of an Internet address are the network
address portion and the host address portion. This allows a
remote host to specify both the remote network and the
host on the remote network when sending information.
• By convention, a host number of 0 is used to refer to the
network itself.

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Contd..
• TCP/IP supports three classes of Internet addresses: Class A, Class B,
and Class C. The different classes of Internet addresses are
designated by how the 32 bits of the address are allocated. The
particular address class a network is assigned depends on the size
of the network.
• Class A addresses
A Class A address consists of an 8-bit network address and a 24-bit
local or host address.
• Class B addresses
A Class B address consists of a 16-bit network address and a 16-bit
local or host address.
• Class C addresses
A Class C address consists of a 24-bit network address and an 8-bit
local host address.

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 Subnetting
• Subnetting is the practice of dividing a
network into two or smaller networks.
• It increases routing efficiency, which helps to
enhance the security of the network and
reduces the size of the broadcast domain.

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so to divide a network into two parts, you need to choose one bit for
each Subnet from the host ID part.

In the above diagram, there are two Subnets.

Note: It is a class C IP so, there are 24 bits in the network id part and 8 bits in the
host id part.

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Contd..
• For Subnet-1:
The first bit which is chosen from the host id part is zero
and the range will be from (193.1.2.00000000 till you get all
1’s in the host ID part i.e, 193.1.2.01111111) except for the
first bit which is chosen zero for subnet id part.Thus, the
range of subnet-1:
• 193.1.2.0 to 193.1.2.127
• For Subnet-2:
The first bit chosen from the host id part is one and the
range will be from (193.1.2.100000000 till you get all 1’s in
the host ID part i.e, 193.1.2.11111111).Thus, the range of
subnet-2:
• 193.1.2.128 to 193.1.2.255

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 Network Address and Mask
• Network address – It identifies a network on
internet. Using this, we can find range of
addresses in the network and total possible
number of hosts in the network.
• Mask – It is a 32-bit binary number that gives
the network address in the address block
when AND operation is bitwise applied on the
mask and any IP address of the block.

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• The default mask in different classes are :
• Class A – 255.0.0.0
• Class B – 255.255.0.0
• Class C – 255.255.255.0
• Example : Given IP address 132.6.17.85 and default
class B mask, find the beginning address (network
address).
• Solution : The default mask is 255.255.0.0, which
means that the only the first 2 bytes are preserved and
the other 2 bytes are set to 0. Therefore, the network
address is 132.6.0.0.

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Some values calculated in subnetting :
1. Number of subnets : Given bits for mask – No. of bits in
default mask
2. Subnet address : AND result of subnet mask and the
given IP address
3. Broadcast address : By putting the host bits as 1 and
retaining the network bits as in the IP address
4. Number of hosts per subnet : 2(32 – Given bits for mask) – 2
5. First Host ID : Subnet address + 1 (adding one to the
binary representation of the subnet address)
6. Last Host ID : Subnet address + Number of Hosts

SAIMEDHA - GATE,ECET,PSUs-
Vijayawada,Hyderabad,Tirupati
Example : Given IP Address – 172.16.0.0/25, find the number of
subnets and the number of hosts per subnet. Also, for the first
subnet block, find the subnet address, first host ID, last host ID and
broadcast address.
Solution : This is a class B address.
So, no. of subnets = 2(25-16) = 29 = 512.
No. of hosts per subnet = 2(32-25) – 2 = 27 – 2 = 128 – 2 = 126
For the first subnet block, we have subnet address = 0.0, first host
id = 0.1, last host id = 0.126 and broadcast address = 0.127

SAIMEDHA - GATE,ECET,PSUs-
Vijayawada,Hyderabad,Tirupati
SAIMEDHA - GATE,ECET,PSUs-
Vijayawada,Hyderabad,Tirupati