\documentclass[article]{article}

\usepackage{amsmath} % Required for math environments

\usepackage{amssymb} % Required for math symbols

\usepackage{graphicx} % For inserting images

\documentclass{article}

\newpage

\maketitle

\subsection*{Improper Integrals}

\textbf{Definition:}

\begin{itemize}

\item Integrals with an infinite limit of integration, or

\item Integrals whose integrand is undefined within the limits of integration.

\end{itemize}

\textbf{Examples:}

\[

\int_0^\infty x^{2} \, dx, \quad \int_{-\infty}^\infty \frac{dx}{e^x} \,, \quad \int_{-\infty}^1x^2, dx, \
quad \int_ 0^{2} \,\frac {dx}{\sqrt{4-x^2}},

\]

\paragraph{}

\textbf{Definitions:}

\begin{enumerate}[i.]

\item If \( f \) is continuous at \( [a, +\infty) \), then

 \[

\int_a^\infty f(x) \, dx = \lim_{t \to +\infty} \int_a^b f(x) \, dx

\]

[ii.]

\item If \( f \) is continuous at \( (-\infty, b] \), then

\[

\int_{-\infty}^b f(x) \, dx = \lim_{s \to -\infty} \int_s^b f(x) \, dx

\]

[iii.]

\item If \( f \) is continuous for all \( x \), then

\[

\int_{-\infty}^\infty f(x) \, dx = \int_{-\infty}^a f(x) \, dx + \int_a^\infty f(x) \, dx

\]

\end{enumerate}

If the limits in (1) and (2) exist, then the improper integral is said to be \textbf{convergent}. Otherwise, it
is \textbf{divergent}. The value of the integral is the value of the limit.

\section*{Example}

Find:

\[

\int_0^\infty x^2 e^{-x^3} \, dx

\]

\textbf{Solution:}

\[

\int_{-\infty}^0 x^2 e^{-x^3} \, dx = \lim_{s \to -\infty} \int_s^b \, x^2 e^{-x^0} dx

\]

\paragraph{}

Let u = x^3,

\[

du = 3x^2 \, dx \quad \Rightarrow \quad \frac{du}{3} = x^2 \, dx

\]

\[

= \frac{1}{3} \int_0^\infty u e^{-u} \, du

\]

Using integration by parts:

\[

\int_0^\infty u e^{-u} \, du = \lim_{s \to \infty} \int_0^s u e^{-u} \, du

\]

Integration by parts formula:

\[

\int u \, dv = uv - \int v \, du

\]

\[

= \lim_{s \to \infty} \left[ -\frac{1}{3} u e^{-u} \bigg|_0^s + \frac{1}{3} \int_0^s e^{-u} \, du \right]

\]

Evaluate limits:

\[
= \lim_{s \to \infty} \left[ -\frac{1}{3} s e^{-s} + \frac{1}{3} \left[ -e^{-u} \bigg|_0^s \right] \right]

\]

Simplify:

\[

= \lim_{s \to \infty} \left[ -\frac{1}{3} s e^{-s} + \frac{1}{3} (0 - (-1)) \right]

\]

\[

= 0 + \frac{1}{3}

\]

Final Answer:

\[

\boxed{\frac{1}{3}}

\]

\paragraph{}

\newpage

\maketitle

\section*{Parametric Equations}

\subsection*{Consider the two equations:}

\[

x = t^2 + 2t \quad \text{,} \quad y = t - 2 \quad (*)

\]
\subsection*{Notes:}

\paragraph{}

For every value of t, the equations determine a value of x and one of y, and therefore a
point (x, y) in the plane. By letting t take on various values and computing x and y
from the given equations, we obtain a set of points.

\textbf{Remark:} The quantity t is called a \textbf{parameter}, and equations like (1) are called \
textbf{parametric equations}.

\subsection*{Definition:}

In general, if f and g are functions with the same domain S in \mathbb{R}, and if

\[

x = f(t), \quad y = g(t)

\]

then we say that the equations form a set of \textbf{parametric equations}.

\subsection*{Theorem:}

The set of parametric equations

\[

x = x_0 + at, \quad y = y_0 + bt

\]

so long as $a$ and $b$ are not both zero, has its graph a straight line in the $xy$-plane. This line passes
through $(x_0, y_0)$. If $a \ne 0$, then the line has slope $-\frac{b}{a}$. If $a = 0$, the line is vertical.

\begin{itemize}

x = x_0 + at, y = y_0 + bt \\

if k \ne 0, the equations \\

 x = x_0 + kat, y = y_0 + kbt -\textbf {Standard form} \\

\end{itemize}

\paragraph{}

\textbf{Straight line }with slope $\frac{b}{a}$ and passing through the point $(x_0, y_0)$. \\

We may select $k$ so that the parametric equations of the line \\

has the form in the standard form. \\

Once $a$ and $b$ are given, the selections \\

$k = \frac{1}{\sqrt{a^2 + b^2}}$, for $b > 0$ \\

$k = \frac{-1}{\sqrt{a^2 + b^2}}$, for $b < 0$ \\

$k = \frac{1}{a}$, for $b = 0$ \\

Recall: slope $\frac{y_1 - y_0}{x_1 - x_0}$ for $(x_0, y_0), (x_1, y_1)$ \\

$y = mx + b$\\

\begin{document}

\textbf{Example:} Find the parametric equations of the line through the given conditions and also
determine the parametric equations in standard form.\\

\textbf{1. $(2, -1)$, $(4, 7)$}

\textbf{2. $(-1, -9)$ and is perpendicular to the line $x + 3y = 2$}

\textbf{Solution:}

\textbf{1.}\\

Slope $= \frac{7 - (-1)}{4 - 2} = \frac{8}{2} = 4 = \frac{b}{a}$

$a = 1$

$b = 4$

$k = \frac{1}{\sqrt{a^2 + b^2}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1^2 + 4^2}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{17}}$

$x = 2 + \frac{1}{\sqrt{17}}t$

$y = -1 + \left( \frac{4}{\sqrt{17}} \right) t = -1 + \frac{4}{\sqrt{17}}t$

\textbf{2.}\\

$=$x + 3y = 2$\\

$=$\frac{3y}{3}$ =$\frac{3} {-x + 2$}

\\$y = -\frac{1}{3}x + \frac{2}{3}\\

$Slope $= -\frac{1}{3}\\

$Slope of L $= 3 = \frac{b}{a}$\\

b = 3$\\

$\\

a = 1$\\

k =$ \frac{1}{\sqrt{1^2 + 3^2}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{10}}$\\

$=\\

$x =$ -1 + \frac{1}{\sqrt{10}}t$\\

y = -3+ $\frac{1}{\sqrt{10}}(3)t$\\

$\boxed{=$$ -3 + \frac{3}{\sqrt{10}}t}$\\
\begin{document}

\section*{Derivatives of Parametric Equations}

\textbf{Let} \( f(t) \), \( y = g(t) \)

\textbf{Formulas:}

\[

\textbf{1.}\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{\frac{dy}{dt}}{\frac{dx}{dt}}

\]

\[

\textbf{2.} \frac{d^2 y}{dx^2} = \frac{\frac{d}{dt} \left( \frac{dy}{dx} \right)}{\frac{dx}{dt}}

\]

\newpage

\textbf{Recall:} \\

p \left( \frac{h}{l} \right) = \frac{LDH - HDL}{L^e}\\

\text{Example: Find } $\frac{dy}{dx}$ and $\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}$ \\

x = t^2 + 3t - 2, y = 2-t - t^2 \\

\textbf{Solution:}\\

$\frac{dy}{dt} = 1 - 2t \frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{\frac{dy}{dt}}{\frac{dx}{dt}} = \frac{-1 - 2t}{2t + 3}\\

\frac{dx}{dt} = 2t =3\\
$\frac{d}{dt}= (\frac{dy}{dx})=\frac{(2t+3)(-2)-[-1-2t)(2)]}{{(2t+3^2)}}\\

$\

$=\frac{(-4t-6)-(-2-4t)}{(2t+3)^2}\\

$=\frac{-4t - 6 + 2 + 4t}{(2t +3)^2}\\

\boxed{=\frac{-4}{(2t+3)^2}}\\\\

$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}=\frac{\frac{d}{dt} \left( \frac{dy}{dx} \right)}{\frac{dx}{dt}}=

\frac{\frac{-4}{(2t+3)^2}}{2t+3}\\

=$\frac{-4}{(2t+3)^2} \times \frac{1}{2t+3}\\

$\boxed{=\frac{-4}{(2t+3)^3}}

\newpage

\begin{document}

\maketitle

\section*{Length of an Arc}\\

\textbf{Definition:}
If a graph is given by a function as y = f(x), where a \leq x \leq b, and\quad if f is\quad
continuous\quad on\quad [a, b], then\quad the\quad graph \quad is\quad called\quad an \quad\
textbf{arc}.

When the graph is given in parametric form as:

\[

x = f(t), \quad y = g(t), \quad c \leq t \leq d,

\]

it is also called an \textbf{arc}.

Let s be the length of an arc e.\\

$S=\int_{a}^b \sqrt {1+[f'(x)]^2dx \\

\ If the arc C is the parametric form x = x(t), \, y = y(t), c \leq t \leq d, then:\\

\[

S = \int_{C} ^{d}\sqrt{\left[x'(t)\right]^2 + \left[y'(t)\right]^2} \, dt

\nexpage

\subsection*{Example 1:} Find the length of an arc from the point (0,0) to (2,4 \sqrt{2}) of the function
y= 2x^\frac{3}{2}\\

$f(x)=2x\frac{3}{2}=

f'(x)=3x\frac{1}{2}\\

Let u=1+9x\\

$\frac {du}{9}=\frac{9dx}{9}\\
$\frac {du}{9}=dx\\

$S = \int_{0} ^{2}\sqrt{1+(3X\frac{1} {2})^2dx\\

=$\int_{0}^{2} \sqrt{1+9xdx}\\

=$\int_{0}^{2}{\sqrt{u}}(\frac{du}{9})\\

=$\frac{1}{9}\int_{0}^{2}u^{\frac{1}{2}} du\\

=$\frac{1}{9}\frac {u^\frac{3}{2}}{\frac{3}{2} } \left \bigg|_0^2 \right \right \\

$=\frac{1}{9}.\frac{2}{3}u^\frac{3}{2} \left\bigg|_0^2\right\right

=$\frac{2}{27}(1+9x)^\frac{3}{2} \left\bigg|_0^2\right\right\\

=$\frac{2}{27}(1+9(2))^{\frac{3}{2}}-\frac{2}{27}(1+9(0))^\frac{3}{2}\\

=$\frac{2}{27}(19)^{\frac{3}{2}}-\frac{2}{27}\\

=$\frac{2}{27}(\sqrt{(19)^3}-\frac{2}{27}}\\

=$\frac{2}{27}(19)\sqrt{19}-\frac{2}{27}\\

=$\boxed{\frac{38}{27}\sqrt{19}-\frac{2}\sqrt{27}}\\

\nexpage
\subsection*{Example 2:} Given that x = t + 1, y = 2t^\frac{9}{2} - 4 .

\textit{Find the length of an arc from the point}\\

t=1

\textit{ to the point } t = 3.

\\

\textbf{Solution:} \\

$x'(t) = 3t^2, y'(t) = 9t^\frac{7}{2} \\

=$\int_1^3 \sqrt{(3t^2)^2 + (9t^\frac{2}{2})^2} dt\\

=$\int_1^3 \sqrt{9t^4 + 81t^7} dt \\

=$\int_1^3 \sqrt{9t^4(1 + 9t^3)} dt\\

=$\int_1^3 3t^2 \sqrt{1 + 9t^3} dt \\

=$3 \int_1^3 \sqrt{1 + 9t^3} t^2 dt\\

\text{let } u = 1 + 9t^2 \\

$\frac{du}{27} = \frac{27t^2 dt}{27} \\

$\frac{du}{27} = t^2 dt\\

$=3\int_1^3 u^\frac{1}{2} (\frac{du}{27}) \\

$=\frac{1}{9} \int_1^3 u^\frac{1}{2} du\\

$= \frac{1}{9} \frac u^{3/2}}{3/2} \left\bigg|_1^3 \right\right\\

$= \frac{1}{9} \cdot \frac{2}{3} (1 + 9t^3)^\frac{3}{2} \left\bigg|_1^3 \\

$= \frac{2}{27} (1 + 9t^3)^\frac{3}{2} \left\bigg|_1^3 \\

$= \frac{2}{27} (1 + 9(3)^3)^\frac{3}{2} - \frac{2}{27} (1 + 9(1)^3)^\frac{3}{2}\\

$= \frac{2}{27} (244)^\frac{3}{2} - \frac{2}{27} (10)^\frac{3}{2} \\

$= \frac{2}{27} (\sqrt{244^3}) - \frac{2}{27} \sqrt{10^3}\\

$= \frac{2}{27} \cdot 244 \sqrt{244} - \frac{2}{27} (10) \sqrt{10} \\

$= \frac{488}{27}\cdot \sqrt{4.61} - \frac{20}{27} \sqrt{10}\\

$= \frac{488}{27} \cdot 2\sqrt{61} - \frac{20}{27} \sqrt{10}\\

=$\boxed{\frac{976}{27} \sqrt{61} - \frac{20}{27} \sqrt{10}}\\

\subsection*{Example 3:} Find the length of the arc given that x=2t-2sint, y=2-2cost, $0 \leq $+$ \leq 2\
pi$\\

x'(t)=2-2cost, y'(t)=2sint\\

$S=\int_{0}^{2\pi} \sqrt {(2-2cost)^2+(2sint)^2}dt \\

$=\int_{0}^{2\pi} \sqrt {(2-2cost)^2+(2sint)^2}{dt} \\

$=\int_{0}^{2\pi} \sqrt {(4-8cost)+4(cost^2t+sn^2t)}{dt}\\

$=\int_{0}^{2\pi} \sqrt {4-8cost+4\quad }{dt}\\

$=\int_{0}^{2\pi} \sqrt {4-8cost+4\quad }{dt}\\

$=\int_{0}^{2\pi} \sqrt {8-8cost\quad }{dt}\\

$=\int_{0}^{2\pi} \sqrt {8-(1-cost)\quad }{dt}\\

$=\int_{0}^{2\pi} \sqrt {8}\sqrt{1-cost}\quad }{dt}\\

$=2\sqrt {2}\int_{0}^{2\pi}\sqrt {1-cost}\quad dt\\

$=4\int_{0}^{2\pi}\ sin \frac{t}{2} dt \\

$=4\int_{0}^{2\pi} sin 0 (2du) \\

$=8\int_{0}^{2\pi}sin udu \\
$=8(-cosu) \left\bigg|_0^{2\pi}\right\right\\

$=-8cosu\left\bigg|_0^{2\pi}\right\riht\\

$=-8cos\frac{t}{2}\left\bigg|_0^{2\pi}\\

$=-8cos\frac {2\pi}{2}-(-8cos\frac{0}{2})\\

$= -8cos(\pi)+8cos(0)\\

$=-8(-1)+8(1)\\

$=8+8=\boxed{16}\\

$Letu=\frac{t}{2}\\

$\frac{du}{\frac{1}{2}} = \frac{\frac{1}{2}dt}{\frac{1}{2}}\\

$ \boxed{2du=dt}\\

\section*{Polar Coordinates}\\

\begin{figure}[h]

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=4cm,height=4cm]{2.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{Rectangular Coordinates.} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[h]

\centering

\includegraphics[width=4cm,height=4cm] {3.png} % Replace 'example.jpg' with your image file

\caption{Polar Coordinates.} % Add a caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\end{figure}

\subsection*{Rectangular Coordiantes}\\

r^2 = x_0^2 + y_0^2 \\

$ \tan \theta = \frac{y_0}{x_0}

\subsection*{Polar Coordinates}\\

x = r\cos\theta \\

y = r\sin\theta\\

$\textbf{Ex: Plot the following points} \\

1. (4, \frac{\pi}{6}) \\

2. (2, -\frac{\pi}{4}) \\

3. (-4, \frac{3\pi}{4}) \\

4. (-2, \frac{\pi}{2}\\

\begin{figure}[h]

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{6.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{Unit Circle} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\end{figure}

$\subsection*{Conversion of Polar into Rectangular} \\

$\text{Ex: Convert } (2, \frac{\pi}{6}) \textit{ to rectangular} \\

$\text{Ex: Convert } (-1, 1) \textit{ to polar } (r, \theta) \\

$\textbf{Solution:} \\

$1. x = 2\cos(\frac{\pi}{6}) = 2(\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}) = \sqrt{3} \\

$y = 2\sin(\frac{\pi}{6}) = 2(\frac{1}{2}) = 1 \\

(\sqrt{3}, 1)\\

$2. r^2 = x^2 + y^2 \\

$r = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2} \\

$= \sqrt{(-1)^2 + (1)^2} \\

$= \sqrt{1+1} \\

$= \boxed{\sqrt{2}} \\

$\tan\theta = \frac{1}{-1} = -1 \\

$\theta = \tan^{-1}(-1) \\
$\theta = \frac{3\pi}{4} \\

$\tan\theta = \frac{\sin\theta}{\cos\theta} \quad (\sqrt{2}, \frac{3\pi}{4})\\

$\theta = \frac{3\pi}{4} \\

$\frac{\sin(\frac{3\pi}{4})}{\cos(\frac{3\pi}{4})} = \frac{\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}}{-\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}} = \frac{\

sqrt{2}}{2} \cdot \frac{-2}{\sqrt{2}} = \boxed{-1}\\

\paragraph{}

\newpage

\maketitle

\section*{Polar Equation}

r = f(\theta) \textit{ polar equation} \\

\textit{Defn}:The graph of a polar equation r = f(\theta) \textit{ is the set of all points P with

at\\

at least one set of coordinates that satisfy the equation} }\\

\textit{Test for Symmetry: The graph of a polar equation is symmetric with respond to:} \\

\textit{I. x-axis (or polar axis) if replacing } \theta \textit{ by } -\theta \textit{ results in an equivalent
equation} \\

$\textit{II. y-axis (or } \frac{\pi}{2} \textit{ axis) if replacing } \theta \textit{ by } \pi - \theta \textit{ results
in an equivalent equation} \\
$\textit{III. the pole if replacing r by -r results in an equivalent equation} \\

\begin{figure}[h]

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{7.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\end{figure}

$\textbf{Recall:} \\

1. $\cos(-\theta) = \cos\theta \\

2. $\sin(-\theta) = -\sin\theta \\

3. $\cos(A \pm B) = \cos A \cos B \pm \sin A \sin B \\

4. $\sin(A \pm B) = \sin A \cos B \pm \cos A \sin B\\

$\textit{Ex: Discuss for symmetry and plot the graph of } r = 3 - 3\cos\theta\\

\textbf{Solution:} \\

\textbf{(I) Symmetric with x-axis} \\

$r = 3 - 3\cos(-\theta) \\

$ \quad\boxed{= 3 - 3\cos\theta \\

\textit{Symmetric with respect x-axis}} \\

\textbf{(II) Symmetric with y-axis} \\

$r = 3 - 3\cos(\pi - \theta) \\

$\quad = 3 - 3[\cos\pi\cos\theta + \sin\pi\sin\theta] \\

$\quad = 3 - 3[-cos\theta] \\

$\quad \boxed {= 3 + 3\cos\theta \\

\implies \textbf{not symmetric}}\\

\textbf{(III) symmetric with pole:} \\

$-r = 3 - 3\cos\theta \\

$\boxed {\quad r = -3 + 3\cos\theta \\

\implies \text{not symmetric}}\\

\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}

\hline

\theta & 0 & \frac{\pi}{6} & \frac{\pi}{3} & \frac{\pi}{2} & \frac{2\pi}{3} & \frac{3\pi}{4} & \pi \\

\hline

\cos\theta & 1 & \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2} & \frac{1}{2} & 0 & -\frac{1}{2} & -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} & -1 \\

\hline

2\cos\theta & 2 & 1.7 & 1 & 0 & -1 & -1.4 & -2 \\

\hline

r = 1 - 2\cos\theta & -1 & -0.7 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 2.4 & 3 \\
\hline

\end{array}\\

\textbf{Remark:} A graph of any polar equation of the form r = a \pm a \cos \theta or r = a \pm a \sin \
theta is called cardioids (a > 0)

\begin{figure}[h]

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{8.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{a.) r = 1 - \cos \theta} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\end{figure}

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{9.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{b.) r = 1 + \cos \theta\\} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{10.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{c.) r = 1 - \sin \theta\\} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{11.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{d.) r = 1 + \sin \theta\\} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\end{figure}

\textbf{Ex:} $r = 3 + 2\sin\theta$\\

$\textbf{(i)} \\

$\quad r = 3 + 2\sin(-\theta) \\

$ \quad \boxed {r = 3 - 2\sin\theta \\

\rightarrow \textbf{not symmetric}}\\

$\textbf{(ii)}\\

$r = 3 + 2\sin(\pi - \theta) \\

$= 3 + 2(\sin\pi\cos\theta - \cos\pi\sin\theta) \\

$\boxed{= 3 + 2\sin\theta \\

\rightarrow \textbf{symmetric}}\\

\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}

\hline
$\theta$ & $\frac{\pi}{2}$ & $\frac{\pi}{3}$ & $\frac{\pi}{4}$ & $\frac{\pi}{6}$ & $0$ & $-\frac{11\pi}{6}$
& $-\frac{7\pi}{4}$ & $-\frac{5\pi}{3}$ & $-\frac{3\pi}{2}$ \\

\hline

$\sin\theta$ & $1$ & $\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}$ & $\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}$ & $\frac{1}{2}$ & $0$ & $-\frac{1}{2}$ &
$-\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}$ & $-\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}$ & $-1$ \\

\hline

$2\sin\theta$ & $2$ & $1.74$ & $1.41$ & $1$ & $0$ & $-1$ & $-1.41$ & $-1.74$ & $-2$ \\

\hline

$r = 3 + 2\sin\theta$ & $5$ & $4.74$ & $4.41$ & $4$ & $3$ & $2$ & $1.54$ & $1.26$ & $1$ \\

\hline

\end{tabular}$$$$\\

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{12.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{d.) r = 1 + \sin \theta\\} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\end{figure}\\

\textbf{Remark:} The graph of any polar equation of the form

\[r = a \pm b\sin\theta \quad \text{and} \quad r = a \pm b\cos\theta\]

are called \textbf{limacons}.\\

$ When\quad $a = b$, the graph is a cardioid.\\

If $ 0< a < b$, then the limacon has an interior loop.\\

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{13.jpg} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{{a.}\quad r = a + b\sin\theta\\} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{14.jpg} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{{b.}\quad r = a - b\sin\theta\\} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{15.jpg} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{{c.}\quad r = a + b\cos\theta\\} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{16.jpg} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{d.}\quad r = a - b\cos\theta\\} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{18.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{{\textbf{e.}\quad r=\pm\ b sin\theta,\quad 0<a<b\\} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\end{figure}\\\\
\section*{Ex. r = 1 - 2\cos\theta} \\

$ r = 1 - 2\cos\theta \\

$ = 1 - 2\cos(-\theta) \\

$\boxed{ = 1 - 2\cos\theta \\

\implies \textbf{Therefore symmetric}} \\

$ = 1 - 2\cos\theta \\

$ = 1 - 2\cos(\pi - \theta) \\

$= 1 - 2[\cos\pi\cos\theta + \sin\pi\sin\theta] \\

$ = 1 - 2[-\cos\theta] \\

$ \boxed{= 1 + 2\cos\theta\\

\implies \textbf{not symmetric}}\\

\begin{document}

\section*{Trigonometric Table Example}

\[

\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}

\hline
\theta & 0 & \pi/6 & \pi/4 & \pi/3 & \pi/2 & 2\pi/3 & 3\pi/4 & \pi \\

\hline

\cos(\theta) & 1 & \sqrt{3}/2 & \sqrt{2}/2 & 1/2 & 0 & -1/2 & -\sqrt{2}/2 & -1 \\

\hline

2\cos(\theta) & 2 & 1.7 & 1.4 & 1 & 0 & -1 & -1.4 & -2 \\

\hline

r = 1 - 2\cos(\theta) & -1 & -0.1 & -0.4 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 2.4 & 3 \\

\hline

\end{array}

\]

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{19.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\end{figure}

$ \section*{Ex:} r = 2\cos 2\theta\\

\textbf{(i) Sym at x-axis} \\

r = 2\cos 2(-\theta) \\

\boxed{= 2\cos 2\theta \\

\rightarrow \text{symmetric}}\\

\section*{(ii) Sym at y-axis} \\

$ r = 2\cos 2(\pi - \theta) \\

= 2\cos(2\pi - 2\theta) \\

= 2[\cos 2\pi \cos 2\theta + \sin 2\pi \sin 2\theta] \\

= 2(1)(\cos 2\theta) \\

\boxed{= 2\cos 2\theta \\

\rightarrow \text{symmetric}}\\

\begin{document}

\[

\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|}

\hline

\theta & \sin \theta & \cos \theta & \tan \theta & \csc \theta & \sec \theta \\

\hline

0^\circ & 0 & 1 & 0 & - & 1 \\

15^\circ & \frac{\sqrt{6} - \sqrt{2}}{4} & \frac{\sqrt{6} + \sqrt{2}}{4} & - & - & - \\

30^\circ & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2} & \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} & 2 & \frac{2}{\sqrt{3}} \\

45^\circ & \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} & \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} & 1 & \sqrt{2} & \sqrt{2} \\

60^\circ & \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2} & \frac{1}{2} & \sqrt{3} & \frac{2}{\sqrt{3}} & 2 \\

90^\circ & 1 & 0 & - & 1 & - \\

\hline

\end{array}

\]

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{20.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\end{figure}

\begin{center}

\newpage

\title{CURVATURE}

\end{center}

\textbf{Def'n:} The curvature $K$ of an arc given in the form $y = f(x)$ is the rate of change of the angle
$\theta$ with respect to the length $s$, that is $K = \frac{d\theta}{ds}$.\\

\textbf{Theorem:} For an arc of the form $y = f(x)$, for which $f''(x)$ exists, the curvature $K$ is given by

$$K(x) = \frac{f^n(x)}{\{1 + [f'(x)]^-^2\}^\frac{3}{2}}$$\\

\textbf{Theorem:} {If an arc is given in parametric form by } y = x(t), y = y(t), \\

\text{and if } x'(t) \text{ and } y'(t) \text{ exist, then the curvature } \kappa \text{ at a point} \\

P = (x(t), y(t)) \textit{ is given by}$$\\

\kappa(t) = \frac{x''(t)y'(t) - x'(t)y''(t)}{(x'^2 + y'^2)^\frac{3}{2}} $$\\

\textbf{Ex: Find the curvature of the circle } x = a\cos t, y = a\sin t $\\

\textbf{Solution:} $\\

x'(t) = a(-\sin t) = -a\sin t \quad y'(t) = a\cos t \\

x'(t) = -a\cos t \quad y'(t) = -a\sin t $\\

\kappa(t) = \frac{(-a\sin t)(-a\sin t) - (-a\cos t)(a\cos t)}{[(-a\sin t)^2 + (a\cos t)^2]^\frac{3}{2}} $\\

$= \frac{a^2\sin^2 t + a^2\cos^2 t}{(a^2\sin^2 t + a^2\cos^2 t)^\frac{3}{2}} = \frac{a^2(\sin^2 t + \cos^2

t)}{[a^2(\sin^2 t + \cos^2 t)]^\frac{3}{2}} = \frac{a^2}{(a^2)^{3/2}} = \frac{a^2}{a^3} = \frac{1}{a} $$\\

\textit{Defn:} The radius of curvature $R$ of an arc at a point is defined as the

reciprocal of the absolute value of the curvature at that point; that is } $R = \frac{1}{\kappa}$\\

\textit{Note:} \quad \text{The circle of curvature of an arc at a point } P \text{ is the circle passing
through } P \text{ which has radius equal to } R, \text{ the radius of curvature, and whose center } C \
text{ lies on the concave side of the curve along the normal line through P.}\\

\textit{Example:} \quad \text{Find the curvature } \kappa \text{ and the radius of curvature } R \text{ for
the parabola } y = x^2. \text{ Find the center of the circle of curvature at point } (1, 1).\\

\textbf{Solution:} \\

y = f(x) = x^2 \\

f'(x) = 2x \\

f'(x) = 2 \\

\begin{center}

\kappa(x)= \frac{2}{[1 + (2x)^2]^{3/2}} = \frac{2}{(5)^{3/2}}\\

$= \frac{2}{[1 + 4x^2]^{3/2}} = \frac{2}{5\sqrt{5}^3}\\

$= \frac{2}{[1 + 4(1)^2]^{3/2}} = \frac{2}{5\sqrt{5}}\\

\end{center}$$$\\

\section*{Radius}
$\textit{ Normal line: } m_{NL} = -\frac{1}{2} \\

$\textbf{Point slope: } \\

y - y_1 = m(x - x_1) \\

$$[y - 1 = -\frac{1}{2}(x - 1)] \times 2 \\

2y - 2 = -(x - 1) \\

2y - 2 = -x + 1 \\

x + 2y - 3 = 0 \\

\boxed{x = -2y + 3 \implies \rightarrow\textit{ equation of the normal line}}$ \\

$\text{When } y = \frac{7}{2} \\

x = -2\left(\frac{7}{2}\right) + 3 \\

= -7 + 3 \\

\boxed{= -4}

\section*{Center of the circle of the curve is } \left(-4, \frac{7}{2}\right)\\

\text{We first find the equation of the circle centered at }(1, 1)$\text{ with radius } R = \frac{5}{2}\sqrt{5}

$(x - 1)^2 + (y - 1)^2 = \left(\frac{5}{2}\sqrt{5}\right)^2 \\

$(-2y + 3 - 1)^2 + (y - 1)^2 = \frac{125}{4} \\

$(-2y + 2)^2 + (y - 1)^2 = \frac{125}{4} \\

$(4y^2 - 8y + 4) + (y^2 - 2y + 1) = \frac{125}{4} \\

$[5y^2 - 10y + 5)= \frac{125}{4}] \frac{1}{5} \\

$[y^2 - 2y + 1) = \frac{25}{4}]4 \\

$4y^2 - 8y + 4 = 25 \\

$\boxed{4y^2 - 8y - 21 = 0} \\
\section*{Derivatives in Polar Coordinates}} \\

% Make title bold

\author{} % Empty author

\date{} % Empty date

\begin{document}

\maketitle % This will display the title in center and bold with no date

\text{Consider the polar equation } r = f(\theta) \\

\textit{The slope of the tangent line to the graph of } r = f(\theta) \text{ is not } \frac{dr}{d\theta} \\

\text{but it is still } \frac{dy}{dx}\\

\textit{If } r = f(\theta), \textit{ then the equations in rectangular coordinates are} \\

x = r \cos \theta, \quad y = r \sin \theta, \text{ that is,} \\

x = f(\theta) \cos \theta, \quad y = f(\theta) \sin \theta

\textit{Slope of the tangent line:} \quad $\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{d\Theta/d\Theta}{dx/d\Theta}\\

\textbf{Example 2:} Find the area enclosed by the curve are=2sin3\Theta\\

$\Solution: \frac{2sin3\Theta}{2}=\frac{3}{2}\\

$sin3\Theta=0\\
$\sigma=\Theta=0\quad 3\Theta=tangent\\

$Recall: cost^2n\Theta=\frac{1+cos2n\Theta}{2}\\

$*\int cos2^2\Theta d\Theta=\int(\frac{1+cos2\Theta}{2})d\Theta\\

$=\frac {1}{2}\int (1+cos2\Theta)d\Theta\\

$=\frac {1}{2} [\Theta + \frac{1}{2}sin 2\Theta]\\

\textbf{Theorem:} Let $r = f(\theta)$, $\alpha \le \theta \le \beta$, describe an arc in polar coordinates.
If $f$ has a continuous first derivative, then the arc length $s$ is given by\\

$s = \int_\alpha^\beta \sqrt{ \left( \frac{dr}{d\theta} \right)^2 + r^2 } \, d\theta$\\

\textbf{Example:} Find the arc length of the curve $r = 3\cos\theta$, $0 \le \theta \le \frac{\pi}{4}$.\\

\textbf{Solution:}\\

$\frac{dr}{d\theta} = 3(-\sin\theta) = -3\sin\theta$\\

$s = \int_0^{\pi/4} \sqrt{(-3\sin\theta)^2 + (3\cos\theta)^2} \, d\theta$\\

$= \int_0^{\pi/4} \sqrt{9\sin^2\theta + 9\cos^2\theta} \, d\theta$\\

$= \int_0^{\pi/4} \sqrt{9(\sin^2\theta + \cos^2\theta)} \, d\theta$\\

$= \int_0^{\pi/4} \sqrt{9} \, d\theta$\\

$= \int_0^{\pi/4} 3 \, d\theta$\\

$= 3\theta \Big|_0^{\pi/4}$\\

$= 3\left(\frac{\pi}{4} - 0\right)$\\

$\boxed{=\frac{3\pi}{4}$}\\

\section*{Cones in Polar Coordinates}\\

\subsection*{Def'n:} a comic section ia set of all points p in the plane for which the ratio of the distance
d (p,f) from the fixed line is constant.\\

$\r =\frac{ep}{1-ecos\theta}-\rightarrow equation of a comic section\\

$\Any polar equation of the form \\

$\r =\frac{ep}{1-ecos\theta}-\rightarrow $ equation of a comic section or $\r =\frac{ep}{1-esin\theta}$ \

rightarrow is a comic section\\

$\textbf{Properties:}\\

$r = \frac{ep}{1 \pm e\cos\theta}$ \\

\begin{itemize}

\item If the graph is an ellipse, the major axis is the x-axis.

\item If the graph is a parabola, the axis of symmetry is the x-axis.

\item If the graph is a hyperbola, the ...

\end{itemize}

$r = \frac{ep}{1 \pm e\sin\theta}$

\begin{itemize}

\item If the graph is an ellipse, the major axis is the y-axis.

\item If the graph is a hyperbola, ...

\item If the graph is a parabola, the axis of symmetry is the y-axis.\\

\end{itemize}

\textbf{Example:} Identify and plot the graph ff:\\

(1.) $r = \frac{4}{3 -2\cos\theta}$\\

We can rewrite this as:\\

$r = \frac{4}{3 - 2\cos\theta} = \frac{\frac{4}{3}}{1 - \frac{2}{3}\cos\theta}$ = $\boxed{e = \frac{2}{3}$}\\

When $\theta = 0$:\\

$r = \frac{4}{3 - 2\cos(0)} = \frac{4}{3 - 2(1)} = \frac{4}{5}$\\

When $\theta = \pi$:\\

$r = \frac{4}{3 - 2\cos(\pi)} = \frac{4}{3 - 2(-1)} = 4$\\

$\frac{4}{3} \cdot \frac{1}{(1 - \frac{2}{3}\cos\theta)} = \frac{4}{3(1 - \frac{2}{3}\cos\theta)}$\\

\textbf{Vertices:}\\

\begin{tabular}{c|c|c}

$\theta$ & $0$ & $\pi$ \\

\hline

$r$ & $4$ & $\frac{4}{5}$

\end{tabular}\\

\textbf{Intercepts:}\\

\begin{tabular}{c|c|c}

$\theta$ & $\frac{\pi}{2}$ & $\frac{2\pi}{2}$ \\

\hline

$r$ & $\frac{4}{3}$ & $\frac{4}{3}$

\end{tabular}$\\

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{17.jpg} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}
(2.) $r = \frac{3}{2 - 2\sin\theta} \\= \frac{3}{2(1 - 1\sin\theta)} \\

= \[\frac{\frac{5}{2}}{1-1sin\theta}\]\\

$\boxed {e = 1}$\\

\textbf{Vertices:}\\

\begin{tabular}{c|c|c}

$\theta$ & $\frac{\pi}{2}$ & $\frac{3\pi}{2}$ \\

\hline

$r$ & undefined & $\frac{5}{4}$

\end{tabular}\\

\textbf{Intercepts:}\\

\begin{tabular}{c|c|c}

$\theta$ & $0$ & $\pi$ \\

\hline

$r$ & $\frac{3}{2}$ & $\frac{3}{2}$

\end{tabular}\\

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{21.jpg} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}
(3.) $r = \frac{2}{1 + 2\sin\theta}$, $e = 2$, $ep = 2$, $2p = \frac{2}{2} = 1$, $p = 1$\\

\textbf{Vertices:}\\

\begin{tabular}{c|c|c}

$\theta$ & $\frac{\pi}{2}$ & $\frac{3\pi}{2$} \\

\hline

$r$ & $\frac{2}{3}$ & $-2$

\end{tabular}\\

\textbf{Intercepts:}\\

\begin{tabular}{c|c|c}

$\theta$ & $0$ & $\pi$ \\

\hline

$r$ & $2$ & $2$

\end{tabular}\\

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{22.jpg} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\section*{Area in Polar Coordinates}

\textbf{Theorem:} Suppose that r=$f(\theta)$ is a nonnegative continuous function of $[\alpha, \beta]$,

where $0 \le \alpha < \beta \le 2\pi$. To find the area $A$ of the region that is bounded by the graph of
$r = f(\theta)$ and the rays $\theta = \alpha$ and $\theta = \beta$, it is given by:
\[ A = \frac{1}{2} \int_\alpha^\beta [f(\theta)]^2 d\theta \]

\textbf{Example 1:} Find the area bounded by the curve $r = 2 + \cos\theta$ and the lines $\theta = 0$
and $\theta = \frac{\pi}{2}$.\\

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{24.jpg} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\textbf{Solution:}\\

$\ A=\frac{1}{2}\int_0^\frac{\pi}{2}}(2+cos\theta)^2d\theta\\

$&= \frac{1}{2} \int_0^{\frac{\pi}{2} (4 + 2\cos\theta + 2\cos\theta + \cos^2\theta) d\theta \\

$&= \frac{1}{2} \int_0^{\frac{\pi}{2} (4 + 4\cos\theta + \cos^2\theta) d\theta \\

$&= \frac{1}{2} \int_0^{|frac{\pi}{2} (4\theta + 4\sin\theta + \frac{1}{2}\theta) d\theta \\

$&= \frac{1}{2} \left[ 6\theta + 8\sin\theta + \sin 2\theta \right]\left\bigg|_0^{\frac{\pi}{2}}\\

$= \frac{1}{2} \left[ 4 \left( \frac{\pi}{2} \right) + 4 \sin \left( \frac{\pi}{2} \right) + \frac{1}{2} \left( \frac{\
pi}{2} \right) + \frac{1}{4} \sin2 \left( \frac{\pi}{2} \right) - \left( 4(0) + 4\sin(0) + \frac{1}{2}(0) + \frac{1}
{4}\sin(2(0) \right \right]\\

$\frac{1}{2} \left( 2\pi + 4(1) + \frac{\pi}{4} \right) \\

= \pi + 2 + \frac{\pi}{8} \\
= $\frac{8\pi + \pi}{8} + 2 \\

= $\frac{9\pi}{8} + 2 \quad\boxed{= \frac{9\pi + 16}{8}\rightarrow \textit{ square units}}\\

\textbf{Recall: } \cos^2\theta = \frac{1 + \cos(2\theta)}{2}\\

\int \cos^2\theta \, d\theta = \int \left( \frac{1 + \cos(2\theta)}{2} \right) \, d\theta \\

$= \frac{1}{2} \int (1 + \cos(2\theta)) \, d\theta \\

$= \frac{1}{2} \left[ \theta + \frac{\sin(2\theta)}{2} \right]\\

\textbf{Example 2:} Find the area enclosed by the curve $r =2sin3\theta$.\\

$\textbf{Solution:}\quad \frac {2sin3\theta}{2}=\frac{3}{2}\\

$sin3\theta=0\\

$\alpha\theta=0\quad 3\theta=\pi\\

$ \textbf{Recall:}\quad sin^2n\theta=\frac{1-cos2n\theta}{2}\\

$ sin^23\theta=\frac{1-cos2(3)\theta}{2}=\frac {1-cos6\theta} {2}\\

$\text{A}=\frac{1}{2}\int_\alpha^{\beta}[f(\theta)]^2 d\theta- \frac{1}{2}\int_\alpha^{\beta}[g(\

theta)]d\theta\\
$ \textbf{A=} \frac{1}{2}\int_0^{\pi}(2sin3\theta)^2d\theta\\

$\quad= \frac{1}{2}\int_0^{\pi}4sin^23\theta d \theta \\

$\quad= 2\int_0^{\pi}sin^23\theta d \theta \\

$\quad= 2\int_0^{\pi}(\frac {1-cost\theta}{2}) d \theta \\

$\quad= \int_0^{\pi} (1-cos6\theta)d\theta \\

$\quad= \theta -\frac {1}{6}sin6\theta\left\bigg|_0^{\pi}\right\right \\

$\quad=(\theta-\frac{1}{6}sin6\theta)-(0-\frac{1}{6}sin0)\\

$\quad\boxed{= \pi \quad \textbf{square units}}\\

\textbf{Example:} Find the area inside r = 5\cos\theta \textit{ and outside } r = 2 + \cos\theta\\

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{25.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\maketitle

\subsection*{Point of interaction:} \\
$5\cos\theta = 2 + \cos\theta \\

5cos\theta-cos\theta=2\\

$\frac{4\cos\theta}{4} =\frac {2}{4} \\

\cos\theta = \frac{1}{2} \\

\theta = \frac{\pi}{3}, \left\bigg|_\right\right\theta =\frac{5\pi}{3}\\

\text{Area} = $\frac{1}{2} \int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{3}} (5\cos\theta)^2 \, d\theta - \frac{1}{2} \int_{0}^{\frac{\

pi}{3}} (2 + \cos\theta)^2 \, d\theta \\

$= \frac{1}{2} \int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{3}} 25\cos^2\theta \, d\theta - \frac{1}{2} \int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{3}} (2 + \

cos\theta)^2 \, d\theta \\

$= \frac{25}{2} \int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{3}} \cos^2\theta \, d\theta - \frac{1}{2} \int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{3}} (2 + \

cos\theta)^2 \, d\theta \\

$= \frac{25}{2} \int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{3}} \left( \frac{1 + \cos2\theta}{2} \right) d\theta - \frac{1}{2} \

int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{3}}(2 + \cos\theta)^2 \, d\theta \\

$= \frac{25}{4} \left[\theta + \frac{1}{2}{\sin2\theta} \right]\int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{3}} - \frac{1}{2} \left[ 4\

theta +\frac{1}{2}\theta + 4\sin \theta \frac{1}{4}{\sin}{2} {\theta} \left\bigg|_\right\rght_{0}^{\frac{\
pi}{3}}\right] \\

$= \frac{25}{4}\left[\frac {\pi}{3}+\frac{1}{2} sin2 (\frac{\pi}{3})-(0+\frac{1}{2}sin^{-0}2(0))\right]-\\

$\frac{1}{2}[(4(\frac{\pi}{3})+\frac{1}{2}(\frac{\pi}{3})+4sin(\frac{\pi}{3})+\frac{1}{4}sin2(\frac{\pi}{3}))-
(4(0)+\frac{1}{2}(0)+4sin0+\frac{1}{4}sin2(0) ]\\
$=\frac{25}{4} \left[ \frac{\pi}{3} + \frac{1}{2} \left( \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2} \right) \right] - \frac{1}{2} \left[ \
frac{4\pi}{2} + \frac{\pi}{6} + 4 \left( \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2} \right) + \frac{1}{4} \left( \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2} \right) \
right] \\

$= \frac{25}{4} \left[ \frac{\pi}{3} + \frac{\sqrt{3}}{4} \right] - \frac{1}{2} \left[ \frac{8\pi+\pi}{6} + \frac{4\

sqrt{3}}{2} \right+\frac{\sqrt{3}}{8}}] \\

$= \frac{25\pi}{12} + \frac{25\sqrt{3}}{16} - \frac{1}{2} \left[ \frac{9\pi}{6} + \frac{6\sqrt{3}+\sqrt{3}}{8} \

right] \\

$= \frac{25\pi}{12} + \frac{25\sqrt{3}}{16} - \frac{1}{2}[\frac{3\pi}{2}+\frac {17\sqrt{3}}{8}] \\

$=\frac{25\pi}{12}+\frac {25\sqrt{3}}{16}-\frac{3\pi}{4}-\frac{{17}\sqrt{3}}{8}} \\

$= \frac{25\pi-9\pi}{12} +\frac{25\sqrt{3}-34\sqrt{3}}{16}}\\

$= \frac{25\pi}{12} + \frac{25\sqrt{3}}{16} - \frac{3\pi}{4} - \frac{17\sqrt{3}}{8}\\

$= \frac{25\pi - 9 \pi}{12} + \frac{25\sqrt{3} -34\sqrt{3}}{16}\\

$= \frac{16\pi}{12} + \frac{9\sqrt{3}}{16}\\

\begin{center}

$A_1 = 2 \left( \frac{4\pi}{3} - \frac{9\sqrt{3}}{16} \right) \\

$ = \frac{8\pi}{3} - \frac{18\sqrt{3}}{16}\\

$= \frac{8\pi}{3} - \frac{9\sqrt{3}}{8}\\
$\boxed{=\frac{4\pi}{3}-\frac {9\sqrt{3}}{16}}\\

\section*{Volume of a solid of Revolution:}\\

If a region $R$ in the $xy$-plane is revolved about an axis $L$, it will generate a solid called a \
textbf{solid of revolution}.\\

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{26.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\subsection*{Examples}\\

\begin{enumerate}

\item \textbf{Example 1: Cylinder}\\

When a rectangle $R$ is revolved around an axis $L$, it forms a cylinder.

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=7cm]{27.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{ V = \pi r^2 h} % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\item \textbf{Example 2: Cone}\\

 When a right triangle $R$ is revolved around an axis $L$, it forms a cone.

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=9cm,height=7cm]{28.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{ } % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

$\ V = \frac{1}{3} \pi r^2 h

\end{enumerate

\section*{Disk Method}\\

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=9cm,height=7cm]{34.jpg} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{ } % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}\\

\begin{itemize}

\item Volume V(x) for the disk method:

\[

V(x) = \pi \int_a^b [R(x)]^2 dx

\]

\text{Let v(s) = volume of the solid of revolution } \\

\text{v(s)= \pi \int_a^b \left[ f(x)] ^2 dx} \rightarrow\textit{(revolve at x-axis)}$$\\

\text{v(s) = \pi \int_c^d \left[g(y)] ^2 dx}\rightarrow\textit{(revolve at y-axis)}\\

\ C.\\

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=9cm,height=7cm]{31.jpg} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{ } % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}\\

$\ v(S)=\pi\int_{c}^{d}[g(y)^2dy\text{(revolve y-axis)}]$

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=7cm,height=5cm]{29.png} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{ } % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\section*{Example}

Find the volume of v(s) of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by this graph,

\[

y = \sqrt{x}, \quad y = 0, \quad x = 4

\] about the x-axis.

\subsection*{Solution:}\\

\raggedright % Aligns the image to the left

\includegraphics[width=9cm,height=7cm]{30.jpg} % Resizes the image to 4x4 cm

\caption{ } % Caption describing the image

\label{fig:my_label}

\begin{align}\\

$ \quad{ v(s) = \pi \int_0^4 (\sqrt{x})^2dx}\\

$ \quad = \pi \int_0^4xdx\\

$ \quad =\pi (\frac{x^2}{2})\int_4^0\\

$ \quad =\pi \left[(\frac{4^2}{2} - \frac{0^2}{2})\right]\\

$ \quad \boxed{=\pi (\frac{16}{2}) \rightarrow\quad 8 \pi \textit{cubic units}}\\

\end{align}\\
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