entropy

Article
The Establishment and Dynamic Properties of a New
4D Hyperchaotic System with Its Application and
Statistical Tests in Gray Images
Lina Ding 1,2 and Qun Ding 1, *
1 Electronic Engineering College, Heilongjiang University, Harbin 150080, China; [email protected]
2 Electrical Engineering College, Suihua University, Suihua 152061, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-0451-8660-8504




Received: 22 January 2020; Accepted: 6 March 2020; Published: 10 March 2020


Abstract: In this paper, a new 4D hyperchaotic system is generated. The dynamic properties of
attractor phase space, local stability, poincare section, periodic attractor, quasi-periodic attractor,
chaotic attractor, bifurcation diagram, and Lyapunov index are analyzed. The hyperchaotic system is
normalized and binary serialized, and the binary hyperchaotic stream generated by the system is
statistically tested and entropy analyzed. Finally, the hyperchaotic binary stream is applied to the
gray image encryption. The histogram, correlation coefficient, entropy test, and security analysis
show that the hyperchaotic system has good random characteristics and can be applied to the gray
image encryption.

Keywords: hyperchaotic system; image encryption; entropy test; statistical tests

1. Introduction
Since Lorenz [1] discovered the first three-dimensional chaos model, chaos theory has grown with
the development of computer science. Chaos is an unpredictable and random motion in deterministic
dynamical systems due to its sensitivity to initial values. The certainty of a dynamic system is a concept
defined in mathematics, which means that the state of the system at any time can be determined by
the initial state of the system. Although the motion state of the deterministic dynamic system at any
time can be calculated according to the initial state and motion law, the measurement of the initial
state and data cannot be completely accurate. Even a slight difference will lead to a very large error
in the predicted results, to an unpredictable degree. In recent years, as chaotic systems have many
advantages in encryption, such as ergodicity, unpredictability, pseudo-randomicity, and high sensitivity
to parameters and initial values [2], image encryption based on chaos has become a research hotspot.
Aside from image encryption based on chaotic systems, there are many representative methods such as:
based on one-time keys, bit-level permutation, DNA rule, matrix, and semi-tensor product theory [3,4].
At present, research on 1D chaos, such as Logistic mapping [5–7]; 2D chaos, such as Henon
mapping [8–10]; and 3D chaos, such as Rossler chaotic attractor [11–13], Chua [14–16], and Chen [17–19],
have been very extensive and mature. With the development of chaos theory, many people began
to study high-dimensional chaotic attractors, such as 4D chaotic attractor subsystems [20–23], 5D
chaotic attractor subsystems [24–27], and 6D chaotic attractor subsystems [28]. In recent years,
fractional-order chaotic systems [29–31], hidden attractors [32–34], and chaotic systems with co-existing
attractors [35,36] have also been extensively studied. In ordinary three-dimensional chaotic attractors,
linear or nonlinear state feedback controllers can generate different kinds of four-dimensional chaotic
systems. The 4D hyperchaotic system has better computational complexity and two or more positive
Lyapunov exponents [37,38].

Entropy 2020, 22, 310; doi:10.3390/e22030310 www.mdpi.com/journal/entropy

Entropy 2020, 22, 310 2 of 19

Recently, many scholars have generated many new chaotic systems on the basis of studying the
Lorenz chaotic system, which are collectively referred to as Lorenz type hyperchaotic systems [39,40].
These new systems are applied to many aspects, such as chaotic synchronization [41], image
encryption [8,12,13,19], stream cryptography [42,43], and so on.
The chaos-based image encryption systems are usually applied to generate chaotic stream ciphers
for exchanging the positions or values of the pixels in the original images. A 2D chaotic Arnold cat
map was used to generate a 3D cat map, which then was used in image encryption [44]. The results
show that the scheme is fast and safe. The authors of [45] applied Henon mapping to the image
encryption scheme, and proved that the encryption method could resist selective plaintext attack, etc.
The authors of [46] proposed an image encryption scheme based on Logistic mapping, and the authors
of [47] proposed an image encryption scheme based on the 3D chaotic system. The above image
encryption methods using chaotic systems are based on low-dimensional chaotic systems with at most
one positive Lyapunov exponent, which have many advantages, such as simple format, few control
parameters, and ease of implementation. However, low-dimensional chaotic systems are vulnerable to
attack. If low-dimensional chaotic systems are changed into high-dimensional chaotic systems, the
encryption will be more effective. Lyapunov exponent (LE) is an effective method to measure chaotic
systems. If a chaotic system has two or more positive LEs, it can be called a hyperchaotic system,
which usually has a larger key space and much higher security in encryption schemes [37,38]. As the
chaotic systems with four dimensions or more have two or more Lyapunov exponents and better
dynamic characteristics, the application to image encryption will have better practical effects [37,38].
The authors of [48] presented a novel approach that uses a hyperchaotic system, Pixel-level, and
DNA-level diffusion. The authors of [49] proposed a new image encryption method based on matrix
semi-tensor product theory and hyperchaotic Lorenz. The research above shows that the application of
hyperchaotic system encryption has become an important trend.
The main contributions of this paper are shown as follows: (1) A new 4D hyperchaotic system is
generated, and the dynamic properties of the attractor such as phase space, local stability, poincare
section, periodic attractor, quasi-periodic attractor, chaotic attractor, bifurcation diagram, and Lyapunov
index are analyzed; (2) Then the new hyperchaotic system is normalized and binary serialized, and the
binary hyperchaotic stream generated by the system is statistically tested and entropy analyzed; (3) The
hyperchaotic binary stream is applied to the gray image encryption; (4) The histogram, correlation
coefficient, entropy test, and security analysis show that the hyperchaotic system has good random
characteristics and can be applied to the gray image encryption.
The main advantages of this paper are shown as follows: (1) A new 4D hyperchaotic system
based on Lorenz is proposed and analyzed; (2) The hyperchaotic system with two positive LEs is much
more random, which is then used to generate sequences for the encryption operations; (3) The new
hyperchaotic system in this paper is obtained by adding a new variable, w, and a feedback controller,
−dx3 , to the classical Lorenz chaotic attractor system. In this way, an equilibrium point curve exists in
the system which is a new phenomenon in the system.
In this paper, a new 4D hyperchaotic system is proposed by studying Lorenz-type hyperchaotic
system, and the corresponding dynamic properties, such as Lyapunov exponent, phase space diagram,
poincare section diagram, and local stability are studied. The method of normalization and binarization
is applied to the encryption of gray image. Finally, the entropy test and security analysis of image
encryption are carried out.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 introduces a new 4D hyperchaotic
system based on Lorenz system with two positive LEs. In Section 3, analyses of the dynamic
properties are done, such as judgment of local stability, Poincare section diagram, periodic attractor, etc.
In Section 4, normalization and quantization are done. Furthermore, NIST tests, permutation entropy,
and approximate entropy are completed to test the time series of the hyperchaotic system. In Section 5,
the hyperchaotic system is used in image encryption. Then, the encryption effect and security are
Entropy 2020, 22, x 3 of 20

the hyperchaotic system is used in image encryption. Then, the encryption effect and security are
tested by correlation coefficient analysis, information entropy, differential attack, etc. Finally,
Entropy 2020, 22, 310
the
3 of 19
paper is summarized in Section 6.

2. A New
tested Hyperchaotic
by correlation System
coefficient analysis, information entropy, differential attack, etc. Finally, the paper
is summarized in Section 6.
In 1963, a representative Lorenz equation in chaotic attractors was proposed [1]. The differential
expression of this equation
2. A New Hyperchaotic is shown as follows Equation (1):
System
In 1963, a representative Lorenz equation in. chaotic attractors was proposed [1]. The differential
x = σ ( y − x) ,
expression of this equation is shown as follows Equation (1):
.
.
x =y =σα( xy −−yx−)xz
, , (1)

.
y = αx .
− y − xz,
z = xy − β z .
(1)
.
z = xy − βz.
The equation set is a third-order system of ordinary differential equations, and each variable in
The equation
the equations doesset
notisobviously
a third-order system
contain timeof tordinary differential
, so the equation equations,
set is called an and each variable
autonomous in
system.
Its parameters, σ , α , and β , are all constants greater than zero. When the parameters of this
the equations does not obviously contain time t, so the equation set is called an autonomous system.
Its parameters, σ, α, and β, are all constants greater than zero. When the parameters of this equation are
equation σ = 10 , α = 28 , and β = 8 / 3 , the system presents chaotic attractor state,
taken as σ are taken
= 10, α = as
28, and β = 8/3, the system presents chaotic attractor state, namely the classical
namelyattractor,
Lorenz the classical
and itsLorenz attractor,
phase space and its
is shown phase 1.space
in Figure is shown
The numeric in Figure 1.
computation The numeric
method used to
computation method used to compute the chaotic system or hyperchaotic
compute the chaotic system or hyperchaotic system is the 4th order Runge–Kutta method. system is the 4th order
Runge–Kutta method.

(b)
(a)

(c) (d)

Figure 1. Chaotic Lorenz attractor and its phase diagrams with σ = 10, α = 28, and β = 8/3: (a) Lorenz
Figure 1. Chaotic Lorenz attractor and its phase diagrams with σ = 10 , α = 28 , and β = 8 / 3 : (a) Lorenz
attractor; (b) Lorenz attractor on y–z plane; (c) Lorenz attractor on x–z plane; and (d) Lorenz attractor
attractor; (b) Lorenz attractor on y–z plane; (c) Lorenz attractor on x–z plane; and (d) Lorenz attractor
on x–y plane.
on x–y plane.
The new hyperchaotic system in this paper is obtained by adding a new variable, w, and a feedback
The new w , and a
controller, −dx3hyperchaotic system
, to the classical Lorenzin this paper
chaotic is obtained
attractor by adding
system. The newa new variable, system
hyperchaotic is
3
feedback controller,
expressed − dx , to the
as follows in Equation (2):classical Lorenz chaotic attractor system. The new hyperchaotic
.
system is expressed as follows in Equation (2): x = a( y − x),
.
y = bx −
. y − xz + w,

. x = a ( y − x) ,
z = x2 − cz, (2)
.
w = w − dx3 .
 .
z = x 2 − cz , (2)

.
w = w − dx 3 .
Entropy 2020, 22, 310 4 of 19
Where a , b , c , and d are all constants greater than zero. Let a ∈ [20,30] . There are two
positive LEs over a wide range of parameters, which implies that the system here is hyperchaotic, as
Where a, b, c, and d are all constants greater than zero. Let a ∈ [20, 30]. There are two positive
shown inaFigure 9(b). Fix the parameter a = 24 , then set the parameters of the system with a = 24 ,
LEs over wide range of parameters, which implies that the system here is hyperchaotic, as shown in
b = 25 , c = 3 , d = 0.5 , and initial condition ,1,1,1) . The system can present the state of a hyperchaotic
(1
Figure 9b. Fix the parameter a = 24, then set the parameters of the system with a = 24, b = 25, c = 3,
system,
d = 0.5, as andshown
initialincondition
Figure 2. (The
1, 1,Lyapunov exponent
1, 1). The system cancorresponding to the
present the state of hyperchaotic
a hyperchaoticsystem is
system,
shown
as shown as follows:
in Figure 2. The Lyapunov exponent corresponding to the hyperchaotic system is shown
as follows:
, = 2.5274 , λ3 = 2.1036 , λ4 = −16.3014 .
λ1 = λ0,1 =
λ20 =λ22.5274, λ3 = 2.1036, λ4 = −16.3014.
The divergence of the hyperchaotic system can be expressed as Equation (3):
. . . .
∂x ∂∂x• y ∂ y• ∂z∂ z• ∂∂ww•
∇V = ∇V + + + = −(a + c) < 0, (3)
x = xy + y +z z + ww = −(a + c) < 0 (3)
,
According to
According to Equation
Equation (3), when aa++ cc >
(3), when > 00,, the
the hyperchaotic
hyperchaotic system
system is
is aa dissipative
dissipative system.
system.

(b)
(a)

(c) (d)
Figure 2. Hyperchaotic attractors and the phase diagrams with parameters a = 24, b = 25, c = 3, and
Figure a = 24 , b = 25 , c = 3 , and
d = 0.5:2.(a)
Hyperchaotic
hyperchaoticattractors
attractor;and
(b) the phase diagrams
hyperchaotic with
attractor on parameters
y–w plane; (c) hyperchaotic attractor
d = 0.5 : (a) hyperchaotic attractor; (b) hyperchaotic attractor on y–w plane; (c) hyperchaotic attractor
on x–y plane; and (d) hyperchaotic attractor on y–z plane.
on x–y plane; and (d) hyperchaotic attractor on y–z plane.
Figure 2 shows the new hyperchaotic attractors and the phase diagrams with parameters a = 24,
Figure
b = 25, c = 3, 2 shows
and d = the0.5. new(a)hyperchaotic attractors and
shows the hyperchaotic the phase
attractor, diagrams
(b) shows with parameters
the hyperchaotic a = on
attractor 24
b = 25
,y–w plane,
, c = 3 , and
(c) d = 0 . 5
shows the .hyperchaotic
(a) shows theattractor
hyperchaotic
on x–yattractor,
plane, (c)(b) shows
shows thethe hyperchaotic
hyperchaotic attractor
attractor on
on
y–zy–w
plane.plane,
The(c) shows
time seriesthe hyperchaotic
diagrams of the attractor
phases x,on
y, x–y plane,
z, and w of (c)
theshows the hyperchaotic
hyperchaotic attractor
system is shown in
on y–z plane.
Figure 3. Figure The3 time
shows series diagrams
the time seriesofdiagrams
the phases x y z
of the, hyperchaotic w
, , and system,
of the hyperchaotic
and it can be system
seen that is
shown in Figure
the sequences 3. Figure
have 3 shows the time series diagrams of the hyperchaotic system, and it can be
good randomness.
seen that the sequences have good randomness.
 Entropy 2020, 22, x 5 of 20

Entropy 2020, 22, 310 5 of 19

Entropy 2020, 22, x 5 of 20

(b)
(a)

(b)
(a)

(c) (d)

Figure 3. Time series diagrams of a hyperchaotic system with parameters a = 24 , b = 25 , c = 3 , and

(c) x; (b) time series y; (c) time series z; and (d) time series
d = 0.5 : (a) time series (d) w.

3. Time series diagrams of a hyperchaotic system with parameters a = 24, b = 25, c = 3, and
3. Figure
Analysis
Figure 3. Timeof Dynamic
series diagramsProperties
of a hyperchaotic system with parameters a = 24 , b = 25 , c = 3 , and
d = 0.5: (a) time series x; (b) time series y; (c) time series z; and (d) time series w.
d = 0 .5 : (a) time series x; (b) time series y; (c) time series z; and (d) time series w.
3.1. Subsection
3. Analysis Equilibrium
of Dynamic Curve
Properties
3. AnalysisObviously,
of Dynamicaccording
Propertiesto system (2), an equilibrium point curve exists in the system, and the
3.1. Subsection Equilibrium Curve
equation of the equilibrium point curve can be expressed as Equation (4):
3.1. Subsection Equilibrium Curve
Obviously, according to system (2), an equilibrium point curve exists in the system, and the
equation
Obviously,of the equilibrium
according point curve
to system (2), ancan be expressed
equilibrium4 as 1Equation
point curve
2 3  in the system, and the
(4):
exists
（ x, y , z , w）∈ R y = x, z = x , w = dx  (4)
equation of the equilibrium pointcurve can be expressed as Equation c (4):  ,
1
(x, y, z, w) ∈ R4 y = x, z = x2 , w = dx3 , (4)
The position relationship csystem (1) is shown in Figure 4, which shows
 between this curve and
1 
（ , w）∈ R 4 y = x, z = x 2 , w = dx 3 
 x, y , zand (4)
theThe
hyperchaotic system attractor
position relationship between this its equilibrium curve (1)
curve andc system inred.
is
, shown in Figure 4, which shows
the hyperchaotic system attractor and its equilibrium curve in red.
The position relationship between this curve and system (1) is shown in Figure 4, which shows
the hyperchaotic system attractor and its equilibrium curve in red.

Figure 4. Hyperchaotic attractor and its equilibrium curve with parameters a = 24, b = 25, c = 3, and
d =Figure
0.5. 4. Hyperchaotic attractor and its equilibrium curve with parameters , , , and a = 24 b = 25 c=3
d = 0.5 .of Local Stability
3.2. Judgment
c(1−b)
3.2.
FigureIt Judgment
is4. easy toofknow
Hyperchaotic Localattractor
Stability
from Equation (2) that when
and its equilibrium curve with < 0 there is
dc−1 parameters a =only
24 , bone
= 25 ,equilibrium
c = 3 , and point,
c(1−b)
Od(0,= 00, .
.5 0, ), easy systemchas (1 − b)three balance points: O(0, 0, 0, 0) and
It 0is for the to system.
know from When Equation dc−1 ≥ (2)0,that
the when
 0 there is only one equilibrium point,
c(1−b) c(1−b) 1−b 2
O1,2 (± dc−1 , ± dc−1 , c( dc−1 ) , ±dc ( dc−1 ) ). 2 1−b 3 dc − 1
3.2. Judgment 0,0,0k,0of)∈,Local
for Stability
the system. When (2), c (1 − b)
O(Let R, according to Equation 0 , theA system
the≥ point = (k, k, khas 2 /3,three
0.2k3 )balance
is on thepoints: ,0) and
O(0,0,0point
equilibrium
dc − 1
It is easy c (1 − b) point,
curve. c(1 −tob)know
Therefore, − bfrom
c (1the 1Equation
)Jacobian− b 2 matrix (2)
1 −atbthat
the when
equilibrium  0 there A, is
of only one equilibrium
the hyperchaotic systempoint,
can be
O1, 2 ( ± ,± , c( ) ,± dc 2 ( )3 ) . dc − 1
obtaineddc as−follows:
1 dc − 1 dc − 1 dc − 1
O(0,0,0,0) , for the system. When c (1 − b) ≥ 0 , the system has three balance points: O(0,0,0,0) and
dc − 1
c(1 − b) c (1 − b) 1− b 2 2 1− b 3 .
O1, 2 ( ± ,± , c( ) ,± dc ( ) )
dc − 1 dc − 1 dc − 1 dc − 1
  −a a 0 0
 2

 b − k / 3 −1 − k 1  ,
J =
0 − c 0
(5)
2k
 
 − 3dk 2 0 0 1 

Entropy 2020, 22, 310 6 of 19
Then the characteristic equation can be obtained:

λ4 + g1λ3 + g 2 λ2 + g 3λ1 + g 4 = 0 , (6)

 −a a 0 0 
 b − k2 /3
 
−1 −k 1
The coefficients in the equation are:

J=  , (5)

 2k 0 −c 0 

−3dk2 0 0 1


g1 = a + c ,
Then the characteristic equation can be obtained:

λ4 + g1 λ3 + g2 λ2 + g3 λ1 3+ g4 = 0, (6)
g 2 = ac − ab + ak / 3 − 1
The coefficients in the equation are:
= a +5c, 2 1
g 3 = − a − c + ab g−1abc + ak + ack 2 + 3adk 2 (7)
g2 = ac − ab + ak3 3 /3 − 31
5 2 11 2 2
g3 = g−a=−−cac
+ ab + 3+acdk
− abc
+ abc + ack
ak2 − ack 2 +
− 23adk
ak 2 (7)
4 3 3
3
2 1 2
According to the Routh–Hurwitz g4 = −ac criterion,
+ abc + 3acdk ack − 2ak2of the first column in the Routh
if the−coefficients
3
array table are all
According to positive, the system iscriterion,
the Routh–Hurwitz stable. That is,coefficients
if the all the rootsofofthe
the first
characteristic
column inequation
the Routh are
located
array in the
table areleft half planethe
all positive, of the rootisplane
system stable.andThat
haveis,negative real parts.
all the roots of theFrom the criterion,
characteristic it can
equation
g - g 3 > 0 it
are
be located
known in thethe
that leftfour
half coefficients g1 , plane
plane of the root g 2 , 3and g 4 should
have
, and negativebereal and gthe
parts. From
positive, 1 g 2 criterion, and
can be known 2 that2 the four coefficients g1 , g2 , g3 , and g4 should be positive, and g1 g2 − g3 > 0 and
g1 g 2 g 3 - g 3 - g 4 g1 > 0
g1 g2 g3 − g3 2 − g4 g1 2 > .0.

3.3.Poincare
3.3. PoincareSection
SectionDiagram
Diagram
Thecomplex
The complexmotion
motionofofa achaotic
chaoticsystem
system is is described
described bybythethe Poincare
Poincare section
section method
method proposed
proposed in
in the 19th century. It can be known from the section diagram that if only one fixed
the 19th century. It can be known from the section diagram that if only one fixed point or relatively point or relatively
fewdiscrete
few discrete points
points are shown on on the
the section,
section,the themotion
motioncan canbebejudged
judged asas
periodic
periodic motion.
motion.When
Whenthe
Poincare
the section
Poincare shows
section shows a closed
a closedcurve,
curve,thethemotion
motioncan canbebe judged quasi-periodic motion.
judged as quasi-periodic motion. When
When
thereare
there aredense
densepoints
pointsin inthe
thesection,
section,thethemotion
motioncan canbebejudged
judgedasascomplex
complexchaotic
chaoticmotion.
motion.ForForthis
this
hyperchaoticsystem,
hyperchaotic system,thethePoincare
Poincaresection
sectionisisalso
alsoused
usedtotoobserve
observe itsits motion,
motion, which
which is is shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 5.
5. Figure 5 shows the Poincare section of the hyperchaotic system. It can be seen
Figure 5 shows the Poincare section of the hyperchaotic system. It can be seen that the Poincare section that the Poincare
section presents
presents dense spotsdense spots in patches,
in patches, which meanswhichthe means
systemtheissystem
chaotic. is chaotic.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. Poincare section of hyperchaotic system attractors with parameters a = 24, b = 25, c = 3, and
d = 0.5: (a) Poincare section on z–y plane; (b) Poincare section on x–y plane; and (c) Poincare section
on z–x plane.

3.4. Periodic Attractor

When the hyperchaotic system (2) has the parameters a = 4, b = 5, c = 3, and d = 0.5, and its
initial conditions are defined as (1, 1, 1, 1), the periodic attractor appears in the phase space of the
system. Its 3D phase space projection diagram and the corresponding Poincare section diagram are
shown in Figure 6. Figure 6 shows the Poincare section of the hyperchaotic system. It can be seen that
the Poincare section presents a few discrete points, which means the system is periodic.
3.4. Periodic Attractor
When the hyperchaotic system (2) has the parameters a = 4 , b = 5 , c = 3 , and d = 0.5 , and its
When the hyperchaotic system (2) has the parameters a = 4 , b = 5 , c = 3 , and d = 0.5 , and its
initial conditions are defined as (1,1,1,1) , the periodic attractor appears in the phase space of the
initial conditions are defined as (1,1,1,1) , the periodic attractor appears in the phase space of the
system. Its 3D phase space projection diagram and the corresponding Poincare section diagram are
system. Its 3D phase space projection diagram and the corresponding Poincare section diagram are
shown in Figure 6. Figure 6 shows the Poincare section of the hyperchaotic system. It can be seen
shown in Figure
Entropy 2020, 22, 310 6. Figure 6 shows the Poincare section of the hyperchaotic system. It can be 7seen
of 19
that the Poincare section presents a few discrete points, which means the system is periodic.
that the Poincare section presents a few discrete points, which means the system is periodic.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

Figure 6. Poincare section

section of
ofperiodic
periodicattractor
attractorfor
forhyperchaotic
hyperchaoticsystems with
systems a =a4,= b4 =
with , b5,=c5=, 3,
c =and
3,
Figure 6. Poincare section of periodic attractor for hyperchaotic systems with a = 4 , b = 5 , c = 3 ,
and d =(a)
d = 0.5: 0.5Periodic attractor,
: (a) Periodic and (b)
attractor, Poincare
and section.
(b) Poincare section.
and d = 0.5 : (a) Periodic attractor, and (b) Poincare section.
3.5. Quasi-Periodic Attractors
3.5. Quasi-periodic Attractors
3.5. Quasi-periodic Attractors
When the hyperchaotic system (2) selects parameters a = 7, b = 25, c = 3, and d = 0.5, and its
When the hyperchaotic system (2) selects parameters a = 7 , b = 25 , c = 3 , and d = 0.5 , and its
initialWhen the hyperchaotic system
( 1, 1,(2)1,)the
selects a = 7 , b =appears
parameters attractor 25 , c =in3 ,the
and d = 0space
.5 , and its
initial conditions are
conditions
are defined
definedas (1,1,1,1) , the
as 1, , the quasi-periodic
quasi-periodic attractor appears in phase
the phase space of of the
the
initial conditions are defined as (1,1,1,1) diagram and the corresponding Poincare section diagram
system, and its 3D phase space projection quasi-periodic attractor appears in the phase space of the
system, and its 3D phase space projection diagram and the corresponding Poincare section diagram
are shown
system, andinits
Figure 7. Figure
3D phase space7 projection
shows the Poincare section
diagram and theof the hyperchaotic
corresponding system.
Poincare It candiagram
section be seen
are shown in Figure 7. Figure 7 shows the Poincare section of the hyperchaotic system. It can be seen
thatshown
are the Poincare section
in Figure presents
7. Figure closed
7 shows thecircles, which
Poincare means
section the hyperchaotic
of the system is quasi-periodic.
system. It can be seen
that the Poincare section presents closed circles, which means the system is quasi-periodic.
that the Poincare section presents closed circles, which means the system is quasi-periodic.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7.
Figure Poincare section
7. Poincare section of
of quasi-periodic
quasi-periodicattractor
attractorfor
forhyperchaotic
hyperchaoticsystems with aa ==77,
systemswith , bb ==25
25,,
Figure
cc = 3, 7. Poincare
and d = 0.5: section
(a) of quasi-periodic
Quasi-periodic attractor
attractor, and for
(b) hyperchaotic
Poincare systems with a = 7 , b = 25 ,
section.
= 3 , and d = 0.5 : (a) Quasi-periodic attractor, and (b) Poincare section.
c = 3 , and d = 0.5 : (a) Quasi-periodic attractor, and (b) Poincare section.
3.6. Chaotic Attractor
3.6. Chaotic Attractor
3.6. Chaotic
When Attractor
system (2) selects parameters a = 14, b = 25, c = 3, d = 0.5 and its initial conditions are
When system (2) selects parameters a = 14 , b = 25 , c = 3 , d = 0.5 and its initial conditions are
defined as (
When system ), then
1, 1, 1, 1(2) the parameters
selects a = 14
chaotic attractor , b = 25in
appears c = 3phase
, the , d = 0space of the
.5 and system.
its initial Its 3D phase
conditions are
defined as (1,1,1,1) , then the chaotic attractor appears in the phase space of the system. Its 3D phase
defined as (1,1,1,1diagram
space projection ) , then the
andchaotic
the corresponding Poincare
attractor appears section
in the phasediagram
space ofare
theshown in Figure
system. Its 3D 8. The
phase
space projection
Lyapunov diagram
exponents and the corresponding
corresponding Poincare
to the chaotic section
attractor diagram
are diagram are shown
shown below. in Figure
Figure 8. The
8 shows the
space projection diagram and the corresponding Poincare section are shown in Figure 8. The
Lyapunov
Poincare exponents
section of the corresponding
chaotic state ofto the
the chaotic
new attractorsystem.
hyperchaotic are shown below. Figure 8 shows the
Entropy 2020, exponents
Lyapunov 22, x corresponding to the chaotic attractor are shown below. Figure 8 shows 8 ofthe
20
Poincare section of the chaotic state of the new hyperchaotic system.
Poincare section of the chaotic state of the new hyperchaotic system.

(a) (b)

Figure 8. Poincare section of chaotic attractor for hyperchaotic systems with a = 14,b = 25,c = 3 and
dFigure
= 0.5:8.(a)
Poincare
Chaoticsection of chaotic
attractor, and (b) attractor
Poincarefor hyperchaotic systems with a = 14 , b = 25 , c = 3 and
section.
d = 0.5 : (a) Chaotic attractor, and (b) Poincare section.

3.7. Bifurcation and Lyapunov Exponent

When a ∈ [ 20,30] , the change of the bifurcation diagram and Lyapunov exponent spectrum of
the system with changes of parameter a are shown in Figure 9. Figure 9 shows the bifurcation
 (a) (b)

Figure 8. Poincare section of chaotic attractor for hyperchaotic systems with a = 14 , b = 25 , c = 3 and
d = 0.5 : (a) Chaotic attractor, and (b) Poincare section.
Entropy 2020, 22, 310 8 of 19

3.7. Bifurcation and Lyapunov Exponent

3.7. Bifurcation and Lyapunov Exponent
When a ∈ [ 20,30] , the change of the bifurcation diagram and Lyapunov exponent spectrum of
When awith
the system ∈ [20,changes
30], the change
of parameter a are shown
of the bifurcation diagram and Lyapunov
in Figure 9. Figureexponent
9 shows spectrum of the
the bifurcation
system with changes of parameter a are shown in Figure 9. Figure 9 shows the bifurcation
diagram and Lyapunov exponent spectrum of the hyperchaotic system. It can be seen that bifurcation diagram and
Lyapunov
diagram isexponent
in a chaoticspectrum
state inof the
a ∈hyperchaotic system.
[20,30] , and there areIttwo
can positive
be seen that
LEs,bifurcation
which meansdiagram
that is
it in
is a
chaotic state in a
hyperchaotic system.∈ [ 20, 30 ] , and there are two positive LEs, which means that it is a hyperchaotic system.

(a) (b)

Figure 9. Bifurcation diagram and Lyapunov exponent spectrum of hyperchaotic system with a ∈ [20, 30],
Figure 9. Bifurcation diagram and Lyapunov exponent spectrum of hyperchaotic system with
b = 25, c = 3, and d = 0.5: (a) Bifurcation diagram, and (b) Lyapunov exponent spectrum.
a ∈ [20,30] , b = 25 , c = 3 , and d = 0.5 :(a) Bifurcation diagram, and (b) Lyapunov exponent
4. Normalization
spectrum. and Quantization
In order to put the hyperchaotic system into use, normalization and quantization are done. The
4. Normalization and Quantization
time series after normalization and quantization are tested.
In order to put the hyperchaotic system into use, normalization and quantization are done. The
4.1.
timeNormalization Treatment
series after normalization and quantization are tested.
In order to facilitate the data processing of the hyperchaotic system, the normalization is carried
4.1. Normalization Treatment
out first. In this paper, the time series data of four output signals, x, y, z, and w, are mapped to the
interval [−1, 1to
In order ] and then quantified.
facilitate The stream
the data processing of the
of the normalized
hyperchaotic hyperchaotic
system, system is shown
the normalization in
is carried
Figure
out 10.
first.
Entropy In22,
2020, x paper, the time series data of four output signals, x , y , z , and w , are mapped
Figure
this 10 shows the time series are normalized into the interval [ −1, 1 ] . 9 of to
20
the interval [− 1,1] and then quantified. The stream of the normalized hyperchaotic system is shown
in Figure 10. Figure 10 shows the time series are normalized into the interval [− 1,1] .

(b)
(a)

(c) (d)

Figure 10. Streams of the normalized hyperchaotic system: (a) time series x; (b) time series y; (c) time
Figure 10. Streams of the normalized hyperchaotic system: (a) time series x; (b) time series y; (c) time
series z; and (d) time series w.
series z; and (d) time series w.

4.2. Quantization
For the above hyperchaotic system, it must be converted into binary stream. Here, the
quantization function expression is set as Q[ x, y, z, w] , and the definition is shown as follows:

0 x, y , z , w < Tv
 (c) (d)

Figure 10. Streams of the normalized hyperchaotic system: (a) time series x; (b) time series y; (c) time
Entropyseries z; and
2020, 22, 310 (d) time series w. 9 of 19

4.2. Quantization
4.2. Quantization
For the above hyperchaotic system, it must be converted into binary stream. Here, the
For the above
quantization hyperchaotic
function system,
expression is set itasmust
Q[ x, be
y, zconverted into
, w] , and the binary stream.
definition Here,
is shown the quantization
as follows:
function expression is set as Q[x, y, z, w], and the definition is shown as follows:
( 0 x, y , z , w < Tv
Q[ x, y , z , w] = 0 x, y, z, w < Tv (8)
Q[x, y, z, w] = 1 x, z,
1 x, y, y ,wz , ≥ ≥ Tv , ,
w Tv (8)

Here Tv
Here = 0 0,, Q
Tv = Q[⋅[·]] isis the
the quantized binary stream.
quantized binary stream. The
The conversion
conversion value falls within
value falls within the
the
corresponding interval
corresponding interval of of the
the quantization
quantization function
function and
and gets
gets 00 or
or1,1,respectively.
respectively.As Aschaotic
chaoticsignals
signals
[[x,x,y,yz,
, zw
, w] ]have
have good
good randomstatistical
random statisticalproperties,
properties,the
thequantized
quantizedstream
stream(Q( Q[·[⋅]]) )should
shouldhave
haveexcellent
excellent
statisticalproperties
statistical propertiesofofequilibrium
equilibrium0-10-1 ratio
ratio in theory.
in theory. The The streams
streams after after quantization
quantization of the of theseries
time time
series
x, y, z, and z , shown
x , yw, are and w in
are shown
Figure 11.inFigure
Figure11 11.shows
Figure 11time
the shows the of
series time
theseries of the hyperchaotic
hyperchaotic system are
quantized
system areinto 0-1 sequences.
quantized into 0-1 sequences.

Entropy 2020, 22, x

(b) 10 of 20
(a)

(c) (d)

Figure 11. Quantized hyperchaotic time series: (a) quantized time series x; (b) quantized time series y;
Figure 11. Quantized hyperchaotic time series: (a) quantized time series x; (b) quantized time series
(c) quantized time series z; and (d) quantized time series w.
y; (c) quantized time series z; and (d) quantized time series w.
4.3. NIST Test
4.3. NIST test
The NIST SP 800-22 [50] random test package for stream cryptography (NIST random test) was
providedThe NIST
by theSPNational
800-22 [50] random
Institute of test packageand
Standards for Technology.
stream cryptography
In order (NIST random
to verify test) was
the statistical
provided byofthe
performance theNational
quantized Institute
streamsofofStandards and Technology.
the hyperchaotic system, NIST In order to carried
tests are verify theout statistical
by using
performance
the of theThe
test programs. quantized streams
test package of the hyperchaotic
includes frequency test system,
withinNIST testsbinary
a block, are carried
matrix outrank
by using
test,
the test programs.
non-overlapping The testmatching
template package includes
test, etc. frequency
These teststest canwithin
be used a block,
to test binary
binary matrix
sequences rankoftest,
an
non-overlapping template matching test, etc. These tests can be used to
arbitrary length, generated by the pseudo-random number generator, which can be used to determine test binary sequences of an
the non-randomness hidden in the stream. All of the test results are determined by P − value. If P < 0.01,
arbitrary length, generated by the pseudo-random number generator, which can be used to
determine
then the non-randomness
the stream is not random. If hidden P ≥ 0.01,inthen
the thestream.
stream Allis of the test results
considered random.are In determined
order to make by
P − value . If P < 0 .01 , then the stream is not random. If P ≥ 0.01 , then
the system get better randomness, this paper carries out NIST tests to prove that the random streams the stream is considered
random. Inby
generated order to makecan
the system the be
system
usedgetin better randomness,
the encryption this paperTable
application. carries out NIST
1 shows thetests
testto prove
results.
Itthat
canthe
be random
seen thatstreams generated
the quantized by thehave
streams system goodcanstatistical
be used incharacteristics
the encryption application.
and have passed Tablethe1
shows the test results. It can be seen that the quantized streams have good
tests. Table 1 shows that the sequences generated by the new hypersystem have passed all the tests in statistical characteristics
and have NIST
statistical passed the tests. Table 1 shows that the sequences generated by the new hypersystem have
tests.
passed all the tests in statistical NIST tests.

Table 1. NIST statistical tests.

P - value P - value P - value P - value

x y w Result
Test z
Frequency Test 0.110561 0.251486 0.528546 0.228145 Success
Entropy 2020, 22, 310 10 of 19

Table 1. NIST statistical tests.

Test P−Valuex P−Valuey P−Valuez P−Valuew Result

Frequency Test 0.110561 0.251486 0.528546 0.228145 Success
Frequency Test within a Block 0.835247 0.142578 0.512879 0.627428 Success
Runs Test 0.759814 0.521473 0.715854 0.452842 Success
Test for the Longest Run of Ones in a
0.214189 0.204144 0.158728 0.157569 Success
Block
Binary Matrix Rank Test 0.352471 0.521632 0.428745 0.638175 Success
Discrete Fourier Transform Test 0.644782 0.472575 0.284784 0.258741 Success
Non-Overlapping Template Matching
0.652417 0.418622 0.157525 0.784452 Success
Test
Overlapping Template Matching Test 0.524718 0.514832 0.527865 0.518653 Success
Maurer’s “Universal Statistical” Test 0.195748 0.147258 0.285954 0.287695 Success
Linear Complexity Test 0.652149 0.625411 0.528765 0.318528 Success
Serial Test 0.058472 0.052148 0.078458 0.052145 Success
Approximation Entropy Test 0.024187 0.021458 0.025481 0.011285 Success
Cumulative Sums Test 0.421863 0.565281 0.627854 0.458654 Success
Random Excursions Test 0.524862 0.442389 0.458745 0.514865 Success
Random Excursions Variant Test 0.352874 0.328489 0.257841 0.258145 Success

4.4. Permutation Entropy

The permutation entropy can be used to measure the complexity of time series. Permutation
entropy is obtained by adding the permutation idea into the calculation of the complexity of
sub-sequences. The algorithm is described as follows:
1. Define a time series x(1), x(2), . . . , x(N ), m is the embedded dimension, τ is time delay.
2. Reconstruct the time series as X(i) = x(i), x(i + τ), . . . , x(i + (m − 1)τ).
3. Increase and rearrange X(i). When x(i + ( j1 − 1)τ) ≤ x(i + ( j2 − 1)τ) ≤ . . . ≤ x(i + ( jm − 1)τ),
if the two values are equal, rearrange by subscript.
4. X(i) is redefined to ( j1 , j2 , . . . , jm ). Therefore, there will be m! permutations.
5. Define the probability distribution of all symbols as p1 , p2 , . . . , pk , k ≤ m!.
6. The permutation entropy of the time series can be calculated by the following formula:

k
X
H (m) = − p j ln p j , (9)
j=1

pk = 1/m!, that is to say that when the probability of each symbol is equal, then the stream has
the maximum permutation entropy. To facilitate data analysis, H (m) will be normalized.

0 ≤ H (m)/ ln(m!) ≤ 1, (10)

The results of the permutation entropy test are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Permutation entropy value.

Time Series m τ PE
x 3 1 0.6201
y 3 1 0.6548
z 3 1 0.5724
w 3 1 0.6017

4.5. Approximate Entropy

Approximate entropy (ApEn) is used to measure the law of motion and unpredictability of a
quantized time series, which is often used in nonlinear dynamics. It is characterized by the use of a
Entropy 2020, 22, 310 11 of 19

non-negative number to represent the complexity of a time stream, which can reflect the possibility
of new information in the stream. Therefore, the higher the approximate entropy is, the higher the
complexity of the time series is. The algorithm description is shown as follows:
1. Define a time series U (1), U (2), . . . , U (N ).
2. m is the length of the comparison vector.
3. r is the measure of similarity.
4. Reconstruct the m dimension vector Y(1), Y(2), . . . ,Y(N − m + 1), and Y(i) = [U (i), U (i +
1), . . . , U (i + m − 1)].
5. When 1 ≤ i ≤ N − m + 1, calculate the number of vectors satisfying the following conditions:

1
Cm
i (r) = SUM[d(i, j) ≤ r], (11)
N−m+1

6. The function is defined as:

1 XN−m+1
Φm (r) = log(Cm
i (r)), (12)
N−m+1 i=1

Here,d(i, j) = max U (a) − U∗ (a) . U (a) represents the element of the vector Y; d represents the
a
distance between Y(i) and Y( j), whose value is determined by the maximum difference value of the
corresponding element; j ∈ [1, N − m + 1], j and i is allowed to exist in the case of equality.
From the above, the definition of Approximate Entropy (ApEn) can be obtained. In general,
the value of the parameter m = 2 or m = 3 and r are determined by the actual application. Here
r = 0.2 ∗ std, and std represents the standard deviation of the original time series. Normally, d(i, j) ≤ r.
The more complex the time series is, the greater the corresponding approximate entropy is. The ApEn
here is shown in Table 3, which means that the time series are of good unpredictability and can be used
in nonlinear dynamics.

Table 3. Approximate entropy value.

Time Series m r=0.2std N ApEn

x 2 0.1172 2048 0.7824
y 2 0.1036 2048 0.7653
z 2 0.1284 2048 0.7906
w 2 0.1165 2048 0.7819

5. Application in Image Encryption

5.1. Image Encryption Scheme

A digital image is represented by a two-dimensional matrix. Each element of the two-dimensional
matrix represents the pixel value, and the coordinates of each element represent the location of the
pixel. Permutation refers to taking the row and column of each element in the two-dimensional
matrix of the image as the coordinate value of the pixel value, then using the encryption function to
change the coordinate value of the pixel, thus changing the position of the individual pixel so that the
original plaintext image cannot be recognized. Diffusion is to change the value of the pixels in the
image, so as to change the statistical characteristics of the original image. Based on the principle of
permutation and diffusion, the image encryption scheme here uses a low-dimensional chaotic system
to obtain permutation, and high-dimensional hyperchaotic system to obtain diffusion, and generally
achieves the effect of a two-step chaotic image encryption. Firstly, the sequence generated by the 1D
Logistic chaotic system is used to construct the replacement table to transform the position of the
original image to complete the permutation operation. Secondly, the stream cipher generated by the
4D hyperchaotic system proposed in this paper is used for diffusion operation to further ensure the
security of image encryption.
Entropy 2020, 22, 310 12 of 19

Here, the hyperchaotic system stream is used to encrypt 256×256 Lena image, Cameraman image,
Cake image, and Seaside image, respectively. The results of image encryption and security analysis
are shown in Figure 12. Variance analysis can be used for testing the uniformity of the ciphered
images. Through calculation, the histogram variance of the original Lena image is 6.2993 × 104 , and
the histogram variance of the ciphered Lena image is 771.7529; the histogram variance of original
Entropy 2020, 22, x 13 of 20
Cameraman image is 1.1141 × 105 , and the histogram variance of the ciphered Cameraman image is
825.4153. It can be concluded that the histogram variances of the ciphered images are much smaller
Cameraman image is 825.4153. It can be concluded that the histogram variances of the ciphered
than those of the original images.
images are much smaller than those of the original images.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 12. Comparison before and after image encryption of hyperchaotic stream: (a) original four
Figure 12.
images; (b)Comparison before
histograms of and after
the four image
images; (c) encryption of hyperchaotic
encrypted four images; andstream: (a) original
(d) histograms of four
the
images; (b) histograms
encrypted four images. of the four images; (c) encrypted four images; and (d) histograms of the
encrypted four images.
It can be seen that the histograms of the plain images in Figure 12 are very different. The different
It can be
histograms seenthat
mean thatthe
the histograms of
distributions of the
the plain
plain images
images are
in Figure
totally12 are veryFrom
different. different. The different
the cipher images,
ithistograms
can be found mean
thatthat
theythe
are distributions
all random-like.of the
The plain images
histograms of are totally
all the different.
encrypted From
images arethe cipher
relatively
images, it can be found that they are all
flat and are very close to uniform distributions. random-like. The histograms of all the encrypted images are
relatively flat and are very close to uniform distributions.

5.2. Correlation Coefficient Analysis

The correlation coefficient can be used to measure the degree of the correlation between two
variables, with a value between −1 and 1. The Pearson correlation coefficient between two variables
is defined as the quotient of covariance and standard deviation between two variables. The
correlation coefficient, rxy , is defined as follows:
 Entropy 2020, 22, 310 13 of 19
Entropy 2020, 22, x 14 of 20

Entropy 2020, 22, x 14 of 20

5.2. Correlation Coefficient Analysis cov( x, y )
rxy =
The correlation coefficient can be used to D ( xcov(
measure )) , degree of the correlation between(13)
) ⋅ Dx(,yythe two
variables, with a value between −1 and 1. Ther =
xy Pearson correlation coefficient between two variables is
(13)
D ( x) ⋅ D( y ) ,
Here as the quotient of covariance and standard deviation between two variables. The correlation
defined
Here rxy , is defined as follows:
coefficient, N
1
cov( x, y ) =  ( xi − E ( x))( yi − E ( y))
N 1i =1 N cov(x, y) (14)
cov( x, yr)xy= = 
,
p ( xi − E ( x ))(, yi − E ( y )) (13)
N i =1D(x) · D( y) ,
(14)
1 N
Here E ( x) =  xi (15)
N N i =1 N ,
1
i − E
1X
cov(x, y) = E ( x()x= (x))(xi y − E( y)), (14)
(15)
N N i =1 , i
i=1 N
1
D ( x) =  ( xiX − E ( x)) 2
N (16)
N i =1 1N
1 ,
D( x) = 
E ( x ) = x
N ( xi − E ( x))
i , 2 (15)
(16)
where x and y are two different image pixel values, N i =1 i = 1
N represents
, the number of all pixels,
N
cov( x, y )x represents Dx)(x=) 1represents the 2variance of variable x , and E (x(16) )
X
and y are thetwocovariance,
where differentD(image pixel(xvalues,i − E(x))N, represents the number of all pixels,
N
cov( x, y ) represents the covariance, D (x) i=represents
represents the mean. The more observed variables are,
1 the the variance of variable x , and E (x)
less the correlation coefficient is affected
bywherethe sampling
x and y error,
are two and the more
different image reliable
pixel the results
values, N are. Thethe
represents value
numberrangeofofallthe correlation
pixels, (x, y)
represents the mean. The more observed variables are, the less the correlation coefficient iscov
affected
represents
coefficient is rxy ∈ [-error,
by the samplingthe 1,1] , and
covariance, D
andthe( x ) represents
thecloser rxy is tothe
more reliable the variance
1, results of
the highervariable
are. the x, and E
The correlation( x ) represents
value rangebetween the mean.
the two
of the correlation
The more observed variables are, the less the correlation coefficient is affected by the sampling error,
variables is, and
coefficient is the
and the more reliable
[- 1,the
rxy ∈closer 1] ,the
andrelationship
the closer between
results are. The value
rxy is tothem 1, the r > 0 the
is. higher stands for positive
correlation correlation,
between
range of thexy correlation coefficient is rxy ∈ [−1, 1],
the two
< 0 the
rxyand stands
variables is, for
closer andrnegative
xytheiscloser
to 1,correlation,
the higher
the and
relationship = 0 stands
the rcorrelation
xybetween them foris.zero
between > 0two
correlation
rxythe stands for
for no
variables correlation.
positive
is, andcorrelation,
the closer
the < this
relationship
rxyIn paper,for
0 stands between
the Lena them
negative image is.and
correlation, > and
rxy its rxy =for
0encrypted
stands 0image positive
stands are
forcorrelation,
selected as the
zero correlation < 0for
rxy observation
stands for negative
data,
no correlation. and
correlation,
a total of 5000and pairsrxyof=sampling
0 stands points
for zeroare correlation
used. Thefor no correlation.
experimental results of correlation coefficients
In this paper, the Lena image and its encrypted image are selected as the observation data, and
are shown In this
in paper, the Lena
the Figures image
13 and 14.andTheitscomparison
encrypted image and analysisare selected of theas two
the observation
groups of data data,are
andlisted
a total
a total of 5000 pairs of sampling points are used. The experimental results of correlation coefficients
inof 50004.
Table pairs of sampling points are used. The experimental results of correlation coefficients are shown in
are shown in the Figures 13 and 14. The comparison and analysis of the two groups of data are listed
the Figures 13 and 14. The comparison and analysis of the two groups of data are listed in Table 4.
in Table 4.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 13. The Lena image correlation coefficient diagram before encryption: (a) horizontal
Thevertical
Figure 13.(b)
correlation; Lena image correlation
correlation; coefficient
and (c) diagonaldiagram before encryption: (a) horizontal correlation;
correlation.
Figure
(b) 13.correlation;
vertical The Lenaand image correlation
(c) diagonal coefficient diagram before encryption: (a) horizontal
correlation.
correlation; (b) vertical correlation; and (c) diagonal correlation.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 14. The(a)Lena image correlation coefficient(b) (c) correlation;

diagram after encryption: (a) horizontal
Figure 14. The Lena image correlation coefficient diagram after encryption: (a) horizontal correlation;
(b) vertical correlation; and (c) diagonal correlation.
(b) vertical correlation; and (c) diagonal correlation.
Figure 14. The Lena image correlation coefficient diagram after encryption: (a) horizontal correlation;
(b) vertical correlation; and (c) diagonal correlation.
Entropy 2020, 22, 310 14 of 19

Table 4. Correlation coefficient analysis of Lena Image and photographer image.

Direction Horizontal Vertical Diagonal

Lena image before encryption 0.9842 0.6160 0.1969
Lena image after encryption 0.0043 −0.0230 −0.0027
[2] before encryption 0.9144 0.9545 0.9562
[2] after encryption −0.0014 0.0028 0.0080
[38] before encryption 0.9254 0.9438 0.9325
[38] after encryption 0.0045 0.0012 0.0001
[45] before encryption 0.9577 0.9440 0.9126
[45] after encryption −0.0082 0.0027 0.0030
[51] before encryption 0.9249 0.9593 0.9026
[51] after encryption −0.0042 −0.0011 0.0029

As can be seen from Figures 13 and 14, the correlation coefficient diagrams before and after
encryption are quite different. The correlation coefficient diagrams before encryption are of great
correlation, and the diagrams after encryption are almost of no correlation.
In Table 4, the correlation coefficient of the Lena image before encryption is close to 1, which has a
high correlation. The correlation coefficient of the encrypted graph is close to 0, indicating that there is
almost no correlation, so it can well resist the corresponding statistical attack.

5.3. The Information Entropy

Information entropy can be used to measure the uncertainty of the randomly distributed gray
value in an image. The definition of information entropy is shown as follows:

N
X 1
H (m) = p(mi ) ∗ log , (17)
p ( mi )
i=1

where p(mi ) represents the probability of the sign mi occurring, and N represents the total number of
mi . Since the state of 256 grayscale images can reach 28 , the maximum value of information entropy,
H (m), can be 8. In this paper, the information entropy of the Lena image and the photographer image
is calculated and compared. The results can be seen in Table 5, which found that the entropy value of
the encrypted image here is closer to the theoretical value 8. Therefore, the encryption scheme can
effectively resist an information entropy attack.

Table 5. Information entropy value.

Image InEn
Lena image 7.9978
[38] 7.9971
[52] 7.9965
[53] 7.9971
[54] 7.9851

5.4. Analysis of Differential Attack

The attacker adds a small change to the system by changing some pixels in the image, so that
the association between plaintext and ciphertext can be detected by observing the changes in the
pre-encrypted and post-encrypted images. In general, to test the above, you can use the following
two metrics to evaluate the encryption effect. One is pixel change rate (NPCR) [55], and the other is
normalized mean change intensity (UACI) [55]. The two indicators are defined as follows:
Entropy 2020, 22, 310 15 of 19

P
M(i, j)
i,j
NPCR = × 100%, (18)
L1 × L2
1 X C1 (i, j) − C2 (i, j)
UACI = × 100%, (19)
L1 × L2 255
i,j

where, C1 and C2 are the values before and after the change of the pixel in the same position, and
C1 (i, j) and C2 (i, j) represents the pixel intensity of the image (i, j) before and after the change. M(i, j)
is a binary matrix of the same size as C1 and C2 . If C1 (i, j) , C2 (i, j), then M(i, j) = 1, otherwise
M(i, j) = 0. In this paper, only one pixel value is changed, and the simulation results are shown in
Table 6. The results showed that the NPCR value was close to 1, and the UACI value was close to
33.5% [38]. It shows that the encryption effect can resist some differential attacks. The test results are
shown as follows:

Table 6. NPCR and UACI.

Image NPCR UACI%

Lena image 0.9961 33.42

5.5. Analysis of Plaintext Attack and Ciphertext Attack

There are four typical types of attacks in an image encryption system, namely ciphertext only
attack, chosen ciphertext attack, known plaintext attack, and chosen plaintext attack. The chosen
plaintext attack is regarded as the most powerful attack among these attacks. If an image encryption
system can resist chosen plaintext attack, it can be regarded to have the ability to resist the other three
attacks [55]. From the differential attack analysis above, it is known that any small changes in the
plain image will lead to a totally different cipher image. It means that the encryption system in this
paper can resist differential attack, which is a typically chosen plaintext attack. The new hyperchaotic
system has four parameters and presents different chaotic states and output sequences, with different
initial values. The ciphered images are noise-like, and the corresponding histograms are close to
uniform distributions. Therefore, the proposed image encryption scheme can resist against plaintext
and ciphertext attacks.

5.6. Analysis of Noise Attack

The ciphered image is often changed by noise attack during the transmission process of the
channel, making the receiver unable to decrypt correctly. Therefore, the anti-noise attack capability
of an image encryption system is one of the criteria for measuring the anti-interference capability
of the system. In order to test the anti-noise attack capability of the system, before decrypting the
ciphered image, pepper and salt noises of different intensities were added to the ciphered image,
and then the ciphered image with the noise was decrypted with the correct key. The ciphered image
with pepper and salt noise and the decrypted image were respectively shown in Figure 15. Through
comparative analysis, it can be seen that the encryption algorithm in this paper has better ability to
resist anti-noise attacks.
 ciphered image, pepper and salt noises of different intensities were added to the ciphered image, and
then the ciphered image with the noise was decrypted with the correct key. The ciphered image with
pepper and salt noise and the decrypted image were respectively shown in Figure 15. Through
comparative analysis, it can be seen that the encryption algorithm in this paper has better ability
Entropy 2020, 22, 310
to
16 of 19
resist anti-noise attacks.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 15. The ciphered images with different levels of noises and corresponding decrypted images:
Figure 15. The ciphered images with different levels of noises and corresponding decrypted images:
(a) Ciphered image with noise intensity 0.1; (b) ciphered image with noise intensity 0.2; (c) ciphered
(a) Ciphered image with noise intensity 0.1; (b) ciphered image with noise intensity 0.2; (c) ciphered
image with noise intensity 0.3; (d) decrypted image with noise intensity 0.1; (e) decrypted image with
image with noise intensity 0.3; (d) decrypted image with noise intensity 0.1; (e) decrypted image with
noise intensity 0.2; and (f) decrypted image with noise intensity 0.3.
noise intensity 0.2; and (f) decrypted image with noise intensity 0.3.
5.7. Analysis of Exhaustive Attack
5.7. Analysis of Exhaustive Attack
In the analysis of exhaustive attack, the key space and key sensitivity can be analyzed, respectively.
Firstly,Inthe theanalysis
analysis of of exhaustive attack,
anti-exhaustive attack the
fromkey thespace and key
perspective sensitivity
of key space iscan be analyzed,
discussed. The
respectively.
encryption key Firstly, the analysis
in this paper consists ofoftwo
anti-exhaustive
parts, one is the attack from the
four system perspective
parameters ofhyperchaotic
of the key space is
discussed.
system a, b, c,The
andencryption
d; the otherkeypartinisthis
the paper consists
four initial of two
values of theparts, one is thesystem
hyperchaotic four system
x0 , y0 , parameters
z0 , and w0 .
of the
For the above
hyperchaotic system and
four parameters b , cinitial
a , four , andvalues,
d ; the other
if the part is accuracy
calculation −15
the four isinitial
10 ,values
the totalofkey the
space of the image
hyperchaotic system x0 , y0 ,system
encryption z0 , and w0 . less
is not For than 10120 ,four
the above so the encryption
parameters algorithm
and has values,
four initial enoughif
key space to resist exhaustive attacks. -15 Secondly, it discusses the analysis of anti-exhaustive attack from
the calculation accuracy is 10 , the total key space of the image encryption system is not less than
the perspective
120
of key sensitivity. In order to test the key sensitivity of the image encryption system
10the
for ,hyperchaotic
so the encryptionsystem, algorithm
four initialhasvalues
enough of key
x0 , yspace to resist exhaustive attacks. Secondly, it
0 , z0 , and w0 were increased respectively, and
discusses
the the analysis
corresponding of anti-exhaustive
decrypted images were attack
shownfrom in the
Figureperspective
16, underofthe
keycondition
sensitivity. In order
that other to test
keys
do not change. It can be seen from the figure that the original image cannot be decrypted correctlyof
the key sensitivity of the image encryption system for the hyperchaotic system, four initial values
x0 , ifythe
even z0 , and
0 , key w0 were
is changed increased
very slightly, respectively, and the corresponding
so the image encryption algorithm hasdecrypted
strong keyimages were
sensitivity.
Entropy 2020, 22, x 18 of 20
Inshown
conclusion,
in Figurethe 16,
image encryption
under system
the condition hasother
that a goodkeys ability
do not to change.
resist exhaustive attacks.
It can be seen from the figure
that the original image cannot be decrypted correctly even if the key is changed very slightly, so the
image encryption algorithm has strong key sensitivity. In conclusion, the image encryption system
has a good ability to resist exhaustive attacks.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure
Figure16. 16. The
The decrypted
decrypted images
images with
with minor
minor key
key changes:
changes : (a)(a) decrypted
decrypted image
image with
with secret
secret key
key
10−−15
x0x ++ 10 ; (b) decrypted image with secret key y 10
−15
15 ; (b) decrypted image with secret key y0 + 10 −15 ; (c) decrypted image with secret key
+ ; (c) decrypted image with secret key
0 0
z0 + 10−15 −15
−15 ; and (d) decrypted image with secret key w0 + 10−15 .
z0 + 10 ; and (d) decrypted image with secret key w0 + 10 .

6. Conclusion
In this paper, a new 4D hyperchaotic system was generated based on the Lorenz chaotic system.
Through numerical calculation and computer simulation, the equilibrium point, local stability, and
Poincare section of the hyperchaotic system were studied. It was found that there were periodic
Entropy 2020, 22, 310 17 of 19

6. Conclusions
In this paper, a new 4D hyperchaotic system was generated based on the Lorenz chaotic system.
Through numerical calculation and computer simulation, the equilibrium point, local stability, and
Poincare section of the hyperchaotic system were studied. It was found that there were periodic
attractors, quasi-periodic attractors, and low-dimensional chaotic attractors in the hyperchaotic system.
Then, the hyperchaotic system was normalized and discretized into binary random stream ciphers.
Through NIST statistical test, permutation entropy, and approximate entropy analysis, it was found
that this binary stream has good statistical performance. Finally, the binary stream generated by
the hyperchaotic system was applied to the grayscale image encryption. It was concluded that the
encryption scheme can resist statistical attack by the correlation coefficient and the information entropy
analysis. From the analysis of differential attack, plaintext attack, ciphertext attack, noise attack, and
exhaustive attack, it can be concluded that the encryption scheme can resist those attacks, which shows
that the image encryption scheme in this paper can achieve a better encryption effect and resist most
typical attacks.

Author Contributions: L.D. conceived and wrote the paper. Q.D. gave some theoretical guidance. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The Natural Science Foundation of China: No. 61471158.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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