ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

IASBABA’S
PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE
PROGRAM (PEP) 2022

GEOGRAPHY
HANDOUTS

WWW.IASBABA.COM, [email protected]
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

GEOGRAPHY-3
TOPICS: Climatology - Upper Atmospheric Circulations- Jet streams, Climatic Zones of the
World
Geomorphology - Earth Evolution, Internal structure, Earth’s magnetic field, Earth
Movements

1. JET STREAMS
● Jet streams are relatively narrow bands of strong wind in the upper levels of the
atmosphere.
● The winds blow from west to east in jet streams but the flow often shifts to the
north and south.
● Jet streams follow the boundaries between hot and cold air.
● They are most pronounced in winter both the North and South hemisphere.
● Both the Northern and Southern hemispheres have jet streams, although the jet
streams in the north are more forceful due greater temperature gradients.

TYPES OF JET STREAMS

Permanent Jet Streams

JET STREAM FEATURES
Subtropical jet ▪ The sub-tropical jet stream is produced by the earth’s rotation
stream (STJ) (Coriolis force) and temperature contrast between tropical and
subtropical regions.
▪ At the equator, the rotation produces the greatest velocity in
the atmosphere.
▪ As a result, the rising air which spreads out northwards and
southwards moves faster than the latitudes over which it is
blowing.
▪ It is deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere and to
the left in the southern hemisphere, and at about 30° latitude,
it becomes concentrated as the subtropical jet streams.
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

▪ During winter, the STJ is nearly continuous in both

hemispheres. The STJ exists all year in the southern
hemisphere. However, it is intermittent in the northern
hemisphere during summer when it migrates north.
▪ STJ is closely connected to the Indian and African summer
monsoons
Polar (front) Jet ▪ It is also called polar front jet or mid-latitude jet stream, a belt
Stream of powerful upper-level winds that sits atop the polar front.
▪ The winds are strongest in the tropopause and move in a
generally westerly direction in mid-latitudes
▪ The polar front jet can be unstable and breaks up into Rossby
waves.
▪ It greatly influences the climates of regions lying close to 60-
degree latitude.
▪ It determines the path and speed and intensity of temperate
cyclones.

Temporary Jet Streams

JET STREAM FEATURES
Polar night jet ▪ It is also known as the stratospheric subpolar jet stream,
stream develops in winter due to the steep temperature gradient in the
stratosphere around the poles at the height of 30km.
▪ These jet streams become very strong westerly circulation with
high wind velocity during winters but their velocity decreases
during summers and the direction becomes easterly.
▪ The polar vortex is circled by the polar night jet.
▪ The warmer air can only move along the edge of the polar
vortex, but not enter it.
Polar Vortex ▪ A polar vortex is an upper-level low-pressure area lying near the
Earth’s pole.
▪ There are two polar vortices in the Earth’s atmosphere, which
overlie the North, and South Poles.
▪ Each polar vortex is a persistent, large-scale, low-pressure zone
that rotates counter-clockwise at the North Pole (called a
cyclone), and clockwise at the South Pole.
▪ The bases of the two polar vortices are located in the middle
and upper troposphere and extend into the stratosphere.
▪ Beneath that lies a large mass of cold, dense arctic air.
▪ The vortices weaken and strengthen from year to year.
▪ When the vortex of the Arctic is strong it is well defined, there
is a single vortex and the arctic air is well contained;
▪ When weaker, which it generally is, it will break into two or
more vortices;
▪ When very weak, the flow of arctic air becomes more
disorganized and masses of cold arctic air can push equator
ward, bringing with it a rapid and sharp temperature drop.
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

▪ A polar vortex strengthens in the winter and weakens in the

summer due to its dependence on the temperature difference
between the equator and the poles.
▪ Ozone depletion occurs within the polar vortices – particularly
over the Southern Hemisphere – reaching a maximum
depletion in the spring.
The Tropical ▪ The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the northern
Easterly Jet or hemispheric summer over southern Asia and northern Africa.
African Easterly The TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N.
Jet ▪ It is fairly persistent in its position, direction, and intensity from
June through the beginning of October.
▪ During the south Asian summer monsoon, the TEJ induces
secondary circulations that enhance convection over South
India and nearby ocean.
▪ The establishment and maintenance of the TEJ is not fully
understood but it is believed that the jet may be caused by the
uniquely high temperatures and heights over the Tibetan
Plateau during summer.
▪ The TEJ is the upper-level venting system for the strong
southwest monsoon.
Somali Jet ▪ The Somali jet occurs during the summer over northern
Stream Madagascar and off the coast of Somalia. The jet is most intense
from June to August.
▪ It is a major cross-equatorial flow from the southern Indian
Ocean to the central Arabian Sea.
▪ A split in the axis of the jet over the Arabian Sea, the more
northern branch intersecting the west coast of India near 17°N,
while the southerly branch moves eastward just south of India.
▪ The jet remains relatively steady from June to September
before moving southward to the southern Indian Ocean during
the winter.

2. World Climatic Zones

The first attempt to classify climate was made by the Greeks.
● They defined climate as a study of the conditions of atmosphere at a definite time
and under definite conditions.
● On the basis of the temperature, they divided the earth into Torrid (Tropical),
Temperate (mid-latitude) and Frigid (polar) zones.
● The boundaries were determined by the parallels of latitudes.

However, the classification scheme put forward by Koeppen has been found to be very
popular.
● Koeppen’s classification is based on quantitative values of temperature and
precipitation.
● It recognises location and points out the differences that exist between the east and
west coast and between the coastal regions and interiors.
● The types of climate have been defined in terms of numerical values.
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

● The major divisions are denoted by capital letters and small letters are added to
indicate other small sub-divisions. The small letter generally conveys special features
of the climate.
● The Koeppen climate classification system recognizes five major climatic types and
each type is designated by a capital letter- A, B, C, D, E, and H.
● The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w, and s.
o f -no dry season
o m – Monsoon climate
o w- Winter dry season
o s – Summer dry season
o The small letters a, b, c, and d refer to the degree of severity of temperature.

Group Type Letter Code Characteristics

A-Tropical Tropical Wet Af No dry season
Humid Climate Tropical Monsoon Am Monsoonal, Short dry season
Tropical wet and dry Aw Winter dry season
B-Dry Climate Subtropical Steppe BSh Low-latitude semi-arid or dry
Subtropical Desert BWh Low-latitude arid or dry
Mid-latitude Steppe BSk Mid-latitude semi-arid or dry
Mid-latitude Desert BWk Mid-latitude arid or dry
C-Warm Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season
temperate Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer
Climates Marine west coast Cfb No dry season, warm and cool
summer
D- Cold Snow- Humid Continental Df No dry season, severe winter
forest Climates Subarctic Dw Winter dry and very severe
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

E-Cold climates Tundra ET No true summer

Polar ice cap EF Perennial ice
H-highland Highland H Highland with snow cover

3. INTERNAL STRUCTURE

LAYER FEATURES
Crust ● It is the outermost layer over the earth’s surface.
● It is the thinnest of all the layers. It is brittle in nature.
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

● About 35 km on the continental masses and only 5 km on the ocean

floors.
● Continental crust is broadly granitic in composition. The main
minerals constituting the continental mass (SIAL) are: Silica &
Alumina
● Oceanic crust is broadly basaltic in composition. The main mineral
constituents of the oceanic crust (SIMA) are: Silicon & Magnesium
● Continental crust has a density of 2.7 g/cm3 and Oceanic crust with
3 g/cm3.
● Nearly 1% of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of earth’s mass are made
of the crust
● The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crust is termed as
the Conrad Discontinuity.
Mantle ● The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle.
● The discontinuity between the crust and mantle is called as
the Mohorovich Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
● The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness.
● Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s mass is
occupied by the mantle.
● The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and
Magnesium and hence it is also termed as SIMA.
● The density of the layer is higher than the crust and varies from 3.3
– 5.4g/cm3.
● The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust
constitute the Lithosphere.
● The asthenosphere (in between 80-200km) is a highly viscous,
mechanically weak and ductile, deforming region of the upper
mantle which lies just below the lithosphere.
● The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the layer
over which the lithospheric plates/ continental plates move (plate
tectonics).
● The discontinuity between the upper mantle and the lower mantle is
known as Repetti Discontinuity.
● The portion of the mantle which is just below the lithosphere and
asthenosphere, but above the core is called as Mesosphere.
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

Core ● It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre.

● The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s
Discontinuity.
● It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is also
called as NIFE.
● The core constitutes ~15% of earth’s volume and 32.5% of earth’s
mass.
● The core is the densest layer of the earth with its density ranges
between 9.5-14.5g/cm3.
● The Core consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer
core.
● The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the liquid state
(or semi-liquid).
● The deepest layer is a solid iron ball, about 2,400 kilometres in
diameter. Although this inner core is white hot, the pressure is so
high the iron cannot melt.
● The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is
called as Lehmann Discontinuity.
● Barysphere is sometimes used to refer the core of the earth or
sometimes the whole interior.

4. EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

● Earth’s magnetic field is also referred to as the geomagnetic field.
● Earth’s magnetic field is the magnetic field that extends from the Earth’s interior out
into space exerting a force on the charged particles emanating from the Sun.
● It gets stretched out into a comet-like shape with a tail of magnetism that stretches
millions of miles behind the Earth, opposite from the Sun.
● The magnetic field of Earth protects the life of Earth from the harmful cosmic
radiation and charged particles emitted from the Sun.
● The earth’s south magnetic pole is actually near the North Pole and the magnetic
north pole is in Antarctica. This is why a compass magnet’s north pole actually points
north.
● Causes for Earth’s magnetic Field
o The magnetic field of the Earth is due to the metallic and liquid outer core of
Earth.
o The rotation of the Earth creates convection movements inside the liquid
outer core. This flow of liquid iron generates electric currents, which in turn
produce magnetic fields.
o Charged metals passing through these fields go on to create electric currents
of their own, and so the cycle continues. This self-sustaining loop is known as
the geodynamo.
o The spiral movement of the charged particles caused by the Coriolis force
means that separate magnetic fields created are roughly aligned in the same
direction, their combined effect adding up to produce one vast magnetic field
of the planet.
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

● Earth’s magnetic field deflects ionising charged particles coming from the sun (called
solar wind) and prevents them from entering our atmosphere. Without this
magnetic shield, the solar wind could have slowly destroyed our atmosphere
preventing life on earth to exist.
● The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent
of the Earth’s magnetic field in space.
● The magnetopause, the area where the pressures balance, is the boundary of the
magnetosphere.
● Despite its name, the magnetosphere is asymmetric, with the sunward side being
about 10 Earth radii out but the other side stretching out in a magnetotail that
extends beyond 200 Earth radii.

● The Earth’s magnetic field extends far and wide but is very weak in terms of field
strength. The Earth's magnetic field intensity is roughly between 25,000 - 65,000 nT
(nano Tesla) compared to a refrigerator magnet which has a strength of 107 nT.
● A paleomagnetic study of Australian red dacite and pillow basalt has estimated the
magnetic field to be at least 3.5 billion years old.
● Yes, the magnetic field is different at different locations. The magnetic field changes
with both location and time. It decreases from poles towards equator.
● The Earth’s magnetic field is slowly changing and appears to have been changing
throughout its existence.
o A geomagnetic reversal is a change in a planet’s magnetic field such that the
positions of magnetic north and magnetic south are interchanged (not to be
confused with geographic north and geographic south). The Earth’s field has
alternated between periods of normal polarity and reverse polarity.
o The last time a "geomagnetic reversal" took place was 780,000 years ago,
with some scientists claiming that the next one is long overdue. Typically,
such events take place every 250,000 years.
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

● Do You Know? Mars does not have a strong atmosphere that can sustain life
because it does not have a magnetic field protecting it.

Van Allen Belt

● A Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of
energetic charged particles, most of
which originate from the solar wind, that
are captured by and held around a
planet by that planet's magnetosphere.
● The outer belt is made up of billions of
high-energy particles that originate from
the Sun and become trapped in Earth’s
magnetic field, an area known as the
magnetosphere. The inner belt results from interactions of cosmic rays with Earth’s
atmosphere.
● Located in the inner region of Earth’s magnetosphere, the radiation belts endanger
satellites. That’s because solar cells, integrated circuits, and sensors can be damaged
by radiation

Auroras
● An aurora is a natural light display in the sky, particularly in the high-latitude (arctic
and antarctic) regions, that is caused by the collision of energetic charged particles
with atoms in the high-altitude atmosphere.
● They commonly occur at high northern and southern latitudes, less frequent at mid-
latitudes, and seldom seen near the equator.
● In northern latitudes, the effect is known as the aurora borealis (or the northern
lights) while in Sourthern latitudes, the effect is known as aurora australis (or the
southern lights)
● While usually a milky greenish color, auroras can also show red, blue, violet, pink,
and white. These colors appear in a variety of continuously changing shapes.
● Auroras are not just something that happens on Earth. If a planet has an
atmosphere and magnetic field, they probably have auroras.

What makes this happen?

● The sun sends us more than heat and light; it sends lots of other energy and small
particles our way. The protective magnetic field around Earth shields us from most of
the energy and particles, and we don’t even notice them.
● But the sun doesn’t send the same amount of energy all the time.
● There is a constant streaming solar wind and there are also solar storms. During one
kind of solar storm called a coronal mass ejection, the sun burps out a huge bubble
of electrified gas that can travel through space at high speeds.
● When a solar storm comes toward us, some of the energy and small particles can
travel down the magnetic field lines at the north and south poles into Earth’s
atmosphere.
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

● There, the particles interact with gases in our atmosphere resulting in beautiful
displays of light in the sky. Oxygen gives off green and red light. Nitrogen glows
blue and purple.

Discrete Auroras of Mars

● Unlike auroras on Earth, which are seen only near the north and south poles,
Discrete Auroras (DA) on Mars are seen all around the planet at night time.
● These DAs are traced out where energetic particles excite the atmosphere after
being funneled down by a patchy network of crustal magnetic fields (originating
from minerals on the surface of Mars)
● Unlike Earth, which has a strong magnetic field, the Martian magnetic field has
largely died out. This is because the molten iron at the interior of the planet – which
produces magnetism – has cooled.
● However, the Martian crust, which hardened billions of years ago when the magnetic
field still existed, retains some magnetism.
● Studying Martian auroras is important for scientists, for it can offer clues as to why
the Red Planet lost its magnetic field and thick atmosphere– among the essential
requirements for sustaining life.

5. EARTH MOVEMENTS

Endogenetic Movements - The large-scale movements on the earth’s crust or its surface
brought down by the forces emanating from deep below the earth’s surface are called as
endogenic geomorphic movements or simply endogenic movements.
● The ultimate source of energy behind forces that drive endogenic
movements is earth's internal heat. Earth’s internal heat is a result of mainly
radioactive decay (50% of the earth’s internal heat) and gravitation (causes pressure
differences)
● Differences in temperature and pressure among various layers of the earth give rise
to density differences and these density differences give rise to conventional currents.
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

● Convectional currents in the mantle drive the lithospheric plates (crust and upper
mantle) and the movement of the lithospheric plates (tectonics) is the cause behind
endogenic movements.
● The Earth’s rotation (Coriolis effect) can influence where convection currents travel.

Endogenetic earth movements are mainly of two types: diastrophism and the sudden
movements.

Diastrophism - It is the general term applied to slow bending, folding, warping and fracturing.
● Epeirogenic or continent forming movements act along the radius of the earth;
therefore, they are also called radial movements. Their direction may be towards
(subsidence) or away (uplift) from the centre. The results of such movements may be
clearly defined in the relief. Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves and
fossiliferous beds above sea level are evidences of uplift.
● Examples of Uplift in India: Raised beaches occur at several places along
the Kathiawar, Nellore, and Tirunelveli coasts. Several places which were on the sea
some centuries ago are now a few miles inland due to upliftment. For
example, Coringa near the mouth of the Godavari, Kaveripattinam in the Kaveri
delta and Korkai on the coast of Tirunelveli, were all flourishing seaports about 1,000
to 2,000 years ago.
● Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements act tangentially to the earth surface,
as in plate tectonics. Tensions produce fissures (since this type of force acts away from
a point in two directions) and compression produces folds (because this type of force
acts towards a point from two or more directions). In the landforms so produced, the
structurally identifiable units are difficult to recognise.

Sudden Movements - These movements cause considerable deformation over a short span
of time, and may be of two types.
● Earthquake - It occurs when the surplus accumulated stress in rocks in the earth’s
interior is relieved through the weak zones over the earth’s surface in form of kinetic
energy of wave motion causing vibrations (at times devastating) on the earth’s
surface. Such movements may result in uplift in coastal areas.
● Volcanoes - A volcano is formed when the molten magma in the earth’s interior
escapes through the crust by vents and fissures in the crust, accompanied by steam,
gases (hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide etc.)
and pyroclastic material.

Exogenetic Movements: The geomorphic processes on the earth’s crust or its surface
brought down by the forces emanating from above the earth’s surface are called exogenetic
movements. Exogenetic Forces derive their strength from the earth’s exterior or are
originated within the earth’s atmosphere. Examples of forces – the wind, waves, water etc.
(Weathering and Erosion will be dealt in detail in the upcoming handouts)
 ZGVmMjcxYTA3NGI1

PRELIMS EXCLUSIVE PROGRAM (PEP) - 2022

Copyright © by IASbaba
All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without prior permission of IASbaba.