1

2
The pitch is the distance between adjacent thread forms measured parallel
to the thread axis. The pitch in U.S. units is the reciprocal of the number of
thread forms per inch 𝑁.

The major diameter 𝑑 is the largest diameter of a screw thread.

The minor/root/core diameter 𝑑𝑟 is the smallest diameter of a screw

thread.

The pitch/mean diameter 𝑑𝑝 or 𝑑𝑚 is a theoretical diameter between the

major and minor diameters.

The lead 𝑙 or 𝐿 is the distance the nut moves parallel to the screw axis when
the nut is given one turn. For a single thread, the lead is the same as the
pitch.
3
Figure 10.1 illustrates the basic
arrangement of a helical thread wound
around a cylinder, as used on screw-type
fasteners, power screws and worms.
Pitch, lead, lead angle, and hand-of-
thread are defined by the illustrations.
Virtually all bolts and screws have a single
thread, but worms and power screws
sometimes have double, triple, and even
quadruple threads. Unless other wise
noted, all threads are assumed to be
right-hand. 4
Figure 10.2 shows the standard
geometry of screw threads used on
fasteners. This is basically the same for
both unified (inch series) and ISO
(International Standards Organization,
metric) threads.

5
Table 10.1 shows both the fine thread (UNF,
standing for Unified National Fine) and coarse
thread (UNC, Unified National Coarse) series. The
pitch diameter, 𝑑𝑝 , is the diameter of a cylinder on a
perfect thread where the width of the thread and
groove are equal. The stress area tabulated is based
on the average of the pitch and root diameters.

6
7
Figure 10.4 illustrates
most of the standard
thread forms used for
power screws.

8
Acme threads are the oldest and are still in common use. The Acme stub is
sometimes used because it is easier to heat-treat. The square thread gives slightly
greater efficiency but is seldom used because of difficulties in manufacturing the
0° thread angle. Furthermore, it lacks the ability of the Acme thread to be used
with a split nut (split on an axial plane), the two halves of which can be moved
together to compensate for the thread wear. The 5° thread angle of the modified
square thread partially overcomes these objections. The buttress thread is
sometimes used for resisting large axial forces in one direction (the load is carried
on the face with the 7° thread angle).

9
10
Power screws, sometimes called linear actuators or translation screws, are used to
convert rotary motion of either the nut or the screw to relatively slow linear
motion of the mating member along the screw axis. The purpose of many power
screws is to obtain a great mechanical advantage in lifting weights, as in screw-type
jacks, or to exert large forces, as in presses and tensile testing machines, home
garbage compactors, and C-clamps. The purpose of others, such as micrometre
screws or the lead screw of a lathe, is to obtain precise positioning of the axial
movement.

11
Figure 10.5 shows a simplified drawing of

three different screw jacks supporting a

weight. Note in each that only the shaded

member connected to the handle rotates, and

that a ball thrust bearing transfers the axial

force from the rotating to a nonrotating

member. All three jacks are basically the same,

but let us choose Figure 10.5c for determining

the torque, 𝐹𝑎, that must be applied to the

nut in order to lift a given weight. 12

Turning the nut forces each portion of the nut thread to climb an inclined plane.

Let us represent this plane by unwinding (or developing) a portion of one turn of
the screw thread.

If a full turn were developed, a triangle would be formed, illustrating the

relationship

13
 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛

Small block

𝐿
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆 =
𝜋𝑑𝑚

where
𝜆 = 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 14
 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛

Small block

A segment of the nut is represented by the small block acted upon by load 𝑤 (a
portion of the total axial load 𝑊), normal force 𝑛 (shown in true view at the lower
right), friction force 𝑓𝑛, and tangential force 𝑞.

𝑑𝑚
Note that force 𝑞 time represents the torque applied to the nut segment.
2
15
 𝑓𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑓𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆

𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

Summing tangential forces acting on the block (i.e., horizontal forces in the lower
left view) gives

෍ 𝐹𝑡 = 0: 𝑞 − 𝑓𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 = 0

𝑞 − 𝑛 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 = 0

𝑞 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 16
 𝑓𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑓𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆

𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

Summing axial forces (vertical forces in the lower left view) gives

෍ 𝐹𝑎 = 0: −𝑤 − 𝑓𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 + 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 = 0

𝑤 + 𝑓𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 − 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 = 0

𝑤 + 𝑛 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 = 0

𝑤
𝑛=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 17
We have
𝑞 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

𝑤
𝑞= 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑑𝑚
As noted, the torque corresponding to force 𝑞 is 𝑞 . Since the small block
2

represents a typical segment of nut thread, integration over the entire thread
surface in contact results in the same equations except that 𝑞, 𝑤, and 𝑛 are
replaced by 𝑄, 𝑊, and 𝑁, where the latter represent the total tangential, vertical
and normal loads, respectively, acting on the thread.
18
Thus the equation for torque required to lift load 𝑊 is

𝑤
𝑞= 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑊
𝑄= 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

𝑑𝑚
𝑇=𝑄
2

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

𝑇=
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

Note that torque 𝑇 is also equal to 𝐹𝑎 in Figure 10.5 c.

Since the lead 𝐿 rather than the lead angle 𝜆 is usually a known standard value, a more convenient form
of the torque equation is obtained by dividing the numerator and denominator by 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 and then
𝐿
substituting for 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆. 19
𝜋𝑑𝑚
This gives

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

𝑇=
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
𝑇= ×
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆
𝑇= ×
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆

𝐿
𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛
𝜋𝑑𝑚
𝑇= ×
2 𝐿
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓
𝜋𝑑𝑚
𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛
𝑇= ×
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿
20
Most applications of power screws require a bearing surface or
thrust collar between stationary and rotating members. In Figure
10.5 this function is served by the ball thrust bearing of diameter
𝑑𝑐 . In many cases, a simple thrust washer is used. If the
coefficient of friction of the collar washer or bearing is 𝑓𝑐 , then
𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐
the added torque required to overcome collar friction is ,
2
and the total torque required to lift the load 𝑊 is

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= +
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿 2

For the special case of the square thread, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 = 1

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= +
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝑓𝐿 2 21
The preceding analysis pertained to raising a load or to turning the rotating

member “against the load”.

The analysis for lowering a load (or turning a rotating member “with the load” ) is

exactly the same except that the directions of 𝑞 and 𝑓𝑛 are reversed.

22
 𝑓𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑓𝑛 𝑞

𝑓𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆

𝑓𝑛 𝑞
𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

The total torque required to lower the load 𝑊 is

෍ 𝐹𝑡 = 0: −𝑞 + 𝑓𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 = 0

𝑞 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

෍ 𝐹𝑎 = 0: −𝑤 + 𝑓𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 + 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 = 0

𝑤
𝑛=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 23
 𝑞 = 𝑛 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

𝑤
𝑞= 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑊
𝑄= 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

𝑑𝑚
𝑇=𝑄
2

𝑊 𝑑𝑚
𝑇= 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 2

𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
𝑇=
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 + 𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆 24
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
 𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆
𝑇=
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 + 𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆

𝐿
𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑛 𝜋𝑑
𝑚
𝑇=
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑓 𝐿
𝑛 𝜋𝑑𝑚
𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛
𝑇=
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 + 𝑓𝐿

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= +
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 + 𝑓𝐿 2

For the special case of the square thread, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 = 1

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝐿 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= +
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝑓𝐿 2 25
26
Figure shows the
thread angle
measured in the
normal plane (𝛼𝑛 , as
used in the preceding
equations) and in the
axial plane ( 𝛼 , as
usually specified, and
as shown in Figure).

It follows from the

figure that
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆

For small helix angles,

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 is often taken as
unity.

27
28
A self-locking screw is one that requires a positive torque to lower the load, and an
overhauling screw is one that has low enough friction to enable the load to lower itself;
that is, a negative external lowering torque must be maintained to keep the load from
lowering. If collar friction can be neglected, for 𝑇 ≥ 0 shows that a screw is self-locking if

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= + ≥0
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 + 𝑓𝐿 2

Since

𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐
𝑓𝑐 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 =0
2

𝑊𝑑𝑚
>0
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 + 𝑓𝐿 29
Then
𝑇 ≥ 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 ≥ 0

𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛
𝑓≥
𝜋𝑑𝑚

For a square thread, this simplifies to

𝐿
𝑓≥
𝜋𝑑𝑚
𝑓 ≥ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆

A word of caution is appropriate at this point: even though a screw is self-locking under
static conditions, it may overhaul when exposed to vibration. This is particularly
important for screw fasteners that tend to loosen because of vibration. 30
31
The work output of a power screw (as in the jacks) for one revolution of the rotating member is the
𝑊𝐿
production of force times distance, or 𝑊𝐿. Corresponding work input is 2𝜋𝑇. The ratio is equal to
2𝜋𝑇
efficiency. We have

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= +
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿 2

With collar friction neglected,

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛

𝑇=
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿

𝑊𝐿 𝑊𝐿
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑒 = =
2𝜋𝑇 𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛
2𝜋
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿

𝐿 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿
𝑒=
𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 32
For the case of the square thread,

𝐿 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿
𝑒=
𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛

𝐿 𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝑓𝐿
𝑒=
𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿

It is always reassuring to approach an analysis from two different points of view and arrive at the same answer.
Efficiency is defined by the ratio of torque require to raise the load with 𝑓 = 0 divided by the actual torque required.
We have

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛

𝑇=
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿

𝑊𝐿
𝑓 = 0, 𝑇𝑜 =
2𝜋
𝑇𝑜 𝑊𝐿
𝑒= =
𝑇 2𝜋𝑇
33
We have

𝐿 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿
𝑒=
𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛

𝐿
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆 = ⇔ 𝐿 = 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆
𝜋𝑑𝑚

𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆

𝑒= ×
𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆
𝑒 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆
𝑓 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆
𝑒 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆
𝑓
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆
𝑒=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 + 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜆
34
For the square thread

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆
𝑒=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 + 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜆

1 − 𝑓𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜆
𝑒=
1 + 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜆

35
A screw jack with a 1-in., double-thread Acme screw is used
1
to raise a load of 1000 𝑙𝑏. A plain thrust collar of 1 𝑖𝑛.
2

mean diameter is used. Coefficients of running friction are

estimated as 0.12 and 0.09 for 𝑓 and 𝑓𝑐 , respectively.

a. Determine the screw pitch, lead, thread depth, mean

pitch diameter, and helix angle.

b. Estimate the starting torque for raising and for

lowering the load.

c. Estimate the efficiency of the jack when raising the

load.
36
Known: A double-thread Acme screw and a thrust collar, each with known diameter and running
friction coefficient, are used to raise a specified load.
Find:
a. Determine the screw pitch, lead, thread depth, mean pitch diameter, and helix angle.
b. Estimate the starting torque for raising and lowering the load.
c. Calculate the efficiency of the jack when raising the load.
Assumptions:
1. The starting and running friction remain steady.
2. Starting friction is about one-third higher than running friction.
37
Analysis:

a. Determine the screw pitch,

lead, thread depth, mean pitch
diameter, and helix angle.

From Table 10.3, 𝑑 = 1 𝑖𝑛. ,

𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠
there are 5 . Hence
𝑖𝑛.

1
𝑝= = 0.2 𝑖𝑛.
𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠
5
𝑖𝑛.
Because of the double thread,
𝐿 = 2𝑝 = 2 × 0.2 𝑖𝑛. = 0.4 𝑖𝑛. 38
From Figure 10.4a,

𝑝 0.2 𝑖𝑛.
𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = = = 0.1 𝑖𝑛.
2 2
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑 − − = 𝑑 − = 1 𝑖𝑛. −0.1 𝑖𝑛. = 0.9 𝑖𝑛.
4 4 2

𝐿 0.4 𝑖𝑛.
𝜆= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 = 8.05°
𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝜋 × 0.9 𝑖𝑛.

b. Estimate the starting torque for raising and for lowering the load.

For starting, increase the given coefficients of friction by about one-third, giving
1
𝑓 = 0.12 + 0.12 × = 0.16
3

1
𝑓𝑐 = 0.09 + 0.09 × = 0.12
3
39
 𝛼𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆

Figure 10.4a, 2𝛼 = 29° then 𝛼 = 14.5°

𝛼𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡𝑎𝑛14.5°𝑐𝑜𝑠8.05° = 14.36°

For raising the load

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= +
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿 2

1000 𝑙𝑏 0.9 𝑖𝑛. 0.16 𝜋 0.9 𝑖𝑛. + 0.4 𝑖𝑛. 𝑐𝑜𝑠14.36° 1000 𝑙𝑏 0.12 1.5 𝑖𝑛.
𝑇= +
2 𝜋 0.9 𝑖𝑛. 𝑐𝑜𝑠14.36° − 0.16 0.4 𝑖𝑛. 2
𝑇 = 141.3 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛. +90 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛. = 231.3 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛.

40
For lowering the load

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= +
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 + 𝑓𝐿 2

1000 𝑙𝑏 0.9 𝑖𝑛. 0.16 𝜋 0.9 𝑖𝑛. − 0.4 𝑖𝑛. 𝑐𝑜𝑠14.36° 1000 𝑙𝑏 0.12 1.5 𝑖𝑛.
𝑇= +
2 𝜋 0.9 𝑖𝑛. 𝑐𝑜𝑠14.36° + 0.16 0.4 𝑖𝑛. 2
𝑇 = 10.4 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛. +90 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛. = 100.4 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛.

c. Estimate the efficiency of the jack when raising the load.

Changing the coefficient of friction to the running values of

𝑓 = 0.12 and 𝑓𝑐 = 0.09

To raise the load, once motion is started, the torque must be

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= +
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿 2

1000 𝑙𝑏 0.9 𝑖𝑛. 0.12 𝜋 0.9 𝑖𝑛. + 0.4 𝑖𝑛. 𝑐𝑜𝑠14.36° 1000 𝑙𝑏 0.09 1.5 𝑖𝑛.
𝑇= +
2 𝜋 0.9 𝑖𝑛. 𝑐𝑜𝑠14.36° − 0.12 0.4 𝑖𝑛. 2
𝑇 = 121.5 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛. +67.5 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛. = 189 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛.

41
To raise the load, changing both friction coefficients to zero 𝑓 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑐 = 0 indicates
that the torque must be

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= +
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑛 − 𝑓𝐿 2

𝑊𝐿
𝑇=
2𝜋

1000 𝑙𝑏 0.4 𝑖𝑛.

𝑇= = 63.7 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛.
2𝜋

Efficiency is the ratio of friction-free torque to actual torque

63.7 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛.
𝑒= = 33.7 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
189 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑖𝑛. 42
A square-thread power screw has a major diameter of 32 𝑚𝑚
and a pitch of 4 𝑚𝑚 with double threads, and it is to be used in
an application similar to that in Fig. 8–4. The given data include
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 = 0.08, 𝑑𝑐 = 40 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 = 6.4 𝑘𝑁 per screw.

(a) Find the thread depth, thread width, pitch diameter, minor
diameter, and lead.

(b) Find the torque required to raise and lower the load.

(c) Find the efficiency during lifting the load.

43
Given:
𝑑 = 32 𝑚𝑚
𝑝 = 4 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝑛 = 2
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 = 0.08
𝑑𝑐 = 40 𝑚𝑚
𝑊 = 6.4 𝑘𝑁 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤

44
(a) Find the thread depth, thread width, pitch diameter, minor
diameter, and lead.

𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑝 4 𝑚𝑚
𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = = = = 2 𝑚𝑚
2 2 2

𝑝 𝑝 𝑝 4
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑 − − = 𝑑 − = 32 − = 30 𝑚𝑚
4 4 2 2

𝑝 𝑝
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑 − − = 𝑑 − 𝑝 = 32 − 4 = 28 𝑚𝑚
2 2
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝐿 = 𝑛𝑝 = 2 × 4 = 8 𝑚𝑚
45
(b) the torque required to turn the screw against the load is

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝐿 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= +
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝑓𝐿 2

𝑊 = 6.4 𝑘𝑁

𝑑𝑚 = 30 𝑚𝑚

𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 = 0.08

𝐿 = 8 𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝑐 = 40 𝑚𝑚

6.4 𝑘𝑁 (30 𝑚𝑚) 0.08 𝜋 30 𝑚𝑚 + 8 𝑚𝑚 6.4 𝑘𝑁 0.08 (40 𝑚𝑚)

𝑇= +
2 𝜋 30 𝑚𝑚 − 0.08 (8 𝑚𝑚) 2

𝑇𝑅 = 15.94 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚𝑚 + 10.24 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚𝑚 = 26.18 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚𝑚 = 26.18 𝑁. 𝑚

46
Load-lowering torque

𝑊𝑑𝑚 𝑓𝜋𝑑𝑚 − 𝐿 𝑊𝑓𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝑇= +
2 𝜋𝑑𝑚 + 𝑓𝐿 2

𝑊 = 6.4 𝑘𝑁

𝑑𝑚 = 30 𝑚𝑚

𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 = 0.08

𝐿 = 8 𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝑐 = 40 𝑚𝑚

6.4 𝑘𝑁 × 30 𝑚𝑚 0.08 × 𝜋 × 30 𝑚𝑚 − 8 𝑚𝑚 6.4 𝑘𝑁 × 0.08 × 40 𝑚𝑚

𝑇= × +
2 𝜋 × 30 𝑚𝑚 + 0.08 × 8 𝑚𝑚 2
𝑇 = −0.466 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚𝑚 + 10.24 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚𝑚 = 9.77 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚𝑚 = 9.77 𝑁. 𝑚 47
The minus sign in the first term indicates that the screw alone is not self-locking

and would rotate under the action of the load except for the fact that the collar

friction is present and must be overcome, too. Thus the torque required to rotate

the screw “with” the load is less than is necessary to overcome collar friction

alone.

(c) The overall efficiency in raising the load is

𝑊𝐿 6.4 𝑘𝑁 × 8 𝑚𝑚
𝑒= = = 0.311
2𝜋𝑇 2𝜋(26.18 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚𝑚)

48
49
50
Figure 10.15 shows four basic types of threaded fasteners.

Screws and bolts are by far the most common types, and the difference between them is
only one of intended use. Bolts are intended for use with nuts; screws are intended for
screwing into tapped holes. Sometimes screws are supplied with a captive washer
(usually a lock washer) under the head, in which case they are called sems. Sems save
assembly time and eliminate the possibility that a screw will be installed without its
specified washer.

A stud is threaded on both ends and is usually screwed permanently into a tapped hole.
Threads on the two ends may or may not be identical. A threaded rod is the least
common type. It is usually used when a very long threaded member is desired. A
threaded rod can often be purchased in lengths of a few feet and then cut off as required.
51
52
Figure 10.16 shows most of the common fastener head types. As a rule a bolt can
also serve as a screw by using it with a tapped hole (rather than a nut). An
exception to this rule is the carriage bolt. Carriage bolts are used with soft
materials (particularly wood) so that the square corners under the head can be
forced into the material, thereby preventing the bolt from turning. Hexagonal-head
screws and bolts are commonly used for connecting machine components.
Sometimes they cannot be used because of insufficient clearance to put a socket
or end wrench on the head. In such cases the hexagonal-socket head is often used.

53
54
In recent years the need for screws that are resistant to tampering by unauthorized
personnel has increased. Figure 10.17 illustrates several proposed solutions that
have been marketed.

An almost endless number of special threaded fastener designs continue to appear.

Some are specially designed for a specific application. Others embody proprietary
features that appeal to a segment of the fastener market. Not only is ingenuity
required to devise better threaded fasteners, but also to use them to best
advantage in the design of a product.

55
56
For most applications, screws and nut-bolt assemblies should ideally be tightened to produce an initial
tensile force 𝐹𝑖 nearly equal to the full “proof load” , which is defined as the maximum tensile force that
does not produce a normally measureable permanent set.

(This is a little less than the tensile force producing a 0.2 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 offset elongation associated with
standard tests to determine 𝑆𝑦 ).

On this basis initial tensions are commonly specified in accordance with the equation
𝐹𝑖 = 𝐾𝑖 𝐴𝑡 𝑆𝑝

where
𝐴𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 10.1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10.2)
𝑆𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 proof strength 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 10.4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10.5)
𝐾𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 0.75 𝑡𝑜 1

For ordinary applications involving static loading, let 𝐾𝑖 ≈ 0.9 or

𝐹𝑖 = 0.9𝐴𝑡 𝑆𝑝 57
58
59
An equation relating tightening torque to initial tension can be obtained from Eq. 10.4 by
recognizing that load 𝑊 of a screw jack corresponds to 𝐹𝑖 for a bolt, and that collar
friction in the jack corresponds to friction on the flat surface of the nut or under the
screw head.

When we use 0.15 as a rough average coefficient of friction (for both 𝑓 and 𝑓𝑐 ), Eq. 10.4
gives, for standard screw threads,
𝑇 = 0.2𝐹𝑖 𝑑

where
𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑

Remember, this is only an approximate relationship, dependent on “average” conditions

of thread friction. 60
A common way to tighten a screw or nut is, of course, merely to choose a
conventional wrench and tighten it until it “feels” right.

Although this method would never be specified for a critical fastener, an

engineering should have some idea of how tight an “ordinary mechanic” might be
expected to tighten bolts of various sizes using ordinary wrenches.

A study made near the turn of the 20th century indicated this to be
𝐹𝑖 𝑙𝑏 = 16000𝑑 (𝑖𝑛. )

61
62
Figure 10.30 shows a ball bearing encased in a “pillow block” and supporting one
end of a rotating shaft. The shaft applies a static load of 9 𝑘𝑁 to the pillow block,
as shown. Select appropriate metric (ISO) screws for the pillow block attachment
and specify an appropriate tightening torque.

63
Known: A known static tensile load is applied to two metric (ISO) screws.

Find: Select appropriate screws and specify a tightening torque.

Decisions/Assumptions:

1. A relatively inexpensive class 5.8 steel is chosen for the screw material.

2. The load of 9 𝑘𝑁 is shared equally by each screw.

3. No bending of the machine screws (bolts) takes place; that is, the bolt load is
axial tension.
64
Design analysis:

1. Any class of steel could have been used, but there appears no reason to specify a
costly high-strength steel. Class 5.8, with a proof strength of 380 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (Table 10.5),
was chosen.

65
2. The nominal load for each of the two bolts is 4.5 𝑘𝑁.

Reference to section 6.12 indicates that if screw failure would

not endanger human life, cause other damage, or entail costly
shutdown, a safety factor of 2.5 would be reasonable.

Since in this case the cost of using a larger safety factor is trivial,
and since failure might prove rather costly, let us use
“engineering judgement” and increase the safety factor to 4.

Then, the “design overload” for each bolt is

4.5 𝑘𝑁 × 4 = 18 𝑘𝑁 = 18000 𝑁

66
3. For static loading of a ductile material, stress concentration can be neglected
𝑃
and the simple “𝜎 = ” equation used, with 𝜎 being equal to the proof strength
𝐴

when 𝑃 is equal to the design overload:

𝜎 = 𝑆𝑝

18000 𝑁
= 380 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑡
𝐴𝑡 = 47.4 𝑚𝑚2

67
4. Reference to Table 10.2 indicates an appropriate standard size of class 5.8 screw
to be
𝑀10 × 1.5 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝐴𝑡 = 58 𝑚𝑚2 )

68
5. Initial tightening tension might reasonably be specified as
𝐹𝑖 = 0.9𝐴𝑡 𝑆𝑝 = 0.9 58 𝑚𝑚2 380 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 19836 𝑁

6. This corresponds to an estimated tightening torque of

𝑇 = 0.2𝐹𝑖 𝑑 = 0.2 19.8 𝑘𝑁 10 𝑚𝑚 = 39.6 𝑁. 𝑚

69
Figure 10.32 shows a vertically loaded bracket attached to a fixed member by three identical

bolts. Although the 24-kN load is normally applied in the center, the bolts are to be selected on

the basis that the load eccentricity shown could occur. Because of safety considerations, SAE

class 9.8 steel bolts and a minimum safety factor of 6 (based on proof strength) are to be used.

Determine an appropriate bolt size.

70
Known: Three SAE class 9.8 steel bolts with a specified safety factor are used to
attach a bracket of known geometry that supports a known vertical load.

Find: Determine an appropriate bolt size.

Assumptions:

1. The clamped members are rigid and do not deflect with load.

2. The load tends to rotate the bracket about an axis through point 𝐴.

3. The shear loads are carried by friction.

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Analysis:

1. With the assumptions of rigid clamped members and

shear loads carried by friction, the eccentricity of the
applied load has no effect on bolt loading.

With the bracket tending to rotate about an axis 𝐹𝐷

through point 𝐴 , the strain (and hence the load) 𝐹𝐸

imposed upon the two bolts 𝐷 is four times that
imposed upon bolt 𝐸.

Let 𝐹𝐷 and 𝐹𝐸 denote the tensile loads carried by bolts

𝐷 and 𝐸.
𝐹𝐷 = 4𝐹𝐸
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Summation of moments about point 𝐴 for the design
overload of
24 𝑘𝑁 × 6 = 144 𝑘𝑁
−144 𝑘𝑁 × 500 𝑚𝑚 + 𝐹𝐸 × 100 𝑚𝑚 + 𝐹𝐷 × 400 𝑚𝑚
+ 𝐹𝐷 × 400 𝑚𝑚 = 0 𝐹𝐷

144 𝑘𝑁 × 500 𝑚𝑚 𝐹𝐸
= 𝐹𝐸 × 100 𝑚𝑚 + 𝐹𝐷 × 400 𝑚𝑚 + 𝐹𝐷 × 400 𝑚𝑚
144 𝑘𝑁 × 500 𝑚𝑚

𝐹𝐷
= × 100 𝑚𝑚 + 𝐹𝐷 × 400 𝑚𝑚 + 𝐹𝐷 × 400 𝑚𝑚
4
144 𝑘𝑁 × 500 𝑚𝑚 = 𝐹𝐷 × 825 𝑚𝑚
𝐹𝐷 = 87.27 𝑘𝑁 = 87270 𝑁
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2. Class 9.8 steel has a proof strength of 650 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Hence the required tensile stress area is

𝐹𝐷 87270 𝑁
𝐴𝑡 = = = 134 𝑚𝑚2
𝑆𝑝 650 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Reference to Table 10.2 indicates the required thread size to be

𝑀16 × 2
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