2016

Suppose you add two new devices to an existing five-device network. If you have a fully
connected mesh topology, how many new cable lines are needed? If, however, the
devices are arranged in a ring, how many new cable lines are needed?
In a fully connected mesh topology, each device is connected to every other device. So, if you add two
new devices to an existing five-device network, each new device needs to be connected to the
existing five devices and to each other.

For the first new device, it needs to be connected to the existing five devices, and also to the other
new device. That requires 5 + 1 = 6 cable lines. Similarly, for the second new device, it needs to be
connected to the existing five devices and to the first new device, requiring another 6 cable lines. So,
in total, for the two new devices, you'd need 6 + 6 = 12 new cable lines.

In a ring topology, each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a closed loop. If you
add two new devices to a ring with five devices, you'd need to connect each new device to the
existing network. So, each new device would require connections to two existing devices. Thus, for
the two new devices, you'd need 2 * 2 = 4 new cable lines in total.

Transmission media are not perfect because of imperfections and impairments in the
signal sent through the medium. Signals at the beginning and at the end of the
medium are not the same. Discuss in detail the impairments in the transmission medium

Transmission media can suffer from various imperfections and impairments that can degrade the
quality of the signal being transmitted. These impairments can occur due to physical properties of the
medium, environmental factors, or technological limitations. Here are some common impairments in
transmission media:

1. **Attenuation**: Attenuation refers to the loss of signal strength as it travels through the medium.
This loss can occur due to factors such as resistance in electrical conductors, absorption in optical
fibers, or scattering in wireless transmission. Attenuation results in a decrease in signal amplitude,
which can lead to signal distortion and errors in data transmission.

2. **Noise**: Noise is any unwanted signal that interferes with the transmitted signal. It can be
caused by electromagnetic interference (EMI) from other devices, thermal noise generated by
electronic components, or environmental factors such as atmospheric disturbances. Noise can distort
the original signal, making it difficult to distinguish between the desired signal and the unwanted
noise.

3. **Delay distortion**: Delay distortion occurs when different frequency components of the signal
travel at different speeds through the medium. This can happen in guided media like twisted-pair
cables or optical fibers due to dispersion, where different frequencies of the signal propagate at
different velocities. Delay distortion can cause signal smearing and intersymbol interference,
particularly in high-speed data transmission.

4. **Interference**: Interference occurs when external signals disrupt the transmission of the desired
signal. Interference can be classified into two types: intentional interference, such as jamming in
wireless communication, and unintentional interference, such as cross-talk between adjacent
communication channels. Interference can corrupt the transmitted signal and lead to errors in data
reception.

5. **Distortion**: Distortion refers to any alteration of the signal waveform during transmission. It
can be caused by nonlinearities in electronic components, frequency-dependent attenuation, or
multipath propagation in wireless communication. Distortion can result in signal degradation,
affecting the accuracy and reliability of data transmission.
6. **Dispersion**: Dispersion is the spreading of the signal pulse as it travels through the medium. It
can occur in optical fibers due to material properties or waveguide imperfections. Dispersion can
cause signal broadening and overlap between adjacent pulses, leading to intersymbol interference
and difficulty in signal detection.

7. **Reflections and echoes**: Reflections occur when a portion of the signal is reflected back due to
impedance mismatches or discontinuities in the transmission medium. Echoes are delayed reflections
that arrive at the receiver after the original signal. Reflections and echoes can cause signal distortion,
especially in guided media like transmission lines, and degrade the signal quality.

These impairments in transmission media necessitate the use of various techniques such as
equalization, error correction, and signal processing to mitigate their effects and ensure reliable
communication. Additionally, careful design and selection of transmission media and communication
protocols are essential to minimize the impact of impairments on signal transmission.

Whenever multiple devices are used in a network, the problem arises that how to
connect them to make one-on-one communication possible. Switching is the best solution
for this kind of problem. A switched network consists of a series of inter-linked nodes
called switches. Explain briefly the methods of switching used by computer networks.

Certainly! Switching is a fundamental concept in computer networking that enables devices to

communicate with each other within a network. There are primarily three methods of switching used
in computer networks:

1. **Circuit Switching**:
- In circuit switching, a dedicated communication path is established between two devices for the
duration of their communication session.
- The path remains reserved exclusively for the communicating devices, ensuring constant
bandwidth and predictable delay.
- Traditional telephone networks often use circuit switching, where a physical circuit is established
and maintained until the call is terminated.
- However, circuit switching is not efficient for data networks as it leads to underutilization of
resources when the communication sessions are idle.

2. **Packet Switching**:
- Packet switching breaks data into smaller packets that are transmitted independently across the
network.
- Each packet contains not only the data but also destination address information.
- Packets may travel different paths to reach the destination and are reassembled at the destination
device.
- Packet switching is more efficient than circuit switching as it allows for better resource utilization
and supports multiple simultaneous communications.
- There are two main types of packet switching: **datagram** and **virtual circuit** switching.
- In datagram switching (used in IP networks), each packet is forwarded independently based on
the destination address without establishing a predefined path.
- In virtual circuit switching (used in ATM networks), a virtual circuit is established between the
communicating devices before data transmission, providing a connection-oriented service similar to
circuit switching.

3. **Message Switching**:
- Message switching involves the transmission of entire messages from source to destination.
- Messages are stored and forwarded through intermediate nodes until they reach their destination.
- Unlike packet switching, message switching does not break data into smaller units, which can lead
to higher delay and less efficient use of network resources.
 - Message switching was commonly used in early computer networks but has been largely replaced
by packet switching due to its inefficiency.

Each switching method has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of switching technique
depends on factors such as the nature of the network, traffic patterns, and performance
requirements. In modern computer networks, packet switching, particularly using the Internet
Protocol (IP), is the most prevalent method due to its flexibility, scalability, and efficiency.

RAID is a physical disk drives viewed by the operating system as a single logical drive,
where data are distributed across the physical drives of an array. Explain different levels
of RAID? Elaborate your answer with suitable diagrams

RAID, which stands for Redundant Array of Independent Disks (or sometimes Inexpensive Disks), is a
method of storing data on multiple hard disks to improve performance, reliability, or both. There are
several RAID levels, each offering different features and benefits. Here are some of the commonly
used RAID levels:

1. **RAID 0 - Striping**:
- RAID 0 offers improved performance by striping data across multiple disks without any
redundancy.
- Data is divided into blocks and distributed evenly across the disks.
- Since there is no redundancy, RAID 0 does not provide fault tolerance. If one disk fails, the entire
array is affected.
- However, RAID 0 offers the best performance among all RAID levels for read and write operations
because data can be accessed in parallel from multiple disks.
- Here's a diagram illustrating RAID 0:

```
Disk 1 Disk 2 Disk 3
+------+------+ +------+------+ +------+
| Data | Data | | Data | Data | | Data |
+------+------+ +------+------+ +------+
```

2. **RAID 1 - Mirroring**:
- RAID 1 provides data redundancy by mirroring data across two or more disks.
- Data written to one disk is duplicated (mirrored) onto another disk in real-time.
- If one disk fails, the system can continue to operate using the mirrored copy on the other disk(s).
- RAID 1 offers excellent read performance and fault tolerance but does not improve write
performance.
- Here's a diagram illustrating RAID 1:

```
Disk 1 Disk 2
+------+------+ +------+
| Data | Data | | Data |
+------+------+ +------+
```

3. **RAID 5 - Striping with Parity**:

- RAID 5 combines striping and parity to provide both performance and fault tolerance.
- Data is striped across multiple disks like in RAID 0, but parity information is also distributed across
the disks.
- Parity information is used to reconstruct data in case of a disk failure.
- RAID 5 requires a minimum of three disks and can tolerate the failure of one disk without data loss.
- Here's a diagram illustrating RAID 5:
 ```
Disk 1 Disk 2 Disk 3
+------+------+ +------+------+ +------+
| Data | Data | | Data | P | | P |
+------+------+ +------+------+ +------+
```

4. **RAID 6 - Striping with Dual Parity**:

- RAID 6 is similar to RAID 5 but provides additional fault tolerance by using dual parity.
- In RAID 6, data is striped across multiple disks, and two sets of parity information are distributed
across the disks.
- RAID 6 can tolerate the failure of up to two disks without data loss.
- RAID 6 requires a minimum of four disks.
- Here's a diagram illustrating RAID 6:

```
Disk 1 Disk 2 Disk 3 Disk 4
+------+------+ +------+------+ +------+------+
| Data | Data | | Data | P | | P | P |
+------+------+ +------+------+ +------+------+
```

These are just a few examples of RAID levels, and there are more variations and combinations
available to suit different storage requirements. RAID configurations can vary depending on factors
such as performance needs, fault tolerance requirements, and budget constraints.

The basic function performed by a computer is execution of a program, which

consists of set of instructions stored in memory. The processor required for a single
instruction is called an instruction cycle. Elaborate basic instruction cycle used by
modern computer systems. Also add diagrams for explanation

The basic instruction cycle, also known as the fetch-execute cycle, is the fundamental process by
which a modern computer executes instructions. It consists of a series of steps that the central
processing unit (CPU) performs repeatedly to fetch, decode, execute, and store instructions from
memory. Here's a detailed explanation of each step in the basic instruction cycle along with diagrams:

1. **Fetch**:
- In the fetch step, the CPU retrieves the next instruction from memory. The address of the
instruction to be fetched is stored in the program counter (PC), which is a special register.
- The CPU sends the address stored in the program counter to the memory unit, which retrieves the
instruction stored at that address and sends it back to the CPU.
- The fetched instruction is temporarily stored in a special register called the instruction register (IR)
within the CPU.
- Here's a diagram illustrating the fetch step:

```
PC -> Memory
| |
V V
CPU <- IR
```

2. **Decode**:
- In the decode step, the CPU interprets the fetched instruction to determine what operation needs
to be performed.
 - The instruction stored in the instruction register is decoded by the CPU's control unit, which
identifies the opcode (operation code) and any operands or addressing modes associated with the
instruction.
- The decoded instruction provides information to the CPU about what operation needs to be
executed and on which data.
- Here's a diagram illustrating the decode step:

```
IR -> Control Unit
| |
V V
CPU Opcode, Operands
```

3. **Execute**:
- In the execute step, the CPU carries out the operation specified by the decoded instruction.
- Depending on the type of instruction, the CPU may perform arithmetic or logical operations,
manipulate data, or transfer control to another part of the program.
- The execution of the instruction may involve accessing data from memory, performing
calculations, or interacting with input/output devices.
- Here's a diagram illustrating the execute step:

```
CPU -> ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
| |
V V
Data Result
```

4. **Store**:
- In the store step, the result of the executed instruction may be stored back in memory or in a CPU
register.
- If the instruction produces a result that needs to be stored, the CPU writes the result to the
specified memory location or stores it in a designated register.
- The program counter (PC) is updated to point to the next instruction to be fetched, preparing for
the next iteration of the instruction cycle.
- Here's a diagram illustrating the store step:

```
Result -> Memory/Register
| |
V V
CPU/ PC
Registers
```

After completing the store step, the CPU repeats the instruction cycle by fetching the next instruction
pointed to by the program counter, thus continuing the process of executing the program. This cycle
repeats continuously until the program terminates or encounters a halt instruction.

Differentiate between Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC) and Complex

Instruction Set Computers (CISC) architectures.

Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC) and Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC) are two
distinct architectures used in designing central processing units (CPUs). Here's a differentiation
between the two:
1. **Instruction Set Complexity**:
- **RISC**: RISC architectures have a simplified instruction set with a limited number of
instructions. These instructions are typically simple and perform basic operations. RISC processors
often focus on executing instructions quickly and efficiently.
- **CISC**: CISC architectures have a more complex instruction set with a wide variety of
instructions that can perform multiple operations in a single instruction. CISC processors aim to
provide a rich set of instructions to simplify programming tasks.

2. **Instruction Execution**:
- **RISC**: In RISC architectures, each instruction typically executes in a single clock cycle. RISC
processors rely on pipelining and instruction-level parallelism to achieve high throughput and
performance.
- **CISC**: In CISC architectures, instructions can vary in their execution time, with some
instructions taking multiple clock cycles to complete. CISC processors may include microcode or
hardware optimizations to handle complex instructions efficiently.

3. **Register Usage**:
- **RISC**: RISC architectures typically have a larger number of general-purpose registers available
for storing intermediate results and operands. Register-to-register operations are common in RISC
architectures.
- **CISC**: CISC architectures may have fewer registers and rely more on memory-to-memory or
memory-to-register operations. CISC processors often include specialized addressing modes to access
memory efficiently.

4. **Memory Access**:
- **RISC**: RISC architectures tend to favor load-store architectures, where data must be loaded
into registers before operations can be performed on them. This approach reduces the complexity of
instruction execution and simplifies pipelining.
- **CISC**: CISC architectures may include instructions that operate directly on memory, allowing
operations to be performed without loading data into registers first. This flexibility can simplify
programming but may lead to more complex processor designs.

5. **Design Philosophy**:
- **RISC**: RISC architectures follow the philosophy of "simplicity favors regularity" and "make the
common case fast." RISC processors prioritize simplicity, uniformity, and efficiency in instruction
execution.
- **CISC**: CISC architectures follow the philosophy of "hardware should do more work" and aim to
provide a rich set of high-level instructions to reduce the complexity of programming tasks.

Overall, RISC architectures focus on simplicity, speed, and efficient use of hardware resources, while
CISC architectures prioritize instruction richness and flexibility. Both architectures have their
advantages and are suited for different applications and design goals.

Deadlock prevention algorithms prevents deadlock by restraining how requests can be

made, the restrain ensure that at least one of the necessary conditions for deadlock
cannot occur and hence, that deadlock cannot hold. Explain the Banker’s Algorithm for
deadlock avoidance.

The Banker's Algorithm is a deadlock avoidance algorithm used in operating systems to prevent the
occurrence of deadlock by ensuring that the system never enters an unsafe state. It was developed by
Edsger Dijkstra.

The Banker's Algorithm works by maintaining information about the maximum resource allocation
needs of each process, the currently available resources, and the resources currently allocated to
each process. Based on this information, the system decides whether granting a resource request will
lead to a safe state (where deadlock is impossible) or an unsafe state (where deadlock might occur).

Here's how the Banker's Algorithm works:

1. **Initialization**:
- When the system starts or a new process is created, it provides information about the maximum
number of resources of each type that each process may need. It also initializes the available
resources to their total quantities.

2. **Resource Request**:
- When a process requests additional resources, the system checks if granting the request will lead
to a safe state.
- The request is granted only if it does not exceed the maximum resources that the process declared
it may need, and if there are enough available resources to satisfy the request.
- If granting the request will lead to an unsafe state, the request is denied, and the process must
wait until sufficient resources become available.

3. **Resource Allocation**:
- If a request is granted, the system allocates the requested resources to the process and updates
the available resources accordingly.
- The system also checks if the allocation has caused the system to enter a safe state. If so, the
process continues execution.
- If the allocation has not caused a safe state, the system may need to revoke resources from one or
more processes to restore safety. The revoked resources are then added back to the available pool.

4. **Safety Check**:
- To determine whether a system state is safe, the Banker's Algorithm employs a safety check
algorithm.
- This algorithm simulates the execution of processes in a given state and checks if all processes can
complete their execution without causing a deadlock.
- If the simulation shows that all processes can complete, the state is considered safe. Otherwise, it's
considered unsafe.

The Banker's Algorithm ensures that resources are allocated in a way that prevents the system from
entering deadlock-prone states. By carefully managing resource allocation and only granting requests
that won't lead to deadlock, the Banker's Algorithm helps maintain system stability and ensures that
processes can continue executing without getting stuck in a deadlock situation.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) scheduling deal with the problem of deciding which
of
the processes in the ready queue is to be allocated to the CPU. What are the pros and
cons of Multilevel Queue Scheduling and Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling?

Multilevel Queue Scheduling (MLQ) and Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling (MLFQ) are two
variants of CPU scheduling algorithms that organize processes into multiple queues based on certain
criteria, such as process priority, job type, or other attributes. Here are the pros and cons of each:

**Multilevel Queue Scheduling (MLQ):**

Pros:
1. **Priority Management**: MLQ allows for the categorization of processes into multiple queues
based on priority levels or other criteria. This enables the system to manage different types of
processes differently, such as giving higher priority to interactive tasks over batch tasks.
2. **Resource Allocation**: MLQ can allocate resources more efficiently by assigning different
amounts of CPU time to different queues based on their priority levels or service requirements.
3. **Fairness**: MLQ can ensure fairness by providing a fair share of CPU time to each queue,
preventing low-priority processes from being starved by high-priority ones.
4. **Modular Design**: MLQ's modular design makes it easy to implement and maintain. Each queue
can have its own scheduling algorithm tailored to its specific requirements.

Cons:
1. **Complexity**: Managing multiple queues with different priority levels or criteria can increase
system complexity, especially when dealing with dynamic workload changes or real-time constraints.
2. **Starvation**: Low-priority queues may suffer from starvation if higher-priority queues
consistently demand CPU time, leading to delayed execution of lower-priority processes.
3. **Performance Overhead**: MLQ requires additional overhead for managing multiple queues and
switching between them, which can impact system performance, especially in heavily loaded
environments.

**Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling (MLFQ):**

Pros:
1. **Dynamic Priority Adjustment**: MLFQ dynamically adjusts the priority of processes based on
their behavior and resource requirements. This allows the system to adapt to changing workload
conditions and prioritize processes accordingly.
2. **Responsive**: MLFQ is responsive to changes in process behavior, such as interactive processes
receiving higher priority to provide better user experience.
3. **Prevents Starvation**: MLFQ prevents starvation by periodically demoting long-running
processes to lower-priority queues, allowing newer or interactive processes to get CPU time.
4. **Flexibility**: MLFQ provides flexibility in defining scheduling policies and parameters, such as the
number of queues, quantum size, and priority adjustment criteria.

Cons:
1. **Complexity**: MLFQ is more complex to implement and manage compared to simpler
scheduling algorithms due to its dynamic nature and multiple feedback queues.
2. **Tuning Parameters**: MLFQ requires careful tuning of parameters such as the number of
queues, quantum sizes, and priority adjustment thresholds to achieve optimal performance, which
can be challenging.
3. **Algorithm Overhead**: MLFQ incurs additional overhead for managing multiple feedback queues
and priority adjustments, which can impact system performance and responsiveness.

In summary, both MLQ and MLFQ have their advantages and disadvantages. MLQ provides a
straightforward approach to managing different types of processes with varying priorities, while
MLFQ offers dynamic priority adjustment and responsiveness to changing workload conditions. The
choice between the two depends on the specific requirements and characteristics of the system being
managed.

Explain how Pattern match search condition (LIKE/NOT LIKE) can be used in
SELECT statement part of SQL in database management system.

In SQL, the `LIKE` and `NOT LIKE` operators are used in the `SELECT` statement to perform pattern
matching against character data in columns. These operators allow you to search for rows that match
or do not match a specified pattern. Here's how you can use them:

1. **LIKE Operator**:
- The `LIKE` operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column.
- The pattern can include wildcard characters:
- The percent sign (%) represents zero, one, or multiple characters.
- The underscore (_) represents a single character.
- Syntax:
```
 SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern;
```
- Example:
```
SELECT *
FROM employees
WHERE last_name LIKE 'Sm%';
```
This query selects all rows from the `employees` table where the `last_name` column starts with
'Sm'.

2. **NOT LIKE Operator**:

- The `NOT LIKE` operator is used to search for rows that do not match a specified pattern.
- Syntax:
```
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name NOT LIKE pattern;
```
- Example:
```
SELECT *
FROM products
WHERE product_name NOT LIKE '%chair%';
```
This query selects all rows from the `products` table where the `product_name` column does not
contain the word 'chair' anywhere in its value.

3. **Combining Wildcards**:
- You can combine wildcards to create more complex patterns.
- Example:
```
SELECT *
FROM customers
WHERE email LIKE '%@gmail.com';
```
This query selects all rows from the `customers` table where the `email` column ends with
'@gmail.com'.

4. **Case Sensitivity**:
- By default, the `LIKE` and `NOT LIKE` operators are case-insensitive in most database systems.
However, you can use the `COLLATE` clause to perform case-sensitive searches if needed.

5. **Performance Considerations**:
- Using `LIKE` and `NOT LIKE` with wildcard characters at the beginning of a pattern (e.g., '%pattern')
can lead to performance issues because it may require a full table scan. Using these operators with
wildcard characters at the end of a pattern (e.g., 'pattern%') can utilize indexes more efficiently.

In summary, the `LIKE` and `NOT LIKE` operators in SQL provide a powerful way to search for patterns
within character data in database tables, allowing you to retrieve rows that match specific criteria
based on patterns.

Differentiate between Data Manipulation Language (DML) and Data Definition

Language (DDL) of structured query language (SQL) in database management system
(DBMS).

Data Manipulation Language (DML) and Data Definition Language (DDL) are two subsets of SQL used
in database management systems (DBMS) to manipulate and define database objects, respectively.
Here's how they differ:

1. **Data Manipulation Language (DML)**:

- DML is used to manipulate data stored in the database. It allows users to retrieve, insert, update,
and delete data in database tables.
- Common DML commands include `SELECT`, `INSERT`, `UPDATE`, and `DELETE`.
- DML commands operate on individual records or rows within a table.
- DML commands do not change the structure of the database schema; they only modify the data
stored in tables.
- Example:
```sql
-- SELECT statement retrieves data from a table
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department = 'IT';

-- INSERT statement adds new records to a table

INSERT INTO employees (name, department) VALUES ('John Doe', 'HR');

-- UPDATE statement modifies existing records in a table

UPDATE employees SET department = 'Finance' WHERE name = 'John Doe';

-- DELETE statement removes records from a table

DELETE FROM employees WHERE name = 'John Doe';
```

2. **Data Definition Language (DDL)**:

- DDL is used to define and manage the structure of database objects, such as tables, indexes, views,
and schemas.
- DDL commands are used to create, alter, and drop database objects.
- Common DDL commands include `CREATE`, `ALTER`, and `DROP`.
- DDL commands operate on database objects as a whole, rather than on individual data records.
- DDL commands change the structure of the database schema by defining or modifying database
objects.
- Example:
```sql
-- CREATE TABLE statement creates a new table
CREATE TABLE employees (
id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(100),
department VARCHAR(50)
);

-- ALTER TABLE statement modifies an existing table

ALTER TABLE employees ADD COLUMN salary DECIMAL(10, 2);

-- DROP TABLE statement deletes a table

DROP TABLE employees;
```

In summary, DML is focused on manipulating data within database tables, such as querying, inserting,
updating, and deleting records. On the other hand, DDL is focused on defining and managing the
structure of database objects, such as creating, modifying, and dropping tables, indexes, and views.
A transaction is a unit of program execution that accesses and possibly updates various
data items. Usually, a transaction is initiated by a user program written in a data
manipulation language. Explain the ACID property of transaction processing

The ACID properties of transaction processing are fundamental principles that ensure reliability,
consistency, and integrity in database management systems (DBMS). ACID is an acronym that stands
for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability. Here's an explanation of each property:

1. **Atomicity**:
- Atomicity ensures that a transaction is treated as a single indivisible unit of work. Either all
operations within the transaction are completed successfully, or none of them are.
- If any part of a transaction fails (due to error, system crash, or any other reason), the entire
transaction is rolled back, and any changes made by the transaction are undone.
- Atomicity guarantees that the database remains in a consistent state, even in the presence of
failures or errors during transaction execution.

2. **Consistency**:
- Consistency ensures that a transaction transforms the database from one consistent state to
another consistent state.
- The database must satisfy all integrity constraints, business rules, and validation rules before and
after the transaction.
- Consistency ensures that the data remains accurate and valid throughout the transaction
execution, preserving the integrity of the database.

3. **Isolation**:
- Isolation ensures that the execution of one transaction is isolated from the execution of other
concurrent transactions.
- Transactions execute independently of each other, as if they were executed sequentially, even
though they may be executed concurrently.
- Isolation prevents interference, data corruption, and concurrency control problems such as dirty
reads, non-repeatable reads, and phantom reads.

4. **Durability**:
- Durability ensures that the effects of a committed transaction persist even in the event of system
failures or crashes.
- Once a transaction is committed and the changes are written to the database, they remain
permanent and are not lost, even if the system crashes or loses power.
- Durability is typically achieved through mechanisms such as write-ahead logging, transaction logs,
and data backups.

In summary, the ACID properties of transaction processing provide a set of guarantees that ensure the
reliability, consistency, isolation, and durability of database transactions. These properties are
essential for maintaining data integrity and ensuring the correctness and reliability of database
operations in a wide range of applications.

Distinguish among functional dependency, Fully functional dependency and Transitive

dependency

In the context of relational databases, functional dependency, fully functional dependency, and
transitive dependency are terms used to describe relationships between attributes (or columns) in a
table. Here's how they differ:

1. **Functional Dependency**:
- A functional dependency exists when the value of one attribute (or set of attributes) uniquely
determines the value of another attribute (or set of attributes) in the same table.
 - Formally, if A and B are attributes in a table, and every value of A determines a unique value of B,
then A functionally determines B, denoted as A → B.
- Example: In a table of employees, if the employee ID uniquely determines the employee's name,
then we say that {EmployeeID} → {EmployeeName}.

2. **Fully Functional Dependency**:

- A fully functional dependency is a special case of functional dependency where no proper subset of
the determining attributes (left-hand side) functionally determines the dependent attribute (right-
hand side).
- In other words, there are no extraneous attributes in the determining set that can be removed
while still preserving the dependency.
- Example: If {EmployeeID, DepartmentID} → {EmployeeName}, but neither {EmployeeID} nor
{DepartmentID} alone determines {EmployeeName}, then this is a fully functional dependency.

3. **Transitive Dependency**:
- A transitive dependency exists when an attribute (or set of attributes) functionally determines
another attribute through a chain of dependencies.
- Formally, if A → B and B → C, then A → C is a transitive dependency.
- Example: In a table where {EmployeeID} → {DepartmentID} and {DepartmentID} →
{DepartmentName}, we have a transitive dependency {EmployeeID} → {DepartmentName}. Here, the
department name is not directly dependent on the employee ID but is indirectly determined through
the department ID.

In summary, functional dependency describes the relationship between attributes where the value of
one attribute determines the value of another. Fully functional dependency is a stricter form of
functional dependency where no proper subset of the determining attributes can determine the
dependent attribute. Transitive dependency occurs when an attribute indirectly determines another
attribute through a chain of dependencies. Understanding these concepts is crucial for designing and
normalizing database schemas to ensure data integrity and minimize redundancy.

A trigger is a statement that the system executes automatically as a side effect of a

modification to the database. What are the different forms of triggers and how they are
defined?

Triggers are database objects that automatically execute in response to certain events or actions
performed on a table, such as INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE operations. There are mainly two forms of
triggers: row-level triggers and statement-level triggers. Let's explore each form:

1. **Row-Level Triggers**:
- Row-level triggers fire once for each row affected by the triggering event.
- They allow you to access and manipulate data on a row-by-row basis.
- Row-level triggers can be defined to execute either before or after the triggering event.
- Common events that can trigger row-level triggers include INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
operations.
- Row-level triggers are useful for enforcing data integrity constraints, auditing changes, or
maintaining derived data.
- Row-level triggers are defined using the following syntax:
```sql
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER trigger_name
{BEFORE | AFTER} {INSERT | UPDATE | DELETE} ON table_name
FOR EACH ROW
[WHEN (condition)]
BEGIN
-- Trigger logic here
END;
 ```

2. **Statement-Level Triggers**:
- Statement-level triggers fire once for each triggering event, regardless of the number of rows
affected.
- They allow you to perform actions that affect multiple rows or the database as a whole.
- Statement-level triggers are typically used for administrative tasks, such as logging, monitoring, or
validating data across multiple rows.
- Unlike row-level triggers, statement-level triggers cannot access individual row data directly.
- Statement-level triggers are defined using the following syntax:
```sql
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER trigger_name
{BEFORE | AFTER} {INSERT | UPDATE | DELETE} ON table_name
[WHEN (condition)]
DECLARE
-- Declare variables if needed
BEGIN
-- Trigger logic here
END;
```

Triggers are defined using the `CREATE TRIGGER` statement in SQL. You specify the trigger name, the
event that triggers the execution of the trigger (e.g., INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE), the table on which the
trigger operates, and the timing of the trigger (BEFORE or AFTER the event). Additionally, you can
optionally include a condition to specify when the trigger should be fired.

Both row-level and statement-level triggers allow you to execute custom logic or perform additional
actions in response to database modifications, providing a powerful mechanism for enforcing
business rules, maintaining data integrity, and automating tasks within a database management
system.

Write down a short note on Array versus Matrix Operations

Arrays and matrices are both fundamental data structures used in various computational tasks,
particularly in mathematics and computer science. While they share some similarities, they also have
distinct characteristics and are used differently in different contexts. Here's a short note comparing
array and matrix operations:

**Arrays:**
- An array is a collection of elements of the same data type arranged in a contiguous memory block.
- Arrays can have one or more dimensions, with one-dimensional arrays being the simplest form.
- Array operations typically involve element-wise operations or transformations on the entire array or
subsets of the array.
- Examples of array operations include element-wise addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
and various mathematical and logical operations.
- Arrays are commonly used for storing and processing large sets of homogeneous data, such as
numerical data in scientific computing or pixel values in image processing.
- Arrays are efficient for vectorized operations, where the same operation is applied to multiple
elements simultaneously, leveraging hardware-level optimizations like SIMD (Single Instruction,
Multiple Data).

**Matrices:**
- A matrix is a two-dimensional array with rows and columns, where each element is identified by its
row and column index.
- Matrix operations involve mathematical operations specific to matrices, such as matrix addition,
subtraction, multiplication, transpose, and inversion.
- Matrix operations can be more complex than array operations due to the need to consider the
structure and properties of matrices, such as squareness, symmetry, and singularity.
- Matrices are widely used in linear algebra, statistics, optimization, machine learning, and various
scientific and engineering disciplines for modeling and solving problems involving multiple variables
and equations.
- Matrix operations can be used to represent and solve systems of linear equations, perform
transformations in geometric spaces, analyze data patterns, and optimize algorithms.

**Comparison:**
- Arrays and matrices both represent collections of data elements, but arrays are more general-
purpose and can have any number of dimensions, whereas matrices are specifically two-dimensional
arrays.
- Array operations are typically simpler and more straightforward, whereas matrix operations are
more specialized and tailored to linear algebra and mathematical computations.
- Arrays are often used for numerical computations and data processing tasks, whereas matrices are
commonly used for solving mathematical problems involving linear transformations and equations.
- While arrays and matrices have different characteristics and use cases, they both play essential roles
in various computational tasks and are fundamental building blocks in many programming languages
and libraries.
Write down a short note on Array versus Matrix Operations

Arrays and matrices are both fundamental data structures used in various computational tasks,
particularly in mathematics and computer science. While they share some similarities, they also have
distinct characteristics and are used differently in different contexts. Here's a short note comparing
array and matrix operations:

**Arrays:**
- An array is a collection of elements of the same data type arranged in a contiguous memory block.
- Arrays can have one or more dimensions, with one-dimensional arrays being the simplest form.
- Array operations typically involve element-wise operations or transformations on the entire array or
subsets of the array.
- Examples of array operations include element-wise addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
and various mathematical and logical operations.
- Arrays are commonly used for storing and processing large sets of homogeneous data, such as
numerical data in scientific computing or pixel values in image processing.
- Arrays are efficient for vectorized operations, where the same operation is applied to multiple
elements simultaneously, leveraging hardware-level optimizations like SIMD (Single Instruction,
Multiple Data).

**Matrices:**
- A matrix is a two-dimensional array with rows and columns, where each element is identified by its
row and column index.
- Matrix operations involve mathematical operations specific to matrices, such as matrix addition,
subtraction, multiplication, transpose, and inversion.
- Matrix operations can be more complex than array operations due to the need to consider the
structure and properties of matrices, such as squareness, symmetry, and singularity.
- Matrices are widely used in linear algebra, statistics, optimization, machine learning, and various
scientific and engineering disciplines for modeling and solving problems involving multiple variables
and equations.
- Matrix operations can be used to represent and solve systems of linear equations, perform
transformations in geometric spaces, analyze data patterns, and optimize algorithms.

**Comparison:**
- Arrays and matrices both represent collections of data elements, but arrays are more general-
purpose and can have any number of dimensions, whereas matrices are specifically two-dimensional
arrays.
- Array operations are typically simpler and more straightforward, whereas matrix operations are
more specialized and tailored to linear algebra and mathematical computations.
- Arrays are often used for numerical computations and data processing tasks, whereas matrices are
commonly used for solving mathematical problems involving linear transformations and equations.
- While arrays and matrices have different characteristics and use cases, they both play essential roles
in various computational tasks and are fundamental building blocks in many programming languages
and libraries.

Differentiate between CMY and CMYK Colour Models used in digital image
processing.

The CMY (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow) and CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black) color models are both
subtractive color models used in digital image processing and printing. However, they have different
purposes and applications. Here's how they differ:

1. **CMY Color Model**:

- The CMY color model is a subtractive color model used primarily in color printing and display
devices, such as inkjet printers and color monitors.
- In the CMY model, colors are created by subtracting varying amounts of cyan, magenta, and yellow
pigments from white light. These three primary colors absorb different wavelengths of light, allowing
a wide range of colors to be reproduced.
- The absence of all three colors (0% cyan, 0% magenta, 0% yellow) results in white, while the
presence of all three colors (100% cyan, 100% magenta, 100% yellow) results in black.
- The CMY model is known as a three-color or three-ink system because it uses only cyan, magenta,
and yellow inks to produce colors.

2. **CMYK Color Model**:

- The CMYK color model is also a subtractive color model used in color printing, particularly in
commercial printing processes such as offset printing.
- In addition to cyan, magenta, and yellow, the CMYK model includes a fourth color: black (K). The
black ink is added to improve color reproduction, enhance contrast, and save ink costs compared to
using equal amounts of cyan, magenta, and yellow inks to produce black.
- The K in CMYK stands for "key," which refers to the black color plate used in printing. By adding
black ink, the printer can produce richer blacks and more accurate grayscale images.
- The CMYK model is commonly used in four-color printing processes, where separate printing plates
are used for each color channel (cyan, magenta, yellow, and black).

**Comparison:**
- **Purpose**: CMY is primarily used for color printing and display on devices such as monitors and
inkjet printers, while CMYK is specifically designed for commercial printing processes, including offset
printing and digital printing.
- **Inks**: CMY uses only cyan, magenta, and yellow inks, while CMYK includes a fourth color, black
(K), to improve color reproduction and produce richer blacks.
- **Color Range**: CMYK has a slightly narrower color gamut compared to CMY, particularly in terms
of vibrant and saturated colors, due to the addition of black ink and limitations in printing processes.
- **Application**: CMYK is commonly used in professional printing workflows, whereas CMY is more
common in consumer-level printing and display devices.

In summary, while both CMY and CMYK color models are used in digital image processing and
printing, they serve different purposes and have distinct applications. CMY is used primarily for color
printing and display, while CMYK is specifically tailored for commercial printing processes, offering
improved color reproduction and grayscale accuracy.
Explain the Boundary Extraction Algorithm used for basic morphology.

The Boundary Extraction Algorithm is a fundamental operation in mathematical morphology, a branch

of image processing that deals with the shape and structure of objects in images. The algorithm is
used to extract the boundary or contour of objects within an image. Here's how the Boundary
Extraction Algorithm works:

1. **Structuring Element**:
- The algorithm requires a structuring element, which is a small binary image or kernel used to
define the shape and size of the neighborhood around each pixel.
- The structuring element is typically a small matrix with a center point (origin) that defines the
relative positions of neighboring pixels.

2. **Dilation Operation**:
- The first step of the algorithm involves performing a dilation operation on the input image using
the structuring element.
- Dilation involves moving the structuring element over the input image and replacing each pixel
with the maximum pixel value within the neighborhood defined by the structuring element.
- The result of the dilation operation is a new binary image where the objects appear larger and
more connected.

3. **Erosion Operation**:
- The next step is to perform an erosion operation on the dilated image using the same structuring
element.
- Erosion involves moving the structuring element over the dilated image and replacing each pixel
with the minimum pixel value within the neighborhood defined by the structuring element.
- The result of the erosion operation is a new binary image where the objects appear smaller and
more compact.

4. **Boundary Extraction**:
- Finally, the boundary or contour of the objects is obtained by taking the set-theoretic difference
between the eroded image and the original input image.
- This can be achieved by subtracting the eroded image from the original input image pixel by pixel.
- The resulting image contains only the pixels that belong to the boundary or contour of the objects
within the original image.

The Boundary Extraction Algorithm is commonly used in various image processing applications,
including object detection, segmentation, and shape analysis. It allows for the extraction of important
features such as object boundaries, which can be used for further analysis or processing. Additionally,
the algorithm can be modified or combined with other morphological operations to achieve specific
objectives or to address different types of images and objects.

Explain the principals of requirement engineering of web applications

Requirement engineering for web applications involves the systematic process of eliciting, analyzing,
documenting, and validating requirements for developing a web application that meets the needs of
its users and stakeholders. Here are the key principles of requirement engineering for web
applications:

1. **Stakeholder Involvement**:
- Involve all relevant stakeholders, including clients, end-users, developers, designers, and other
project stakeholders, in the requirement engineering process.
- Gather input and feedback from stakeholders to ensure that the requirements reflect their needs,
preferences, and expectations for the web application.
2. **Requirement Elicitation**:
- Use various techniques such as interviews, surveys, workshops, and observations to elicit
requirements from stakeholders.
- Identify and prioritize both functional requirements (what the system should do) and non-
functional requirements (qualities or constraints the system should have), such as performance,
usability, security, and scalability.

3. **Requirement Analysis and Documentation**:

- Analyze and refine the elicited requirements to ensure clarity, consistency, and completeness.
- Document the requirements in a clear, unambiguous, and structured manner using techniques
such as use cases, user stories, requirements specifications, and prototypes.
- Organize and prioritize requirements based on their importance and impact on the overall success
of the web application.

4. **Iterative and Incremental Approach**:

- Adopt an iterative and incremental approach to requirement engineering, where requirements are
refined, validated, and updated continuously throughout the development lifecycle.
- Break down the development process into smaller, manageable iterations or sprints, each focusing
on delivering specific sets of requirements and functionalities.

5. **Collaboration and Communication**:

- Foster collaboration and communication among stakeholders, development teams, and other
project members throughout the requirement engineering process.
- Use tools and techniques such as stakeholder workshops, feedback sessions, and requirement
review meetings to facilitate communication and ensure shared understanding of requirements.

6. **Validation and Verification**:

- Validate and verify requirements to ensure that they are accurate, feasible, and aligned with the
goals and objectives of the web application.
- Use techniques such as prototyping, simulation, validation workshops, and user acceptance testing
to validate requirements with stakeholders and end-users.

7. **Change Management**:
- Establish a robust change management process to handle changes and updates to requirements
throughout the development lifecycle.
- Document and track changes to requirements, assess their impact on the project scope, schedule,
and budget, and obtain approval from stakeholders before implementing changes.

By following these principles, requirement engineering for web applications can help ensure that the
developed application meets the needs and expectations of its users and stakeholders, resulting in a
successful and high-quality product.

Elaborate the term E-Commerce. Discuss in detail about the effects of

E-Commerce in Islamic Banking in Pakistan

What are the components of Generic web application architecture?

A generic web application architecture typically consists of several components that work together to
facilitate the development, deployment, and operation of web applications. While specific
architectures may vary depending on the requirements and technologies used, the following
components are commonly found in generic web application architectures:

1. **Client-Side Components**:
 - **User Interface (UI)**: The front-end component of the web application that interacts with users.
It includes elements such as HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and client-side frameworks/libraries (e.g., React,
Angular, Vue.js) for building interactive and responsive interfaces.
- **Web Browser**: The software application used by clients to access and interact with the web
application. It renders HTML, executes JavaScript, and handles user input.

2. **Server-Side Components**:
- **Web Server**: The software component responsible for receiving and responding to client
requests over the internet. It typically hosts the web application and serves static files (e.g., HTML,
CSS, JavaScript) to clients. Common web servers include Apache HTTP Server, Nginx, and Microsoft
Internet Information Services (IIS).
- **Application Server**: The middleware component responsible for processing dynamic requests
and generating dynamic content (e.g., data retrieval, business logic execution). It interacts with
databases, external services, and other resources to fulfill client requests. Examples include Apache
Tomcat, Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS), and Node.js.
- **Business Logic Layer**: The layer responsible for implementing the core functionality and
business rules of the web application. It encapsulates application-specific logic and interacts with data
sources to perform operations such as data processing, validation, and manipulation.
- **Database Server**: The component responsible for storing and managing application data. It
provides persistent storage for storing structured data and supports operations such as data retrieval,
insertion, updating, and deletion. Common database management systems (DBMS) include MySQL,
PostgreSQL, MongoDB, and Microsoft SQL Server.

3. **Data Exchange and Communication Components**:

- **HTTP/HTTPS**: The protocol used for communication between clients and servers over the
internet. It defines how requests and responses are formatted and transmitted between web
browsers and web servers.
- **RESTful APIs (Application Programming Interfaces)**: The architectural style for designing web
services that use HTTP methods (e.g., GET, POST, PUT, DELETE) to perform CRUD (Create, Read,
Update, Delete) operations on resources. RESTful APIs enable interoperability between different
systems and allow clients to access and manipulate data on the server.
- **WebSockets**: A communication protocol that provides full-duplex communication channels
over a single TCP connection. WebSockets enable real-time, bidirectional communication between
clients and servers, allowing for interactive and collaborative web applications.

4. **Security Components**:
- **Authentication**: The process of verifying the identity of users accessing the web application. It
typically involves user authentication mechanisms such as username/password authentication,
OAuth, OpenID Connect, and JSON Web Tokens (JWT).
- **Authorization**: The process of determining the permissions and privileges granted to
authenticated users. It controls access to resources and functionalities based on user roles,
permissions, and access control lists (ACLs).
- **Data Encryption**: The process of encoding sensitive data transmitted between clients and
servers to prevent unauthorized access and interception. It includes techniques such as Transport
Layer Security (TLS), Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), and HTTPS encryption.

5. **Deployment and Infrastructure Components**:

- **Web Hosting**: The service or platform used to deploy and serve the web application to users
over the internet. It provides infrastructure resources such as servers, storage, networking, and
bandwidth to host and operate the web application.
- **Content Delivery Network (CDN)**: A distributed network of servers that delivers web content
(e.g., images, videos, static files) to users based on their geographical location. CDNs improve the
performance and availability of web applications by caching and delivering content from servers
located closer to users.
- **Scalability and High Availability**: The ability of the web application architecture to scale
horizontally and vertically to handle increasing traffic and maintain high availability. It includes
strategies such as load balancing, auto-scaling, redundancy, failover, and disaster recovery to ensure
uninterrupted operation and performance under varying conditions.

Overall, the components of a generic web application architecture work together to provide a
scalable, secure, and responsive environment for building and deploying web applications that meet
the needs of users and stakeholders. The architecture may vary depending on factors such as the
complexity of the application, scalability requirements, budget constraints, and technology
preferences.

Paper End Thanks