ME165-2

ME165-2
Nuclear and Geothermal Energy
Mapúa Institute of Technology at Laguna

CENTRALIZED COURSE CONTENT AND CONSTRUCTION

9.0 Geothermal Energy-1

Prepared by
Engr. Estelito V. Mamuyac
12 October 2024
Energy Demand and Resources in the Philippines
 ON-GRID AREAS in blue
OFF-GRID AREAS in white

Source: Department of Energy, 2016

Source: Department of Energy, 2016
Electricity consumption = 90,797,891 MWh

Source: Department of Energy, 2016

 Peak demand increased in the Philippines

TOTAL 12,213 13,272

Source: Department of Energy, 2016
 Installed and dependable capacities exceed peak demand
22,000

20,000 Installed Dependable Peak Demand

Power Capacity, MW

18,000

16,000

14,000

12,000

10,000
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Year Source: Department of Energy, 2016
 Coal and RE dominate the energy capacity mix
Coal Oil Based Natural Gas Renewable Energy
100%
90%
80%
Installed Capacity

70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Year
Source: Department of Energy, 2016
Geothermal energy generation is 9% of the RE mix

Geothermal
Natural Gas
9%
16%
Oil Based
17%

Renewable
Energy Hydro
33% 17%

Coal
34%
Biomass, Solar, Wind
7%

Source: Department of Energy, 2016

Introduction to Geothermal Energy
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VhBq0E53WD0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCRDf7QxjDk
HEAT SOURCE
 Philippines

The Ring of Fire is a region around much of the rim of the Pacific Ocean where many volcanic eruptions
and earthquakes occur. The Ring of Fire is a horseshoe-shaped belt about 40,000 km long and up to about
500 km wide.
 Plate motions

Tectonic plates are pieces of Earth's crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere.
The plates are around 100 km (62 mi) thick and consist of two principal types of material: oceanic crust (also
called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). The
composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with mafic basaltic rocks dominating oceanic crust,
while continental crust consists principally of lower-density felsic granitic rocks.
 GEO means EARTH

Inner Core
Outer Core
Lower Mantle

Upper Mantle
Crust

The inner core is a hot, dense ball of (mostly) iron. It has a radius
of about 1,220 kilometers (758 miles). Temperature in the inner
core is about 5,200° Celsius (9,392° Fahrenheit).
 THERMOS means HEAT

The deeper you go, Hotter it is !!!

The inner core is a hot, dense ball of (mostly) iron. It has a radius of about 1,220 kilometers
(758 miles). Temperature in the inner core is about 5,200° Celsius (9,392° Fahrenheit).
 Geothermal energy utilization in a Lindal diagram
Resource Temperature (°C)
0 100 200 300
Low
Moderate
High

Direct Use
B F mp
H
Fi t P

G in in

S ea us

E r oc
D
at ar s

pa ti e
ea

re g g

va e
sh u

ry
H ho

P
h m
en

c e ng s

in

po ss
g

ra es
tiv
e
Hydrothermal Power Generation

“Binary” cycle
• Mulka (86°C)
• Birdsville (98°C) “Steam” cycle and “Combined” cycle
• Wabuska (106°C) • Brady HS (165°C) • Los Azufres (270°C)
• Nagqu (110°C) • Otake (220°C) • Leyte (270 to 330°C)
• Husavik (125°C) • The Geysers (240°C) • Mokai (320°C)
• Ormesa (145°C) • Wairakei (250°C) • Cerro Prieto (350°C)
• Steamboat (160°C)
• Soda Lake (190°C)
Enhanced Geothermal Systems
USA (Fenton Hill); UK (Rosemanowes); France (Soultz);
Switzerland (Basal); Japan (Hijiori and Ogachi);
Australia (Hunter Valley and Woronora)

The Lindal diagram shows how geothermal energy resources of different temperatures can be applied for a range of
applications
 Super critical

Water Two-phase Steam

 50 100 200 300

SUPER CRITICAL

WATER TWO-PHASE STEAM

1.0
 Arbitrary classification of geothermal systems

CATEGORY TEMPERATURE (T) PRODUCTION ENTHALPY (H)

Warm water
T < 125oC H < 525 kJ/kg
(low temperature)

Hot water
T < 225oC H < 967 kJ/kg
(intermediate temperature)

Low enthalpy 225oC < T < 270oC 967 kJ/kg < H < 1100 kJ/kg

Two-phase
High enthalpy 250oC < T < 330oC 1500 kJ/kg < H < 2000 kJ/kg
(high temperature)

Vapor-dominated 250oC < T < 330oC 2600 kJ/kg < H < 2800 kJ/kg
Heat source, reservoir, recharge and thermal manifestations comprise a
geothermal system

HEAT SOURCE
 Composition of a geothermal system

▪ Heat source

▪ Reservoir (subsurface rocks and water)

▪ Recharge fluids

▪ Discharge at the surface (thermal manifestations)

 Hydrothermal Geothermal System

Geothermal refers to any system that transfers

heat from within the Earth to its surface.
Hydrothermal is a subset of geothermal, and means
that the transfer of heat involves water, either in liquid
or vapor state (hence the “hydro”). Hot springs and
geysers, for example, are hydrothermal features.
 Volcanic Geothermal System

Volcanoes are the main source of geothermal energy. The geothermal energy is a
renewable resource, as it exploits the abundant Earth's interior heat and water, which once
used and cooled, is then piped back to the reservoir.
Volcanic-hydrothermal Geothermal Systems
Hot Dry Rock Geothermal System a.k.a. Enhanced
Geothermal System (EGS)
Origin of Geothermal Energy Development
 Discovery of geothermal power at Larderello, Italy in 1904

First geothermal power generator

Piero Ginori Conti

“Devil’s Valley”, Larderello
led by Piero Ginori Conti in
1911 (250 KW)
The Geysers, California in
1922 by John D. Grant
(250 KW)
The Geysers, California in
1960 by Pacific Gas and
Electric Company (11 MW)
The Geysers in Northern California, 2019. Its operations comprise a geothermal power plant and
associated steam fields. Calpine’s plants at The Geysers make it North America’s largest producer
of clean, reliable renewable geothermal power. Together, these plants have the capacity to produce
725 megawatts of electricity around the clock.
The Geysers in Northern California
Geothermal Energy in the Philippines
Father of geothermal energy development in the
Philippines

Arturo Pineda Alcaraz

Geothermal development in the Philippines
RA 9136

RA 9513

Source: Ogena and Fronda, 2010

Top 10 countries with geothermal installed
capacity as of May 2018
 Philippines ranked 2nd geothermal power producer

2015 2010 2005

COUNTRY
RANK MWe MWe MWe
USA 1 3,450 3,098 2,544
Philippines 2 1,907 1,904 1,931
Indonesia 3 1,340 1,197 797
Mexico 4 1,017 958 953
New Zealand 5 1,005 762 435
Italy 6 916 843 790
Iceland 7 665 575 202
Japan 8 519 536 535
Costa Rica 9 207 166 163
El Salvador 10 204 204 151
 ~1,907 MWe total installed capacity in the Philippines as of
August 2015

EDC – Energy Development Corporation

PGPC – Philippine Geothermal Production Company
APRI – Aboitiz Power Renewables Incorporated
MGI – Maibarara Geothermal Incorporated
 Roadmap for the exploration, development and utilization of
geothermal resources in the Philippines

RPS – Renewable Portfolio Standard

FIT – Feed-in-Tariff
Source: Fronda, Marasigan and Lazaro, 2015
7 areas with operating geothermal fields

X
31 geothermal service contracts
Stages of Geothermal Power Development

• Surface exploration
• Exploratory well drilling

1
•
•
Well discharge tests
Preliminary resource assessment
EXPLORATION

• Well drilling and discharge tests

• Resource assessment and feasibility studies

2
•
•
Development strategy
FCRS and power plant design and construction
DEVELOPMENT

• Monitoring
• Reservoir performance evaluation
• Process chemistry evaluation PRODUCTION
3 • Risk-based inspection
 Typical Work Program for Geothermal Power
Development
General Stages of Geothermal Exploration, Development and Production
for a 40MWe Power Development

Stage Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

Exploration
Geology survey
Geochemistry survey
Geophysics survey
Resource Evaluation
Permitting, land acquisition, etc.
Road and pad construction
Exploration Drilling (3 wells)
Reservoir Assessment
Resource Evaluation

Development
Well Drilling (5 prod/3 RI)
Road/pad constructions,etc
FCRS design and construction
Power plant construction

Start of Production
 Assignment no. 3-1
Tabulate 25 geothermal working areas in the Philippines. The following information should be included:

1. Name of geothermal field (e.g. Maibarara)

2. Company Name / Operator (e.g. Maibarara Geothermal Incorporated)

3. Location (e.g. South Luzon)

4. Province (e.g. Batangas)

5. Potential capacity in MW if no existing plant yet

6. Installed capacity in MW if there is already an existing plant

Note: Computerized and printed in a short bond paper (pdf file). Indicate reference(s).
Geothermal Exploration
 Geothermal Energy Exploration is Tedious and Expensive

ACTIVITIES OBJECTIVES
To obtain indirect information on the extent of the geothermal reservoir, the
Surface
subsurface temperature as well as mixing models, and other features such as
exploration
permeability controls, and nature and source of the fluid.

To confirm the data obtained during surface exploration and get direct
Exploratory well
information on nature of the fluid, temperature and pressure at depth,
drilling
location and permeability of production zones, rock formation and well output.

To measure temperature and pressure, locate permeable zones or fluid

Well discharge
channel/s, obtain potential output, and analyze potential development
tests
constraints and future drilling targets using the fluid chemistry.
Preliminary
To determine the resource magnitude and estimate the number of wells to be
resource
drilled for development.
assessment
 Geothermal Energy Exploration is Tedious and Expensive

ACTIVITIES OBJECTIVES

Surface
exploration To locate a geothermal reservoir.

Exploratory well
drilling To delineate the geothermal resources in the confirmed reservoir.

Well discharge To estimate the power potential and confirm the proven resource
tests area.
Preliminary
resource To evaluate feasibility of the confirmed resource area.
assessment
 Geologists explore geothermal regions to find the most likely areas for
further study

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

Geologists study rock types, structures
and geohydrology of the area
Geothermal manifestations – mud pool

▪ Acid-sulfate waters

▪ Brownish, mud-like color

▪ Ponds discharging steam and gas

to surface

▪ Acidic fluids which alter the rocks

form clay and mix with the soil,
thus bubbling muddy water with
steam is produced

▪ Evident smell of hydrogen sulfide

Geothermal manifestations – collapsed crater

▪ Altered grounds around

▪ Sometimes discharge high

temperature steam

▪ Evident smell of hydrogen sulfide

near the crater

▪ Mineral reactions sometimes

cause color alteration
o Manganese oxide – purple
o Iron oxide – brown to red
o Sulfur - yellow
Geothermal manifestations – hot spring

▪ Results of hydrothermal eruptions

that deposited silica sinter in the
surface near a boiling spring

▪ Rock fragments called breccia are

dispersed causing minerals to flow
that results color alterations to the
fluids on the surface

o Alkali chloride – clear blue

o Acid sulfate – cloudy yellow to green
o Antimony and arsenic – orange
o Sulfur and arsenic – yellow to green
 Geothermal manifestations – fumarole and steaming ground

Fumarole Steaming Ground

Fumaroles are openings in the earth's surface that emit steam and volcanic gases, such as sulfur dioxide and carbon
dioxide. A fumarole can vent for centuries or quickly go extinct, depending on the longevity of its heat source.
Warm or Steaming Ground: An area where geothermal heat is conducted to the earth's surface, warming the ground
and sometimes causing steam to form when water is present.
Sample hydrogeological model postulated from
surface manifestations
Geochemical fluids are sampled
 Objectives of Geochemical Survey

▪ To determine whether the geothermal system is liquid- or vapor-

dominated;

▪ To estimate the minimum temperature expected at depth;

▪ To infer the chemical characteristics of the deep fluid;

▪ To determine the source of recharge water;

▪ To anticipate the type of problems likely to arise during production

Key parameters assessed using geochemical survey data

▪ Resource size
▪ Resource temperature
▪ Reservoir permeability
▪ Recharge fluids
▪ Reservoir fluid composition
▪ Potential for scaling and/or corrosion
▪ Possible environmental issues
 Components of geothermal fluids

CONSERVATIVE (NON-REACTIVE, INERT, TRACERS): Cl, B,

F, He, Ar, O18, D, Li, Cs, Rb

▪ Remain once in fluid phase

▪ Provide fluid source information

▪ Used to specify fluid origins

 Components of geothermal fluids
REACTIVE (GEO-INDICATORS):
SO4, Na, K, Ca, CO2, H2S, H2, etc.
▪ Tend to equilibrate with other reactive constituents, rocks and minerals

▪ Used to characterize reservoir physical and chemical properties

(pressure, temperature, composition)

▪ Disappear in solution by precipitation of secondary (hydrothermal)

minerals
Classification of geothermal fluids
Cl

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Steam Heated Waters

SO4 HCO3
 Classification of geothermal fluids
Na

90%

80%
Full
70%
Equilibration
60%
160 140 120
180
200 100
50% 220 80
240 60
40% 260
280
300 Partial Equilibration
30%
320
340
20%

10% Immature Waters

10 K 1000 Mg^0.5
 Geothermometer – silica quartz (TQz)

1309
𝑇(°𝐶) = − 273.15 Silica quartz – NO STEAM LOSS
5.19 − log 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 equation good for T < 100°C to 250°C

1522
𝑇(°𝐶) = − 273.15 Silica quartz – MAX STEAM LOSS
5.75 − log 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 equation good for T = 100°C to 250°C

Note: Element/mineral concentration in parts per million (ppm) Fournier, 1981

 Geothermometer – silica polymorphs (TSiO2)

1032
𝑇(°𝐶) = − 273.15 Chalcedony
4.69 − log 𝑆𝑖𝑂2

731
𝑇(°𝐶) = − 273.15 Amorphous Silica
4.52 − log 𝑆𝑖𝑂2

Note: Element/mineral concentration in parts per million (ppm) Fournier, 1981

 Geothermometer – sodium and potassium (TNa-K)

1217
𝑇(°𝐶) = − 273.15 Fournier, 1981
𝑁𝑎
1.483 + log
𝐾 equation best at T > 180°C

1390
𝑇(°𝐶) = − 273.15 Giggenbach, 1988
𝑁𝑎
1.75 + log
𝐾 equation best at T > 180°C
 Geothermometer – potassium and magnesium (TK-Mg)

4410
𝑇(°𝐶) = − 273.15
𝐾2 Giggenbach, 1988
14 − log
𝑀𝑔 equation good for T = 100°C to 300°C

Note: Element/mineral concentration in parts per million (ppm)

 Other geothermometers
▪ Isotopes

▪ Gases

▪ Minerals

o Actinolite o Prehnite
o Epidote o Pumpellyite
o Wairakite o Clays
 Seatwork: SW 3-1
Fluids were sampled from surface manifestations within a geothermal system.
Laboratory analyses resulted to the following concentrations:
Silica quartz = 500 ppm
Amorphous silica = 1000 ppm
Sodium = 1000 ppm
Potassium = 200 ppm
Magnesium = 0.2 ppm
Tabulate the possible temperatures of the geothermal system according to each
geothermometer (in order as presented). What do you think is the valid temperature
range of the area?
Geophysical activities beneath the surface are surveyed
 Geophysical Properties

▪ Heat flow ▪ Density

▪ Resistivity ▪ Seismic velocity

▪ Magnetisation ▪ Natural or induced

seismicity
▪ Natural radioactivity
▪ Porosity / permeability
 Cost – Benefit of Geophysical Surveys

▪ Exploration

o Heat flow – small $ for benefit

o Resistivity – moderate $ for benefit
o Magnetisation – small to moderate $ for volcanic terrains
o Borehole measurements – moderate $ for benefit

▪ Management

o Microgravity – small $ for benefit

o Seismicity – moderate $ for benefit
EXPENDING MONEY WISELY
ON THE SCIENCE CAN SAVE
A LOT OF MONEY AND
REDUCE RISK IN EXPENSIVE
DRILLING.
 ME165-2

ME165-2
Nuclear and Geothermal Energy
Mapúa Institute of Technology at Laguna

CENTRALIZED COURSE CONTENT AND CONSTRUCTION

10.0 Geothermal Energy (Part-2)

Well Driling & Drilling Operations
Prepared by
Engr. Estelito V. Mamuyac
21 October 2024
Basic Geothermal Well Drilling
 Typical geothermal well
Well Design Considerations:

Wellhead
Assembly 1. Trade off between
✓ Cost
✓ Productivity
Casings and 2. Which in turn means balancing
Cement
✓ Depth
✓ Diameter
Slotted Liner
✓ Drift angle
 Well design factors

▪ Casing setting depths

▪ Casing diameters

▪ Service conditions and failure modes

▪ Axial stress conditions

▪ Radial stress conditions

Types of geothermal wells

V
E
R
T
I
C
A
L
 DIRECTIONAL
OR DEVIATED
GEOTHERMAL WELL
 Geochemistry
Maintenance

Geology Environmental
Safety Management
Warehouse WELLS
Accounting
Aerated
Mud Reservoir Fluids
Engineering Engineering Directional
Drilling Drilling

Production Rented
Tools
Well Admin
Cementing Construction
Engineering Drilling Rig
Services Engineering
Civil Works

MWD/
Logistics
Contracts Downhole
Motors Pipe/Tubular
Inspection/
Drilling Rig Human
Procurement Repairs
Operations Resources
Basic Drilling rig and components
Drilling rig systems

A. Hoisting System

B. Rotating System

C. Circulating System

D. Power System

E. Blowout Prevention System

Hoisting system

Supports the rotating

system by working the area
and lifting, lowering and
suspending capabilities.
1. Supporting Structure
2. Hoisting Equipment
Rotating system

Rotates the drill stem and provides

weight to the bit.
1. Rotary Assembly – rotates the drill
stem / suspends the drill stem
when adding removing pipes
2. Drill stem – set of pipes, drill
collars, stabs
3. Bit – the tool that cuts / bores the
hole
Circulating system

Provides the appropriate equipment

and maintenance of the drilling mud.
1. Drilling Fluid – “mud”
2. Mixing Equipment – hoppers
3. Circulating Equipment – pumps and
tanks
4. Conditioning Equipment – shale
shaker, de-sander, de-silter
Power system

Provides a source for energy

requirement.
1. Primary Source
2. Power Transmission
Blowout prevention system

Controls an imminent “blowout”

(uncontrolled flow of formation
fluid to surface).
1. BOP stack and accumulator –
seals off the well bore
2. Supporting choke line and kill
line – restore control over the
drilling fluid
Some of the tools and consumables utilized

Stab-In Nipple Cement

Stabilizers Casings
Casings
Polycrystalline diamond compact bits

SHORT PDC MEDIUM LONG PDC NATURAL TSP BIT

BIT PDC BIT BIT DIAMOND
BIT
 Tricone bits

MILL TOOTH TUNGSTEN CARBIDE

TRICONE BIT INSERT TRICONE BIT
Basic Geothermal Drilling Operation
 Run 7” slotted liners Run 13-3/8” casings
Drill 8-1/2” hole Drill 17-1/2” hole
Run 9-5/8” casings Run 20” casings
Drill 12-1/4” hole Drill 26” Hole

23
Basic Drilling Procedures
Drilling is executed by rotating the
string
Pump drilling fluids inside the string
Run the drill string with bit inside the
hole
Drilled cuttings are developed The fluid goes out into the annulus
downhole while drilling and has to be and brings the cuttings to surface
cleared to prevent getting stuck The drilling fluids, better known as
mud, are diverted back to the mud
tanks and pumped back into the well
The cuttings are segregated by the
shale shaker and goes to the pit for
disposal

Rotary Drilling Mechanics

Well Casing Cementing
 Cementing objectives

▪ Support the casing

▪ Isolate loss circulation zones

▪ Blow-out control

▪ Protection against corrosion due to subsurface waters

▪ Prevents casing from shock loading

 Types of casing cementing

▪ Stab-in Cementing – for shallow cementing job

▪ Single Stage Cementing – for intermediate depths

▪ Two-Stage Cementing – for deeper cementing job

▪ Tie-back Cementing – for deeper cementing job

A. Stab-in Casing Cementing
1. RIH Casing with float collar and shoe
2. RIH drill pipe with stab-in nipple
3. Pump cement thru the pipe back to the
surface thru the annulus
4. Displace the cement inside the pipe
5. Wait on Cement

B. Single Stage Cementing

1. RIH Casing with stab-in shoe
2. Drop bottom plug followed by cement
3. Drop top plug and displace cement
to surface
4. Wait on cement
C. Two-Stage Cementing
1. RIH Casing with float shoe, float collar and DV Collar
2. Drop bottom plug followed by cement
3. Drop flexible plug and displace cement
4. Drop trip plug, open DVC ports and
circulate while wait on cement
5. Pull landing string and wait on cement
6. Drop closing plug and displace cement.
Close DV collar. Wait on cement.

D. Tie-back cementing
1. RIH liner casing with float shoe and float collar
2. Pump cement
3. Drop pipe dart and displace cement to wiper plug
4. Shear wiper plug and displace to float collar
5. Pump cement after sufficient WOC
6. Run in hole tie back casings
7. Pump cement
8. Drop top plug and displace cement to surface. Wait on
cement.
Well Completion
Geothermal well casing sizes

Slim hole Standard hole

 T
O STANDARD GEOTHERMAL WELL
P
CASING PROGRAM
V
I
E
W

30 “ Conductor pipe
V
E 26” hole 20” Surface Casing
R 100 – 450 m
T
I 17 1/2” hole 13 3/8” Anchor Casing 300 – 850 m
C
A
L 12 1/4” hole
S
9 5/8” Production Casing 1000 – 1500 m
E
C
T PZ2
I
O
N 8 1/2” hole

PZ1 7” Slotted Liner 2400 – 3000 m

 Completion test

▪ Aims to determine the reservoir and fluid properties near the well and identify
location of permeable/feed zones to estimate the overall effective
permeability of the well.

▪ It will also predict the ability of the well to discharge as correlated with the local
reservoir properties.

▪ Temperature and pressure distribution with depth are also acquired.

 Wireline logging unit

Skid-type Truck-mounted
 PTS instrument

heat flask

PT sensors electronics battery

spinner

torque wrench head heat sink

spare battery volt meter

PTS – Pressure-Temperature-Spinner
Sample completion test programme
MCD Water-loss
Survey Survey

Injectivity
Test
Shut-in
PT Run

Pressure
Fall-off Test
 Completion test set-up and other materials
Lubricator/
Riser

Crown Valve

Bottom Sheave
Wireline
Winch Spooler

View from inside the wireline logging unit Drill Pipe Adaptor Top Sheave Lubricator Connector Dummy Tool
Wellhead assembly

Wellhead pressure rating for temperature

 10ӯ x Class 900
Master Valve

3ӯ x Class 900 Some Well Casing Terminologies

Pressure Gauge
Wing Valve

Expansion Spool
Casing Head Flange (CHF)
SCS: Surface Casing Shoe
Cellar Floor

SCS ACS: Anchor Casing Shoe

ACS

KOP KOP: Kick-off Point

TOL TOL: Top of Liner

PCS

PCS: Production Casing Shoe

Feed Zones
BOL: Bottom of Liner

BOL
Basic Reservoir Engineering
 Geothermal reservoir
Rock Type A Mineral A

20” SCS Mineral B

Rock Type B Mineral C
13-3/8” ACS Rock Type C
Rock Type B
KOP Mineral D
Rock Type C

7” TOL Rock Type D Mineral E

Rock Type A
Mineral F
9-5/8” PCS Rock Type D

Rock Type C

Rock Type A

Rock Type D
Rock Type C Mineral G
Rock Type E
7” BOL
 Geothermal reservoir

A subsurface region that continuously

transfers heat from permeable rocks to hot
water and/or steam through fractured flow
channels at depths which are economical for
well drilling to extract energy for direct
utilization or electricity generation
generation.
 Geothermal reservoir

Well Pad S
N
0

-500

COLD INFLOW 140°

-1000 Well 1

-1500 Well 9
Well 8
Well 2 Well 3
-2000
Well 7 Well 10
Well 4 Well 6
-2500
Well 5 UPFLOW

-3000 300°
0 1000m Well 11 Well 12
 Geothermal reservoir engineering

A special field that takes advantage of quantitative

data from both surface and subsurface
measurements to understand, evaluate and predict
heat and mass flows within the geothermal
reservoir from its natural to exploited states.
Porosity and Permeability
 Theis model and Darcy’s law

Q = volumetric flow rate 𝜇 = absolute fluid viscosity

k = permeability 𝑃𝐷 = dimensionless pressure

φ = porosity 𝑃𝑖 = initial reservoir pressure

s = skin factor 𝑃𝑤𝑓 = well flowing pressure

𝑸𝑩𝝁𝑷𝑫
𝜋 = value of pi 𝒌𝒉 =
ℎ = reservoir thickness
𝟐𝝅 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒘𝒇
𝐵 = formation volume factor
 Theis model

A two-dimensional model with horizontal flow towards a well that extends through a
wide isotropic, homogeneous and horizontal permeable layer with constant thickness
at the top and bottom. Volumetric flow rate from the well is represented by Q, k is
the permeability, φ is the porosity and s is the skin factor.
Darcy’s law
Initial/boundary
WELL
undisturbed state:
to, Po, ro,
khAρ  ΔP 
Q=  
RESERVOIR

μ  Δx  Wellbore
condition, Q, t,
Pwf, rw

Flow of fluid with a certain viscosity and density is proportional to permeability across a cross-sectional
area of rock and thickness, and the pressure drop across a certain distance.
Geothermal Well Testing
 Geothermal well testing activities

Well Logging Well Intervention Well Measurement

o Downhole surveys o Discharge stimulation o Discharge test

o Downhole viewer o Quenching o Injection test
survey o Casing perforation o Production flow test
o Caliper survey o Acidizing
o Fishing o Calcite inhibition
Geothermal Well Testing – Logging
Remember this?
 MCD survey

Dummy Tool

To determine the maximum clear depth (MCD) of the geothermal wellbore

 Water-loss with spinner survey

To locate the
permeable or a.k.a
feed zones
Inflow

Outflow
Injectivity test

To estimate capacity
during pumping
condition
 Pressure fall-off test

“Better” well “Worse” well

To determine overall permeability (kh), skin and other reservoir parameters

Pressure fall-off test – software analysis
Pressure fall-off test manual analysis
Pressure transient analysis
 Heat-up surveys

To determine the stabilized

temperatures and pressures of
the well and to derive other
characteristic features that
provide location of feed zones
and wellbore internal flows.
Well logging
 Wireline logging unit

Skid-type Truck-mounted
Shut-in PT survey
Flowing PT survey
 Downhole survey
▪ Attempts to make an accurate feel of the wellbore physical
condition

▪ SOP is to use the largest tool first

▪ Smaller tool will be used if the previous larger one is not able
to clear the hole
 Downhole survey

Sinker bar

Go-devil Tools
(Gauge Rings)

Scraper
 Downhole survey
Lead Impression Block (LIB)
Downhole survey

Fluid sampler
 Downhole survey

heat flask

PT sensors electronics battery

spinner

torque wrench head heat sink

spare battery volt meter

PTS – Pressure-Temperature-Spinner (PTS) tool

Shut-in and flowing PT profiles

WELL A WELL B
 Wellbore modeling and simulation

𝑃 = wellbore pressure 𝒅𝑷 𝒇𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒗

= 𝒈𝝆 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + + 𝝆𝒗
𝒅𝒁 𝟐𝑫 𝒅𝒁
𝑍 = elevation or depth
𝟏
𝒇=
𝑔 = gravitational acceleration (𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑫/𝜺)𝟐

𝜌 = fluid mixture density 𝑴𝒕 = 𝑴𝟏 + 𝑴𝟐

𝜃 = drift angle
𝑴𝒕 𝒉𝒕 = 𝑴𝟏 𝒉𝟏 + 𝑴𝟐 𝒉𝟐
θ
𝑓 = friction factor of the casing

𝑣 = fluid velocity

𝐷 = wellbore diameter

𝑀 = feed zone mass flow rate

ℎ = feed zone enthalpy

Working window from a wellbore simulator
Wellbore simulation

A good PT match
mimics the well
behavior; thus, a
good estimate of its
production
parameters at the
current condition.
 ME165-2

ME165-2
Nuclear and Geothermal Energy
Mapúa Institute of Technology at Laguna

CENTRALIZED COURSE CONTENT AND CONSTRUCTION

10.1 Geothermal Energy (Part-2)

Well Testing _ Rev.1
Prepared by
Engr. Estelito V. Mamuyac
11 November 2024
Geothermal Well Testing
 Geothermal well testing activities

Well Logging Well Intervention Well Measurement

• Downhole surveys • Discharge • Discharge test

• Downhole viewer stimulation • Injection test
survey • Quenching • Production flow test
• Caliper survey • Casing perforation
• Fishing • Acidizing
• Calcite inhibition
Downhole Logging Tools
Dummy tool
 Gauge tools and scraper

Sinker bar

Go-devil Tools
(Gauge Rings)

Scraper
Lead impression block – LIB
 PTS – Pressure-Temperature-Spinner (PTS)

heat flask

PT sensors electronics battery

spinner

torque wrench head heat sink

spare battery volt meter
Downhole caliper
Downhole Viewer
Downhole viewer instrument
Above 9-5/8”production casing
 Scaling inside the wellbore

Casing hole Casing wall

Further scaling down the hole
DVC section looks good
TOL looks good
Open slot within the production liner
Blocked slot within the production liner
 MCD at the bottom

Hard fill at the bottom Blocked slot near MCD

Cement plug and damaged casing
Partially collapsed casing
Imploded casing
Hole in collapsed casing
with water running in
Another collapsed casing
Scaled-up wellbore
Geothermal Well Testing – Stimulation
 Steam Injection –
Portable Boiler

Nitrogen
Two-phase Injection
Gas Lifting
WELL DISCHARGE
STIMULATION
TECHNIQUES

Air Lifting Air Compression

 Prioritizing stimulation techniques

Steam injection Successful

Well
NO
Two-phase
Successful
injection YES
Self- Can obtain
discharge YES NO output

NO Air compression Successful

Stimulate
NO

Constraints: Air or N2 gas

Successful
Constraints:
lifting
o Budget
• Budget NO
o Equipment
• Equipment
o Materials
• Materials Cannot obtain
• Personnel output
o Personnel
Downhole fluid sampler
Well Testing – Discharge Test
 Discharge testing

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

Bore output measurements
Weir flow

CIPOLLETTI

RECTANGULAR

V-NOTCH
 V-notch weir flow measurement using
British Standards

𝑄 = weir flow, m3/hr

𝐶 = discharge coefficient

𝜃 = V-notch angle, degrees

ℎ = measured weir height, m

𝑘 = height correction factor, m

𝜃
𝑄 = 8506.557𝐶𝑡𝑎𝑛 ℎ + 𝑘 2.5
2
𝐶 = 0.607 − 0.00087𝜃 + 6.104𝑥10−6 𝜃 2
𝑘 = 0.0145 − 0.00034𝜃 + 2.298𝑥10−6 𝜃 2 − 1.062𝑥10−8 𝜃 3
Simplified 90° V-notch weir flow calculation

𝑄 = 1311 ℎ2.5

𝑄 = weir flow, kg/s

ℎ = measured weir height, m

 Modified Russel James equation for mass flow
and enthalpy calculations
𝑀𝐹 = mass flow, kg/s

𝑚𝑤 = weir flow, kg/s

𝐻 = discharge enthalpy, kJ/kg

𝑃 = lip pressure, bara

𝐴 = lip pipe area, cm2

𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟖 × 𝒎𝒘 𝟐𝟔𝟕𝟓 + 𝟗𝟐𝟓𝒀 𝒎𝒘 × 𝟑. 𝟔

𝑴𝑭 = 𝑯= 𝒀=
𝟐𝟔𝟕𝟓 − 𝑯 𝟏 + 𝟕. 𝟖𝟓𝒀 𝑨𝑷𝟎.𝟗𝟔
 Steam and water flows using equations
from Thermodynamics

𝑋 = steam fraction

𝑯 − 𝒉𝒇 𝐻 = discharge enthalpy, kJ/kg

𝑿=
𝒉𝒈 − 𝒉𝒇 ℎ𝑓 = liquid enthalpy, kJ/kg

ℎ𝑔 = vapor enthalpy, kJ/kg

𝑺𝑭 = 𝑴𝑭(𝑿)
𝑀𝐹 = mass flow, kg/s
𝑾𝑭 = 𝑴𝑭 − 𝑺𝑭 𝑆𝐹 = steam flow, kg/s

𝑊𝐹 = water flow, kg/s

Power potential in MWe by industry practice
using steam flow required by power plant

𝑺𝑭
𝑴𝑾𝒆 =
𝑺𝑹

𝑀𝑊𝑒 = power potential

𝑆𝐹 = steam flow, kg/s

𝑆𝑅 = steam rate, kg/MW-s

Reservoir Engineering & Well Testing Calculations
 Porosity (∅) – Measure of void spaces

∅=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
× 100%
Porosity
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑡 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑟𝑦 Volume of Pore Space

𝑉𝑝 = (Volume of Water)
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑟𝑦 Volume of Dry Rock

𝑉=
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘

𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘 + 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 Bulk Volume

(Volume of Saturated Rock)
 Porosity (∅) sample problem

A dry rock weighs 240 grams and has a bulk density of 2.4 grams
per cubic centimeter. When saturated with pure water at room
temperature (T=25°C), it weighs 250 grams. At room temperature,
specific volume of water is 1.00295 x 10-3 m3/kg. Calculate the
porosity of the sample.
 Porosity (∅) sample problem

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑡 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑟𝑦 250𝑔 − 240𝑔

𝑉𝑝 = =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1
−3 𝑚3
1.00295 × 10
𝑘𝑔

3
1𝑘𝑔 −3
𝑚3 100𝑐𝑚
𝑉𝑝 = 10𝑔 × × 1.00295 × 10 ×
1000𝑔 𝑘𝑔 1𝑚

𝑉𝑝 = 10.03𝑐𝑚3
 Porosity (∅) sample problem
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑟𝑦 240𝑔 3
𝑉= = = 100𝑐𝑚 Volume of Dry Rock
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘 2.4 𝑔
𝑐𝑚3

𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 100.0 𝑐𝑚3 + 10.03 𝑐𝑚3 = 110.03 𝑐𝑚3 Bulk Volume

(Saturated Volume)

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 10.03𝑐𝑚3

∅= × 100% = 3
× 100%
𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 110.03𝑐𝑚

∅ = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟐 %
 Permeability (k) – Measure of the ability of
fluid to flow through a porous medium

𝜅𝐴 (𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑏 )
𝑄 =
𝜇𝐿
Where:
𝑄 = volumetric flowrate (cm3 /sec)
𝐴 = Area of cross-section (cm2)
 = absolute permeability (darcy)
 = absolute or dynamic viscosity of flowing fluid (cp, 1cp = 1 Mpa-s)
𝑃𝑎 – 𝑃𝑏 = total pressure drop (atm)
𝐿 = Length over which the pressure drop is taking place (cm)
 Permeability (k) sample problem

A cylindrical core sample of 1 cm length and 1 cm2 cross-section

has upstream and downstream pressures of 2 atm and 1 atm,
respectively, during steady state flow of water at 0.997 g/s at room
temperature. Calculate the permeability of the core.

Water @ 25°C,  = 1 cp, density of water = 0.997 g/cm3

 Permeability (k) sample problem

𝜅𝐴 (𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑏 )
𝑄 =
𝜇𝐿

0.997 𝑔/𝑠 𝜅 × 1 cm2 × (2 atm − 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚)

3
=
0.997𝑔/cm 1 𝑐𝑝 × 1 𝑐𝑚

𝜿 = 𝟏 𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐲 OR 9.869233×10−13 m² OR 0.9869233 µm²

Simplified 90° V-notch weir flow calculation

2.5
𝑚𝑤 = 1311 ℎ

Where:

𝑚𝑤 = weir flow, kg/s

ℎ = measured weir height, m

 Modified Russel James equation for mass flow
and enthalpy calculations
Where:

𝑀𝐹 = mass flow, kg/s

𝑚𝑤 = weir flow, kg/s

𝐻 = discharge enthalpy, kJ/kg

𝑃 = lip pressure, bara

𝐴 = lip pipe area, cm2

𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟖 × 𝒎𝒘 𝟐𝟔𝟕𝟓 + 𝟗𝟐𝟓𝒀 𝒎𝒘 × 𝟑. 𝟔

𝑴𝑭 = 𝑯= 𝒀=
𝟐𝟔𝟕𝟓 − 𝑯 𝟏 + 𝟕. 𝟖𝟓𝒀 𝑨𝑷𝟎.𝟗𝟔
 Steam and water flows using equations
from Thermodynamics
Where:

𝑋 = steam fraction
𝑯 − 𝒉𝒇
𝑿=
𝒉𝒈 − 𝒉𝒇 𝐻 = discharge enthalpy, kJ/kg

ℎ𝑓 = liquid enthalpy, kJ/kg

𝑺𝑭 = 𝑴𝑭(𝑿) ℎ𝑔 = vapor enthalpy, kJ/kg

𝑀𝐹 = mass flow, kg/s

𝑾𝑭 = 𝑴𝑭 − 𝑺𝑭 𝑆𝐹 = steam flow, kg/s
𝑊𝐹 = water flow, kg/s
Power potential in MWe by industry practice
using steam flow required by power plant

𝑺𝑭
𝑴𝑾𝒆 =
𝑺𝑹
Where:

𝑀𝑊𝑒 = power potential

𝑆𝐹 = steam flow, kg/s
𝑆𝑅 = steam rate or consumption, kg/s-MW
 Sample problem

A production well was discharged and tested through an

atmospheric silencer at sea level (1 bar absolute) using a lip pipe
with a diameter of 25.4 cm and a weir box with a 90° V-notch weir.
The well was flowing at a wellhead pressure of 7 bar gauge and the
measured lip pipe pressure and weir height were 3 bar gauge and
0.11 m, respectively. Calculate the discharge enthalpy and total
mass flow of the well.
 Sample problem
𝑚𝑤 × 3.6 1311 × ℎ2.5 × 3.6 1311 × (0.11𝑚)2.5 × 3.6
Y = = = = 0.00988
AP 0.96 AP 0.96 (25.4𝑐𝑚)2
𝜋× × (3 barg + 1 bara)0.96
4
2675 + 925Y 2675 + (925 × 0.00988)
H = =
1 + 7.85Y 1 + (7.85 × 0.00988)

𝐇 = 𝟐𝟒𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈

2258 × mw 2258 × 1311 × ℎ2.5 2258 × 1311 × 0.112.5

MF = = =
2675 − H 2675 − 𝐻 2675 − 2490

𝐌𝐅 = 𝟔𝟒. 𝟐 𝒌𝒈/𝒔
 Sample problem

Using the calculated mass flow and enthalpy calculated

previously, estimate the power potential for a steam rate
of 3 kg/s-MW if the two-phase fluid is separated at 6.5
bara.
From steam table the enthalpy values for steam and water
at 6.5 bar are:

hf = 684.3 kJ/kg, hg = 2759.6 kJ/kg

ME165-2
Nuclear and Geothermal Energy
Mapúa Institute of Technology at Laguna

CENTRALIZED COURSE CONTENT AND CONSTRUCTION

11.0 Geothermal Energy (Part-3)

Geothermal Resource Assessment &
Management/Reservoir Modelling

Engr. Estelito V. Mamuyac

31 October 2024
Resource Assessment
 Resource Assessment

General Objective:

To approximate total amount of

stored heat in the reservoir.
 Resource Assessment

STAGES OF GEOTHERMAL
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
DEVELOPMENT
▪ To determine resource magnitude
Exploration
▪ To estimate number of wells to drill
▪ To conclude number of feasible wells
Development ▪ To provide design basis for facilities consisting of civil works, FCRS
and power plant
▪ To predict future generation and make-up well requirements for
sustainable performance of the reservoir
▪ To update reservoir model and calculate resource capacity to
Production produce over the projected life of the field
▪ To optimize recovery of resource
▪ To decide on potential field expansion
 Geothermal Resources

▪Inferred – low level of confidence

▪Indicated – reasonable level of confidence

▪Measured – high level of confidence

 Geothermal Reserves

▪ Probable – economically recoverable part of an

indicated, or sometimes measured, geothermal
resource

▪ Proven – economically recoverable part of a

measured geothermal resource
 Resource Assessment

Involves calculations by

RESERVE ESTIMATION
 Methods of Calculation

METHOD DESCRIPTION

Volumetric Stored Heat estimates the volume of the hot reservoir and the
Estimation thermal energy it contains

forecasts future output of wells affected by pressure

Decline Curve Analysis drawdown over a short period of time using decline
rates

utilizes pressure response predictions with time

Lumped-Parameter Modeling (pressure drawdown) to approximate production
potential of the resource
Volumetric Stored Heat Estimation
 Volumetric Stored Heat Calculation

Estimates the thermal energy content

of the hot reservoir at a defined
volume.
 Volumetric Stored Heat Estimation

𝑺𝑻𝑶𝑹𝑬𝑫 𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑻 = 𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑻 𝑰𝑵 𝑹𝑶𝑪𝑲 + 𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑻 𝑰𝑵 𝑺𝑻𝑬𝑨𝑴 + 𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑻 𝑰𝑵 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹

𝑄 = 𝐴 × ℎ × 𝐶𝑟 × 𝜌𝑟 × 1 − 𝜙 × 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓 + 𝜌𝑠𝑖 × 𝜙 × 1 − 𝑆𝑤 × ℎ𝑠𝑖 − ℎ𝑤𝑖 + 𝜌𝑤𝑖 × 𝜙 × 𝑆𝑤 × ℎ𝑤𝑖 − ℎ𝑤𝑓

𝑄 = stored heat 𝑇𝑖 = initial average reservoir temperature

𝐴 = areal extent of the reservoir 𝑇𝑓 = base temperature

ℎ = average reservoir thickness 𝜌𝑠𝑖 , 𝜌𝑤𝑖 = steam and water density at reservoir temperature

𝐶𝑟 = specific heat of the rock at reservoir conditions 𝑆𝑤 = relative water saturation

𝜌𝑟 = rock density ℎ𝑠𝑖 , ℎ𝑤𝑖 = steam and water enthalpies at reservoir temperature

𝜙 = porosity ℎ𝑤𝑓 = water enthalpy at cut-off temperature

 Simplified Volumetric Stored Heat Estimation

𝑺𝑻𝑶𝑹𝑬𝑫 𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑻 = 𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑻 𝑰𝑵 𝑹𝑶𝑪𝑲 + 𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑻 𝑰𝑵 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹

𝑄 = 1000 × 𝐴 × ℎ × 𝜌𝑟 × 1 − 𝜙 × 𝐶𝑟 + 𝜌𝑓 × 𝜙 × 𝐶𝑓 × 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓

𝑄 = stored heat, MJ 𝜙 = porosity, %

𝐴 = areal extent of the reservoir, km2 𝜌𝑓 = fluid (liquid) density at reservoir temperature, kg/m3

ℎ = average reservoir thickness, m 𝐶𝑓 = specific heat of fluid at reservoir conditions, kJ/kg-°C

𝜌𝑟 = rock density, kg/m3 𝑇𝑖 = initial average reservoir temperature, °C

𝐶𝑟 = specific heat of the rock at reservoir conditions, kJ/kg-°C 𝑇𝑓 = base temperature, °C

 Electrical Power Potential, MWe

𝐸= power plant capacity, MWe

𝑄= total stored heat, MJ

𝑄 × 𝑅𝑓 × 𝜂𝑐
𝐸= 𝑅𝑓 = recovery factor (fraction of stored heat extracted)
𝐹×𝐿
𝜂𝑐 = conversion efficiency

𝐹= power plant capacity or load factor

𝐿= power plant life

 Reservoir Volume

A real extent multiplied by the drilled depth

plus drainage (additional storage depth)
that is usually 500m in convective
reservoirs.
 Reservoir Temperature

Average, NOT MAXIMUM, temperature

within the lateral and vertical extent of the
reservoir.
 Base Temperature

Typically < 100°C but dependent on the energy

conversion technology assumed except for a plant
with condensing steam turbine which is usually
150°C or more based on the separator temperature.
 Porosity

Pore space portion within a rock based on

geophysical logging and rock samples during well
drilling (1.5% – 15% range).
 Rock Density and Specific Heat

▪ Density ranges from 2650 kg/m 3 to 2800

kg/m3
▪ Specific heat ranges from 0.76 kJ/kg-°C
to 1.0 kJ/kg-°C
 Fluid Specific Heat
SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER
7.5 7.5

7.0 7
Specific heat, kJ/kg-oC

Specific heat, kJ/kg-oC

6.5 6.5

6.0 6

5.5 5.5

5.0 5

4.5 4.5

4.0 4
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
Temperature, oC
 Recovery Factor

Fraction of the stored heat economical for

extraction by the fluid to the production
wellhead.
 Recovery Factor

RESERVOIR MINIMUM MAXIMUM MEAN

Fracture-dominated with
8% 20% 14%
insufficient information
Sedimentary or porous volcanic-
hosted with moderate average 10% 25% 17.5%
porosity (< 7%)
Sedimentary or porous volcanic-
𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
hosted with high average
(maximum 50%)
porosity (> 7%)
 Conversion Efficiency

Source: Nathenson, 1975

 Conversion Efficiency

Source: Moon and Zarrouk, 2012

 Plant Capacity or Load Factor

Plant availability considering planned maintenance

activities and unforeseen outages with a typical
range of 90% to 95% but could be lower if the plant
uses novel technology or with high pumping
requirements.
 Power Plant Life

Commonly range is 20 to 30 years for stored heat

estimates and financial modeling but can be shorter
if the project has a fast pay-back period.
Monte Carlo Simulation
Monte Carlo Simulation
Decline Curve Analysis
 Decline Curve Analysis

Forecasts future output of wells affected by

pressure drawdown over a short period of
time using decline rates.
 Decline Curve Analysis

𝑀𝑖
𝑀= 𝑀 = flow rate at time ∆𝑡, kg/s
1 + 𝐷𝑖 ∆𝑡
𝑀𝑖 = initial flow rate at time zero, kg/s
Harmonic decline
𝐷𝑖 = initial harmonic decline rate

𝑀 = 𝑀𝑖 × 𝑒 −𝐷∆𝑡 𝐷 = constant exponential decline rate

Exponential decline
 Decline Curve Analysis

Historical Data
MASS FLOW RATE

Forecast

TIME
Lumped – Parameter Modeling
 Lumped – Parameter Modeling

Utilizes pressure response predictions with

time (pressure drawdown) to approximate
production potential of the resource.
 Lumped – Parameter Modeling

𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃 = pressure drawdown, bara

𝑀 = mass withdrawal rate, kg/s

𝛼𝑟 = recharge coefficient, kg/s-bar

𝑡 = any time during production

𝑀 𝑡
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃 = × 1− 𝑒 −𝜏
𝛼𝑟 𝜏 = pressure relaxation time
 Based on Geothermal Lexicon for Resources and
Reserves Definition and Reporting (2010, Edition 2)

METHOD / PHASE EXPLORATION DELINEATION PRODUCTION EXPANSION

Yes, preferred
STORED HEAT Yes Largely redundant Largely redundant
method

DECLINE CURVE
No No Yes Yes
ANALYSIS

LUMPED-
Yes, but not
PARAMETER Yes Yes, in some cases Yes, in some cases
advisable
MODELING

NUMERICAL
Yes, but not Yes, but low Yes, preferred Yes, preferred
SIMULATION
advisable confidence method method
MODELING
Resource Management
Pre-Exploitation Model
Changes as Result of Exploitation
 Importance of Resource Management

▪ Essential for updating reservoir model and field management

schemes based on interpretation of detailed geoscience and reservoir
data (both physical and chemical)
▪ Needed in creating drilling programs
▪ Helps in project planning for field modifications and expansion
▪ Aims to build long-term resource management strategies with
minimal risks and cost
Resource Management Parameters

▪ Size
▪ Temperature
▪ Permeability
▪ Fluid chemistry
 Effects of Resource Exploitation

▪ Decline in reservoir pressure ▪ Corrosion

▪ Expanding two-phase ▪ Groundwater incursion
condition ▪ Environmental contaminants
▪ Reinjection returns ▪ Thermal activity and
▪ Scaling hydrothermal eruptions
▪ Gas content ▪ Ground subsidence
Reservoir Monitoring
 Production Wells Monitoring

ACTIVITY DATA COLLECTED

Online testing Steam and water chemistry
MF, H, WHP,
Offline output testing
Steam and water chemistry
Downhole surveys Locations of obstructions, P and T
Downhole sampling Water chemistry
Downhole calipers Location of obstructions, corrosion
Downhole scrapers Composition of blockages
Steam Lines and Turbines Monitoring

ACTIVITY DATA COLLECTED

Dissolved solids, wetness,
Steam quality testing
NCG
Service inspections Scale samples
 Deep Monitor Wells

ACTIVITY DATA COLLECTED

Downhole surveys WHP, P and T
Downhole sampling Water chemistry
 Injection Wells Monitoring

ACTIVITY DATA COLLECTED

Online testing Capacity measurements
Offline output testing Pressure fall-off
Locations of obstructions, P
Downhole surveys
and T
Downhole sampling Water chemistry
Location of obstructions,
Downhole calipers
corrosion
Downhole scrapers Recover blockage samples
 Injection Lines Monitoring

ACTIVITY DATA COLLECTED

Total, monomeric and
Online testing
polymeric silica levels
Location and extent of scale
Offline examination
formation
 Surface Monitoring

ACTIVITY DATA COLLECTED

Flow rate, distribution and
Thermal activity
chemistry
Pressure measurements and
Water wells
chemistry
Piezometer holes Groundwater levels
Micro seismicity Micro seismic data
Reservoir Monitoring Parameters

▪ Fluid chemistry
▪ Pressure
▪ Temperature
▪ Enthalpy
▪ Flow or Capacity (steam and brine)
 Reservoir Monitoring Measurements

▪ Geochemistry sampling
▪ Steam and weir flow measurements
▪ Tracer Flow Test (TFT)
▪ Reservoir tracer test
▪ Well Test and Measurement (WTM)
Well Measurements
Vertical and Horizontal Discharge Tests
Separator and Permanent Silencer Tests
Tracer Flow Test (TFT)
 Tracer Flow Test (TFT)

Injection set-up Sampling set-up

 Interference and Reservoir Tracer Tests

▪ Measure field interconnections

▪ Identify subsurface flow connections and paths

▪ Use pressure interference or tracers

▪ Important for injection strategies and determining make-up and

reinjection drilling requirements

▪ Requires an active well and monitoring/sampling well

Other Well Testing Activities
Well Quenching
 Hydraulic Fracturing (Hydrofrac)

Sample programme only

Hydraulic fracturing (hydrofrac)
Cold Pumping Test

▪ To verify reinjection capacity of the

well using cold water
▪ Pump capacity is a constraint
▪ Done by gradually increasing the
pump rate until maximum
acceptance of the well is achieved
Reservoir Modeling
 Benefits of Reservoir Modeling

▪ Analytical and numerical modeling are used in predicting

reservoir response to production/injection of the field.
▪ Numerical simulation is the most effective tool to forecast
reservoir behavior.
▪ If all data are sufficiently provided, the numerical model will be
a reliable tool for reservoir management and reserve
estimation.
 Geothermal reservoir model

Well Pad S
N
0

-500

COLD INFLOW 140°

-1000 Well 1

-1500 Well 9
Well 8
Well 2 Well 3
-2000
Well 7 Well 10
Well 4 Well 6
-2500
Well 5 UPFLOW

-3000 300°
0 1000m Well 11 Well 12
 ME165-2

ME165-2
Nuclear and Geothermal Energy
Mapúa Institute of Technology at Laguna

CENTRALIZED COURSE CONTENT AND CONSTRUCTION

12.0 Types of Geothermal System

Prepared by:
Engr. Estelito V. Mamuyac
09 November 2024
Types of Geothermal Systems
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QcrO76xh8k0
 Types of Geothermal Systems
(3 types of geothermal systems in commercial use (electricity production) in the world)
•3 types of geothermal systems in commercial
use (electricity production) in the world:
1) Dry steam plants https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImSBDS54uFw
2) Flash steam plants https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJH7AZG7J64
3) Binary plants https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bV0D8hN9wNA
I. Dry steam plants:
Similar to conventional
steam plants.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImSBDS54uFw
 Dry Steam Plants

• Steam plants use hydrothermal fluids that are

primarily steam.
• The steam goes directly to a turbine, which drives a
generator that produces electricity.
• The steam eliminates the need to burn fossil fuels
to run the turbine. (Also eliminating the need to
transport and store fuels.)
 Dry Steam Plants

• This is the oldest type of geothermal power plant.

• It was first used at Lardarello in Italy in 1904. Steam
technology is used today at The Geysers in northern
California, the world's largest single source of
geothermal electricity.
• These plants emit only excess steam and very minor
amounts of gases.
 Dry Steam Plants
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4zA_YPCyHs
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dAUlLQIj_wk

Old Faithful is a cone geyser

located in Wyoming, in Yellowstone
National Park in the United States.
Old Faithful was named in 1870
during the Washburn-Langford-
Doane Expedition and was the first
geyser in the park to receive a
name.
2. Flash steam plants: Most common type of
geothermal power generation plants in operation
today.
a. Single flash plants: Hot water after separation from the
steam is evaporated by using part of the power and fed back
to the steam plant.
b. Double flash plant: The hot water is evaporated to steam a
second time, just as in single-flash plants.
c. Multiple flash plants: The same is repeated several times
until all hot water is used economically.
 Flash Steam Plants
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ImSBDS54uFw
 Flash Steam Plants

• Hydrothermal fluids above 360°F (182°C) can be used in

flash plants to make electricity.
• Fluid is sprayed into a tank held at a much lower pressure
than the fluid, causing some of the fluid to rapidly
vaporize, or "flash."
• The vapor then drives a turbine, which drives a generator.
• If any liquid remains in the tank, it can be flashed again in
a second tank (double flash) to extract even more energy.
 Geothermal Power Plant Cycles

• Single Flash

Single flash cycle schematic

 Single Flash

• The geothermal fluid enters the well at the source inlet

temperature, station 1.
• Due to the well pressure loss the fluid has started to boil at
station 2, when it enters the separator.
• The brine from the separator is at station 3, and is re-injected
at station 4, the geothermal fluid return condition.
• The steam from the separator is at station 5, where the steam
enters the turbine.
 Single Flash

• The steam is then expanded through

the turbine down to station 6, where
the condenser pressure prevails.

• The condenser shown here is air

cooled, with the cooling air entering
the condenser at station c1 and
leaving at station c2.
• The condenser hot well is at station
7. The fluid is re-injected at station 4.
Single Flash

• Typically, such a process is

displayed on a thermodynamic T-s
diagram, where the temperature
in the cycle is plotted against the
entropy.

• The condition at station 1 is

usually compressed liquid. In
vapor dominated fields, such as
Lardarello in Italy, the inflow is in
the wet region close to the vapor
saturation line.
Single Flash

T-s Diagram of a
Single Flash Cycle
Single Flash

T-h Diagram of a
Single Flash Cycle
Double Flash
 Double Flash
• This flash plant is a development on the design of the single flash plant.
• It can produce from about 15% to 25% more electrical power
output for similar geothermal fluid properties as compared with the
single flash one.
• This plant type is more costly, more complex, and needs more
repairing, additional power production rises its utility.
• The main fundamental characteristic of the double flash plant is that
the separated liquid from the flash chamber is utilized to yield extra
steam at a smaller pressure flashing process. The additional separated
steam also enters the turbine to produce the extra additional
electricity.
Geothermal Power Plant Cycles

• Double Flash

Double flash cycle schematic

 Double Flash
• The geothermal fluid enters the well at the source inlet
temperature, station 1.
• Due to the well pressure loss the fluid has started to boil at
station 2, when it enters the separator.
• The brine from the separator is at station 3, and is throttled
down to a lower pressure level at station 8.
• The partly boiled brine is then led to a low pressure
separator, where the steam is led to the turbine at station 9.
Double Flash

• The turbine is designed in such a way,

that the pressure difference over the
first stages is the same as the
pressure difference between the high
and low-pressure separators.
• The mass flow in the lower pressure
stages of the turbine is then higher
than in the high-pressure stages, just
the opposite of what happens in a
traditional fuel fired power plant with
a bleed for the feedwater heaters
from the turbine.
Double Flash

• The brine from the low-pressure

separator is at station 10, and is then
re-injected at station 4, the
geothermal fluid return condition.
• The steam from the high-pressure
separator is at station 5, where the
steam enters the turbine.
• The low-pressure steam enters the
turbine a few stages later, at station
9.
Double Flash

• The steam is then expanded

through the turbine down to
station 6, where the condenser
pressure prevails.
• The condenser shown here is air
cooled, with the cooling air
entering the condenser at
station c1 and leaving at station
c2.
• The condenser hot well is at
station 7. The fluid is re-injected
at station 4.
Double Flash

T-s Diagram of a
Double Flash Cycle
Double Flash

T-h Diagram of a
Double Flash Cycle
3) Binary Plants: The hot water is utilized in heat
exchangers to evaporate ammonia or freon in a
closed Rankin cycle.
 Binary Plant
How Binary Geothermal Power Station Works
 Binary Plants

• Most geothermal areas contain moderate-temperature water

(below 400°F). Energy is extracted from these fluids in
binary-cycle power plants.
• Hot geothermal fluid and a secondary (hence, "binary") fluid
with a much lower boiling point than water pass through a
heat exchanger.
• Heat from the geothermal fluid causes the secondary fluid to
flash to vapor, which then drives the turbines.
 Binary Plants

• Because this is a closed-loop system, virtually

nothing is emitted to the atmosphere.
• Moderate-temperature water is by far the more
common geothermal resource, and most geothermal
power plants in the future will be binary-cycle plants.
 Geothermal Power Plant Cycles

• Organic Rankine Cycle

(ORC)

Flow diagram for an ORC cycle with regeneration

Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

• The geothermal fluid enters the well at

the source inlet temperature, station s1.
The fluid is frequently liquid water.
• If the pressure is kept sufficiently high, no
non-condensable gases will be separated
from the liquid, and a gas extraction
system is not necessary. The fluid is then
cooled down in the vaporizer and sent to
re-injection at station s2.
• Pre-heated (in the regenerator) ORC fluid
enters the vaporizer at station 2. The fluid
is heated to saturation in the vaporizer, or
even with superheat in some cases. The
vapor leaves the vaporizer at station 3 and
enters the turbine.
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

• The exit vapor from the turbine

enters the regenerator at station
4, where the superheat in the
steam can be used to pre-heat
the condensed fluid prior to
vaporizer entry. The now cooled
vapor enters the condenser at
station 5, where it is condensed
down to saturated liquid at
station 6.
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

• A circulation pump raises the

pressure from the condenser
pressure up to the high pressure
level in station 1. There, the fluid
enters the regenerator for pre-
heat before vaporizer entry.
• The condenser shown here is air
cooled, with the cooling air
entering the condenser at station
c1 and leaving at station c2.
 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

T-s Diagram of an Organic

Rankine Cycle
 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

T-h Diagram of an Organic

Rankine Cycle
 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

• Regeneration
• Regeneration will increase the power plant efficiency. Then a part of
the rejected heat is recovered for input to the power plant.
• If the plant were run on fuel, this would lead to direct fuel savings. This
is not the case in geothermal power production.
• There, the wells have certain maximum flow rate, and the well cost is
usually entirely fixed, has very little if any relation to the flow from the
well.
• The more the fluid from the well can be cooled, the more heat can be
input to the power plant.
 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

• Regeneration (cont’d.)
• Regeneration increases the temperature of the working fluid at the
vaporizer entry and leads thus to higher geothermal fluid exit
temperature from the vaporizer.
• The heat removal from the geothermal fluid is thus partly replaced
by the recovered heat.
 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

• Regeneration (cont’d.)
• There is frequently a lower temperature limit on the
geothermal fluid temperature.
• This limit may be imposed by chemistry (danger of scaling) or
the requirements of a secondary process, such as district
heating.
• If this is the case, regeneration can help.
 ME165-2

ME165-2
Nuclear and Geothermal Energy
Mapúa Institute of Technology at Laguna

CENTRALIZED COURSE CONTENT AND CONSTRUCTION

12.1 Geothermal Energy (Part-4) - STEAMFIELD AND

POWER PLANT
Prepared by:
Engr. Estelito V. Mamuyac
12 November 2024
Geothermal Steamfield and Power Plant
 Conventional Fossil-Fuel Fired Power System

QH
Temp-Entropy Diagram
2
BOILER

2 1
WP WS
PUMP TURBINE

T 3
1
CONDENSER
4
4 3 QC

S Ws - W Ws
p
Eff = =
QH QH
 Conventional Geothermal Power System

SEPARATOR
GAS
2
Temp-Entropy Diagram
EXTRACTOR
TURBINE
GENERATOR
COOLING
TOWER
1 3
WS QC
3 5
2
T 7
QH CONDENSER
4
COOLING
WATER
PUMP
1
6 4 PW 7
RI CONDENSATE
5 X' PUMP WP BLOWDOWN
PUMP
6
S Ws COND
Eff = RI
EX
 Pressure-enthalpy diagram

3
2 2’ 3’
6

PROD

5 4 4’
 Fluid collection and re-injection system (FCRS)

Separate
Separator Vessel

Two-Phase Line Steam Line

To Power Plant
Convert
Collect

Re-Injection Line
Recycle
Production Well

Re-Injection Well
 Flash plant system

TWO-PHASE
STEAM Turbine-
Generator

BRINE
PRODUCTION
WELL
REINJECTION
WELL
 Single flash plant system
Separator Vessel
Production Well
B C
1
HP Turbine

A
To Condenser

Re-Injection Well
 Production and reinjection wells

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

 Two-phase pipelines

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

 Separator vessels

©Ken Maturgo (2015) ©Ken Maturgo (2015)

Double flash separators Wellhead separator
 Separator vessel

Inlet

Inlet
 Separator vessel
Fc = Centrifugal Force, N
𝑴𝑽𝟐 M = Mass, kg
𝑭𝒄 = V = Velocity, m/s
𝒓
r = Radius of Rotation
Inlet

Inlet
Silica saturation at separator vessel

Source: Zarrouk and Purnanto, 2013

 Steam pipelines

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

Reinjection pipelines
 Rock muffler

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

Demister (Wet scrubber)

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

 PROCESS FLOW OF A GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT
Transformer
Steam

Non-
condensible
Gases
Transmission Line
Customers
Turbine
Cooling Tower

Generator
Fan
Gas
Extraction
System Air Air

Cooling Tower Basin

ACWP
Condenser Auxiliary Cooling Blowdown
Water System
LEGEND
Condensate Line GECWP
Gas Extraction Cooling
Cooling Water Line Hotwell Pump Water System
Non-condensible Gas Line
ACWP Auxiliary Cooling Water Pump
GECWP Gas Extraction Cooling Water Pump
 First turbine-generator of Wairakei (11.2 MW)

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

Turbine-generator casing
 Turbine rotor and blades

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

 Direct contact condenser

Axial Exhaust Down Exhaust Top Exhaust

Source: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., 2007

 Down exhaust, direct contact condenser

Turbine-
generator

Condenser

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

 Cooling tower

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

©Ken Maturgo (2015)
Mechanical draft cooling tower Natural draft cooling tower
 Air-cooled cooling tower for binary plant

©Ken Maturgo (2015)

 Plant control room

©Ken Maturgo (2015) ©Ken Maturgo (2015)

Single Flash Geothermal Plant
 SEPARATOR
Htotal
𝑯 − 𝒉𝒇
𝒙=
𝒉𝒈 − 𝒉𝒇

hg at Pseparator
𝒎𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 = 𝒙 (𝑴𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 )
𝒎𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝑴𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 − 𝒎𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎
hf at Pseparator

hwell 1 hwell 2

𝑴𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑯𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝒎𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝟏 𝒉𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝟏 + 𝒎𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝟐 𝒉𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝟐

WELL 1 WELL 2
Fluid Flow in Geothermal Wells & Pipes
 Wellbore equations
𝑃 = wellbore pressure

𝑍 = elevation or depth 𝒅𝑷 𝒇𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒗

= 𝒈𝝆 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + + 𝝆𝒗
𝒅𝒁 𝟐𝑫 𝒅𝒁
𝑔 = gravitational acceleration

𝜌 = fluid mixture density

𝟏
𝒇=
𝜃 = drift angle (𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑫/𝜺)𝟐

𝑓 = friction factor of the casing

θ
𝑴𝒕 = 𝑴𝟏 + 𝑴𝟐 + 𝑴𝟑
𝑣 = fluid velocity

𝐷 = wellbore diameter
𝑴𝒕 𝑯𝒕 = 𝑴𝟏 𝑯𝟏 + 𝑴𝟐 𝑯𝟐 + 𝑴𝟑 𝑯𝟑
𝜀 = roughness of the casing

𝑀 = feed zone mass flow rate

M1
ℎ = feed zone enthalpy H1 M2 M3
H2 H3
For single phase flow
TWO-PHASE FLOW
Source: Palsson, Bergthorsson and Palsson, 2006
 Mandhane
Flow Pattern
Map
Two-phase pressure drop correlations for pipes

▪ Empirical model (“Line of best fit method”)

▪ Phenomenological model (“Calibrated model”)

▪ Analytical model (“Pure analytical method”)

 Two-phase pressure drop correlations for pipes
CORRELATION EMPIRICAL PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYTICAL
Lockhart & Martinelli ✓
Homogeneous Model ✓
Chisholm ✓
Dukler II ✓
Friedel ✓
Dueymes ✓
Beggs – Brill ✓
Brill – Mukherjee ✓
Harrison – Freeston ✓
Zhoa – Freeston ✓
 Applicability of two-phase pressure
drop equations for pipes
1. The Harrison method works well for pipes with diameters of 200mm to 300mm.
2. For pipe diameters of 400mm to 450mm, experience showed that the Harrison method
underestimates the pressure drop. Experience suggest that for slugging flow, the averaged
pressure drop from the Harrison and Homogeneous methods should be used. While for annular
flow, a correction factor of 25% should be added to the average of the corrected Harrison and
Homogeneous methods.
3. For pipe diameter 600mm to 700mm, the Friedel method works best, while all the other models
underestimate the pressure drop.
4. For very large pipe diameter > 1000mm, the flow in the pipeline will mainly become stratified
(water at the bottom of the pipe and steam on top) and the current Mandhane diagram may not
accurately work. It is an area of high interest but not much published information is available.
5. The results from all different methods/calculations should be used with caution as two phase
pressure drop predictions are combination of science and experience.
 Assignment: AS 3-2
A geothermal power plant with two Calculate the following:
production wells and one reinjection well is
a. Steam flow of production well no. 2
operating at a separator pressure of 6.5 bar b. Enthalpy of the two-phase fluid
gauge, turbine inlet pressure of 6.0 bar gauge entering the separator
and condenser pressure of 0.12 bar absolute. c. Steam flow going to the turbine
d. Brine flow for reinjection
Production well no. 1 has a mass flow rate of e. Gross turbine power
35 kg/s and enthalpy of 2100 kJ/kg. Production f. Actual enthalpy of the exhaust steam
well no. 2 has a steam fraction of 60% and at the turbine
enthalpy of 1900 kJ/kg. Total mass flow g. Net generation
h. Flow rate of the exhaust steam
entering the separator is 85 kg/s. Isentropic i. Flow rate of the cooling water needed
efficiency of the turbine is 80%. The power for recirculation at the condenser
plant’s house load due to pumps and j. Sales in peso if the electricity costs
compressors is 1 MW. Php 5 per KWh
Single flash plant system

3
2 2’ 3’
6

5 4 4’
Double flash plant system
Double Flash – Conventional with Topping Cycle (EDC – Leyte)

HP SEPARATOR MAIN POWER PLANT

TOPPING CYCLE PLANT

TURBINE GAS
GENERATOR COMPRESSOR
GAS
EJECTOR
TURBINE
GENERATOR
COOLING
SCRUBBER TOWER
PW

LP FLASH
VESSEL DIRECT COOLING
CONTACT WATER
CONDENSER PUMP

HOTWELL BLOWDOWN
PUMP
RI
COND RI
Double Flash – Conventional with Bottoming Cycle (EDC – Leyte)

MAIN POWER PLANT

GAS
EJECTOR COOLING
HP TURBINE TOWER
GENERATOR

DIRECT
CONTACT COOLING
WATER
CONDENSER PUMP
HP SEPARATOR HOTWELL
PUMP BLOWDOWN

COND RI
BOTTOMING CYCLE PLANT

GAS
COMPRESSOR
LP FLASH COOLING
VESSEL LP TURBINE TOWER
GENERATOR
PW
SURFACE
RI CONDENSER
COOLING
WATER
PUMP

CONDENSATE
PUMP BLOWDOWN

COND RI
Binary (ORC) plant system
 Single Flash – Binary Cycle (EDC – Leyte)

SEPARATOR

TURBINE
GENERATOR AIR COOLED CONDENSER

TURBINE
GENERATOR

WATER DRUM VAPORIZER

NCG

BRINE CONDENSATE
PW PUMP
NCG TO H 2S ABATEMENT TANK
OR TO STACK

PRE-HEATER #2
RI CONDENSATE
PUMP

PRE-HEATER #1
CYCLE
PUMP

COND RI
Reservoir enthalpy with corresponding
energy conversion system

Source: Moon and Zarrouk, 2012

Reservoir enthalpy with corresponding
energy conversion system

Source: Moon and Zarrouk, 2012

Energy conversion efficiency
of a Geothermal Power Plant

Source: Moon and Zarrouk, 2012

Kalina cycle
PRODUCTION

AMMONIA / WATER
TURBINE
SUPERHEATER

RECUPERATOR

PREHEATER
EVAPORATOR

COOLING
REINJECTION WATER / AIR
CONDENSER
Enhanced geothermal system (EGS)