CS13101

FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

INSTRUCTOR:
Dr. Devarani Devi Ningombam
Assistant Professor
1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering
National Institute of Technology Patna
Email id: [email protected]
 UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Lectures: 4
2
3 ROADMAP
Introduction: Definition
Characteristics of Computer
Evolution of Computer
Generations of Computer
Classification of Computer
Applications of Computers
Capabilities and Limitations of Computer
4 What is a COMPUTER?
 A computer is an electronic machine that
accepts data from the user, processes the data
by performing calculations and operations on
it, and generates the desired output results.
 Computer performs both simple and complex
operations, with speed and accuracy.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
5
 1. SPEED: A powerful computer can handle trillions of instructions per second. It is
measured in micro-sec and nano-sec.
6
2. ACCURACY: The degree of accuracy in computers is very high; computers can
perform calculations at almost 100% accuracy.
3. DILIGENCE: Unlike a human, the computer doesn’t get tired or lacks its
concentration.
4. VERSATILITY: Computer has the ability to perform completely different kinds of
works with the same accuracy and efficiency at the same time.
5. RELIABILITY
6. CONSISTENCY: Computer can perform trillions of processes without errors for
several hours.
7. MEMORY: Computer has a built-in memory, where it can store instant data
immediately.
8. STORAGE
9. REMEMBRANCE
10. AUTOMATION: Computer can also be used to automate routine tasks.
7 ROADMAP
 Introduction: Definition
 Characteristics of Computer
 Evolution of Computer
 Generations of Computer
 Classification of Computer
 Applications of Computers
 Capabilities and Limitations of Computer
8 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER

 The evolution of computer to the current state is defined in terms

of the generations of computer.
 Each generation of computer is designed based on a new
technological development, resulting in better, cheaper and
smaller computers that are more powerful, faster and efficient
than their predecessors.
 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER
9
 First Generation Computers: Vacuum Tubes
10
(1942-1959)

Hardware Technology

 Software Technology: The instructions were written in machine language.

Machine language uses 0s and 1s for coding of the instructions.
 Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in milliseconds.
 Physical Appearance: These computers were enormous in size and required
a large room for installation. (Limitation)
 Second Generation Computers: Transistors
11
(1959-1965)

 Hardware Technology: Transistors allowed computers to become

smaller, faster, cheaper, energy efficient and reliable.
 Software Technology: The instructions were written using the assembly
language. Assembly language uses mnemonics like ADD for addition
and SUB for subtraction for coding of the instructions.
 Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in microseconds.
 Physical Appearance: Transistors are smaller in size compared to
vacuum tubes, thus, the size of the computer was also reduced.
 Third Generation Computers: ICs
12
(1965-1975)
 Hardware Technology: The third generation
computers used the Integrated Circuit (IC) chips.
 Software Technology: The keyboard and the
monitor were interfaced through the operating
system. Operating system allowed different
applications to run at the same time.

 Computing Characteristics The computation time was in

nanoseconds.
 Physical Appearance The size of these computers was quite small
compared to the second generation computers.
 Fourth Generation Computers: Microprocessors
13 (1975-1988)
 Hardware Technology: They use the Large Scale
Integration (LSI) and the Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of
transistors are integrated on a small silicon chip
using LSI technology.
 Software Technology: operating systems like the
MS-DOS and MS Windows and supported
Graphical User Interface (GUI).
 Computing Characteristics: The computation time
is in picoseconds.
 Physical Appearance: They are smaller than the
computers of the previous generation. Some can
even fit into the palm of the hand.
 Fifth Generation Computers: ULSI
14
(1988-Present)
 Contains millions of components on a single chip
 In development stage which is based on AI
 This generation of computers uses parallel processing

Examples: Robots, Supercomputers

15
16 ROADMAP
 Introduction: Definition
 Characteristics of Computer
 Evolution of Computer
 Generations of Computer
 Classification of Computer
 Applications of Computers
 Capabilities and Limitations of Computer
17 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

 Data Handling Capability: Analog, Digital and Hybrid

 Functionality: General purpose and Special purpose
 Size: Personal-computer, Workstation, Mini-computer,
Mainframe-computer, Super-computer

1.Supercomputer
2.Mainframe computer
3.Minicomputer
4.Workstation
5.PC (Personal Computer)
18 ANALOG COMPUTER

 It uses the continuously-changeable aspects of physical fact

 Any thing that is variable with respect to time and continuous
can be claimed as analog
 It gives output as a reading on a dial or scale. For example
speedometer, mercury thermometer, etc.
 19 DIGITAL COMPUTER
 A computer that performs calculations and logical
operations with quantities represented as digits,
usually in the binary number system of “0” and “1”.
 Computer capable of solving problems by
processing information expressed in discrete form.
 It only understands the binary input 0 and 1, so the
raw input data is converted to 0 and 1 by the
computer and then it is processed by the computer
to produce the result or final output.
 All modern computers, like laptops, desktops
including smartphones are digital computers.
20 HYBRID COMPUTER

 A computer that processes both analog and digital data, Hybrid

computer is a digital computer that accepts analog signals,
converts them to digital and processes them in digital form
 A processor which is used in petrol pumps that converts the
measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price is an example
of a hybrid computer.
21 COMPARISON
22 TYPES OF COMPUTERS BASED ON FUNCTIONALITY
23 TYPES OF COMPUTERS BASED ON SIZE:
SUPERCOMPUTER
 biggest and fastest computers (in terms of speed of processing
data).
 designed such that they can process a huge amount of data,
like processing trillions of instructions or data just in a second.
 basically used in scientific and engineering applications such
as weather forecasting, scientific simulations, and nuclear
energy research.
24 TYPES OF COMPUTERS BASED ON SIZE:
MAINFRAME COMPUTER
 designed in such a way that it can support hundreds or
thousands of users at the same time.
 also supports multiple programs simultaneously.
 all these features make the mainframe computer ideal for big
organizations like banking, telecom sectors, etc., which process
a high volume of data in general.
25 TYPES OF COMPUTERS BASED ON SIZE:
MINI COMPUTER
 medium size multiprocessing computer.
 there are two or more processors, and it supports 4 to 200 users
at one time.
 are used in places like institutes or departments for different
work like billing, accounting, inventory management etc.
26 TYPES OF COMPUTERS BASED ON SIZE:
WORKSTATION
 designed for technical or scientific applications.
 consists of a fast microprocessor, with a large amount of RAM
and high speed graphic adapter.
 a single-user computer.
 generally used to perform a specific task with great accuracy.
27 TYPES OF COMPUTERS BASED ON SIZE:
PERSONAL COMPUTER
 also known as a microcomputer.
 basically a general-purpose computer and designed for
individual use.
 consists of a microprocessor as a central processing unit(CPU),
memory, input unit, and output unit.
 suitable for personal work such as making an assignment,
watching a movie, or at office for office work, etc.
 example, Laptops and desktop computers.
28 ROADMAP
 Introduction: Definition
 Characteristics of Computer
 Evolution of Computer
 Generations of Computer
 Classification of Computer
 Applications of Computers
 Capabilities and Limitations of Computer
29 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
30 CAPABILITIES OF COMPUTER
 1. SPEED: A powerful computer can handle trillions of instructions per second. It is
measured in micro-sec and nano-sec.
31
2. ACCURACY: The degree of accuracy in computers is very high; computers can
perform calculations at almost 100% accuracy.
3. DILIGENCE: Unlike a human, the computer doesn’t get tired or lacks its
concentration.
4. VERSATILITY: Computer has the ability to perform completely different kinds of
works with the same accuracy and efficiency at the same time.
5. RELIABILITY
6. CONSISTENCY: Computer can perform trillions of processes without errors for
several hours.
7. MEMORY: Computer has a built-in memory, where it can store instant data
immediately.
8. STORAGE
9. REMEMBRANCE
10. AUTOMATION: Computer can also be used to automate routine tasks.
32 LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER

Garbage In Garbage Out

 END OF UNIT 1
33
 CS13101
FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Instructor:
DR. DEVARANI DEVI NINGOMBAM
Assistant Professor
1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering
National Institute of Technology Patna
Email id: [email protected]
 UNIT 2

THE COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE

LECTURES: 3
2
3
ROADMAP
Basic computer organization: role of I/O devices
Input units: Keyboard, terminals and its types, pointing devices
Scanners and its types
Voice recognition systems, Vision input system, Touch screen
Output units: monitors and its types
Printers: impact printers and its types
Non impact printers and its types
Plotters and its types, sound cards, speakers
4 WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION?
 deals with how the hardware components operate and the
way they are connected to form the computer.
 It consists of three main components—
(1) Input/Output (I/O) Unit,
(2) Central Processing Unit (CPU), and
(3) Memory Unit.
 5 5 BASIC OPERATIONS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM **

1. Inputting: The process of entering data and instructions into the

computer system
2. Storing: Saving data and instructions to make them readily available
for initial or additional processing whenever required
3. Processing: Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply,
divide, etc.) or logical operations (comparisons like equal to, less than,
greater than, etc.) on data to convert them into useful information.
4. Outputting: The process of producing useful information or results for
the user such as a printed report or visual display
5. Controlling: Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the
above operations are performed
 BASIC ORGANIZATION OF A COMPUTER
6
SYSTEM**
7
INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) UNITS
An input unit of a computer system performs the following functions:
i. it accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside world
ii. it converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form
iii. it supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer
system for further processing
An output unit of a computer system performs the following functions:
i. accepts the results produced by the computer, which are in coded
form and hence, cannot be easily understood by us
ii. it converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form
iii. it supplies the converted results to outside world
8
STORAGE UNIT

The storage unit of a computer system holds (or stores) the following :
1. Data and instructions required for processing (received from input
devices)
2. Intermediate results of processing
3. Final results of processing, before they are released to an output
device
9
PRIMARY & SECONDARY STORAGE
1. Primary storage
- Hold running program instructions, data, intermediate results, and
results of ongoing processing of job(s)
- Small Capacity & Fast in operation
- Expensive & Volatile
2. Secondary storage
- Hold stored program instructions, data and information of stored jobs
- Large Capacity & slower than primary storage
- Lot cheaper that primary storage & Non-Volatile
10
ALU & CU

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place

where the actual executions of instructions takes place during
processing operation.
 Control Unit (CU) of a computer system manages and coordinates
the operations of all other components of the computer system
11
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

 It is the brain of a computer system

 It is responsible for controlling the operations of all other units of a
computer system
12
ROADMAP
Basic computer organization: role of I/O devices
Input units: Keyboard, terminals and its types, pointing devices
Scanners and its types
Voice recognition systems, Vision input system, Touch screen
Output units: monitors and its types
Printers: impact printers and its types
Non impact printers and its types
Plotters and its types, sound cards, speakers
 KEYBOARD
13
Description: The design of a keyboard is similar to a standard
typewriter. The modern keyboards are QWERTY keyboard (Q, W, E,
R, T, Y are the sequence of keys in top row of letters).
 Standard keyboard contains 101 keys which are arranged in the same
order as a typewriter.
 The keyboard has five sections (1) Typing keys (1, 2, 3…, A, B,
C…), (2) Numeric keypad (numeric keys on right side), (3) Function
keys (F1, F2…. on top side), (4) Control keys (cursor keys, ctrl,
alt.…), and (5) Special-purpose keys (Enter, shift, spacebar…).
 POINTING DEVICES
14
1. Mouse: The mouse can be used in five different ways:
 Pointing points to a location or object on the computer screen. The
cursor moves in the direction in which the mouse moves.
 Left Click or Click: Clicking is used to select a button, command or
icon on the screen.
 Right Click: Right click displays a menu that contains options like cut,
copy, paste, font, paragraph, etc. for the item on which the mouse is
pointing.
 Double Click is used to start a program or open a folder.
 Drag and Drop drags an object and drops it at another location.
 POINTING DEVICES
15
2. Joystick: Commonly used for video games, flight simulators, training
simulators, and for controlling industrial robots.

3. Electronic Pen: Used to directly point with it on the screen to select menu
items or icons or directly draw graphics on the screen.
4. Touch Screen: Enables users to choose from available options by simply
touching with their finger the desired icon or menu item displayed on the
screen
16
ROADMAP
Basic computer organization: role of I/O devices
Input units: Keyboard, terminals and its types, pointing devices
Scanners and its types
Voice recognition systems, Vision input system, Touch screen
Output units: monitors and its types
Printers: impact printers and its types
Non impact printers and its types
Plotters and its types, sound cards, speakers
 SCANNERS AND TYPES
17

Scanner: enables direct data entry into a computer system from source
documents. Thus, it eliminates the need to key in text data into the computer.
TYPES:
1. HAND-HELD SCANNERS: are portable and are placed over the document to
be scanned. They consist of light emitting diodes. The scanned documents are
converted and stored as an image in the computer memory.
They are difficult to use if there is a need to scan a full page document.
2. FLAT-BED SCANNERS: provide high quality scan in a single pass and has a
glass top and a lid that covers the glass.
They are largely used to scan full page documents.
 VOICE RECOGNITION SYSTEM & TYPES
18

1. Single word recognition systems: they can recognize only a single

spoken words, such as YES, NO, MOVE, STOP, at a time. Speaker-
independent systems are mostly of this type
2. Continuous speech recognition systems: they can recognize spoken
sentences, such as MOVE TO THE NEXT BLOCK. Such systems
are normally speaker dependent.
19 USES OF VOICE RECOGNITION SYSTEM
1. For inputting data to a computer system by a person in situations
where his/her hands are busy, or his/her eyes must be fixed on a
measuring instrument or some other object
2. For data input by dictation of long text or passage for later editing
and review.
3. For authentication of a user by a computer system based on voice
input
4. For limited use of computers by individuals with physical
disabilities
 VISION INPUT SYSEM
20

1. Allow computer to accept input just by seeing an object.

2. Input data is normally an object’s shape and features in the form of
an image
3. Mainly used today in factories for designing industrial robots that are
used for quality-control and assembly processes.
21
ROADMAP
Basic computer organization: role of I/O devices
Input units: Keyboard, terminals and its types, pointing devices
Scanners and its types
Voice recognition systems, Vision input system, Touch screen
Output units: monitors and its types
Printers: impact printers and its types, Non impact printers and
its types, Plotters and its types
Sound cards, speakers
 OUTPUT UNITS: MONITORS AND TYPES
22

Monitor associated with a keyboard is called a video display terminal

(VDT). It is the most popular I/O Device.
TYPES:
1. Cathode-ray-tube (CRT) monitors look like a television and are
normally used with non-portable computer systems
2. Flat-panel monitors are thinner and lighter and are commonly used with
portable computer systems like notebook computers. Now they are also
used with nonportable desktop computer systems because they occupy
less table space.
 PRINTERS
23

 Printer: The print quality (sharpness and clarity of print) of the printer is determined
by the resolution of the printer. Resolution is measured in dots per inch (dpi).

Printer

a type of printer that works

impact non-impact does not hit or impact
by direct contact of an ink
printer printer a ribbon to print
ribbon with paper

Dot Matrix Daisy Wheel Drum Ink-jet Laser

Printers Printers Printers Printers Printers
24
Ink-jet Printer

Dot Matrix Printer

Drum Printer
 PLOTTERS
25

 Plotter: A plotter is used for vector graphics output to draw graphs, maps, blueprints
of ships, buildings, etc.
Plotter

flatbed
drum plotter
plotter

for vertical The paper is

pens mounted on
movement, the stationary and the
the carriage are
drum on which the pens mounted on
stationary and
paper is fixed the carriage move
move only
moves clockwise horizontally and
horizontally
and anti-clockwise. vertically
26
ROADMAP
Basic computer organization: role of I/O devices
Input units: Keyboard, terminals and its types, pointing devices
Scanners and its types
Voice recognition systems, Vision input system, Touch screen
Output units: monitors and its types
Printers: impact printers and its types, Non impact printers and
its types, Plotters and its types
Sound cards, speakers
 SOUND CARDS
27

Voice response system (VRS) enables a computer to talk to a user. It has an

audio-response device that produces audio output.
TYPES:
1. Voice reproduction systems: Produce audio output by selecting an
appropriate audio output from a set of pre-recorded audio responses.
Applications: automatic answering machines, video games, etc.
2. Speech synthesizers: Converts text information into spoken sentences.
Used for applications such as:
- Reading out text information to blind persons, allowing those persons
who cannot speak to communicate effectively, translating an entered text
into spoken words in a selected language
 SPEAKERS
28

Speakers are used to connect to a computer to generate sound.

TYPES:
1. Subwoofer: ideal for very low-frequency sound. It is an
omnidirectional speaker containing a range from 20 to about 200Hz,
and its main feature is booming bass.
2. Computer Speakers: The tiny little speakers were attached to the
motherboard when the computers had speakers inside them for the first
time.
 END OF UNIT 2
29
 CS13101
FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Instructor:
DR. DEVARANI DEVI NINGOMBAM
Assistant Professor
1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering
National Institute of Technology Patna
Email id: [email protected]
 UNIT 3

STORAGE FUNDAMENTALS
LECTURES: 2
2
3
ROADMAP
Primary vs Secondary Storage
Primary Storage: RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM
Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes, Magnetic Disks
Cartridge Tape, Hard Disks, Floppy Disks, Optical Disks,
Compact Disks
Zip Drive, Flash Drives
Data Storage and Retrieval Methods
 MEMORY HIERARCHY
4
5  PRIMARY/MAIN MEMORY
 directly accessible by CPU.
 comprised of DRAM and provides the actual working space to the
processor.
 holds the data and instructions that the processor is currently
working on.
 SECONDARY MEMORY/MASS STORAGE:
 the contents of the secondary memory first get transferred to the
primary memory and then are accessed by the processor, this is
because the processor does not directly interact with the secondary
memory. Q. Why the contents of the secondary memory need to transferred to the
primary memory?
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STORAGE
6
7
ROADMAP
Primary and Secondary Storage
Primary Storage: RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM
Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes, Magnetic Disks
Cartridge Tape, Hard Disks, Floppy Disks, Optical Disks,
Compact Disks
Zip Drive, Flash Drives
Data Storage and Retrieval Methods
 PRIMARY STORAGE: RAM
8
CATEGORIES OF RAM
1. DRAM 2. SRAM
(1) mostly used as main memory (1) usually used in cache memory due to
(2) uses transistors and capacitors its high speed
(3) transistor acts as a switch (2) uses multiple transistors (4-6), for
each memory cell.
(4) capacitor holds the bit of
information 0 and 1 (3) does not have a capacitor
(5) DRAM must be refreshed (4) does not need constant refreshing and
continually to store information therefore is faster than DRAM.
(6) DRAM is slow (5) more expensive than DRAM
(7) Access speed of DRAM ranges (6) speed of SRAM ranges from 2–10ns
from 50 to 150 ns.
 PRIMARY STORAGE: ROM
9
CATEGORIES OF ROM
1. Programmable ROM (PROM) 2. Erasable Programmable ROM
(1) can be programmed with a special tool (EPROM)
(2) the contents cannot be changed (1) can be erased by exposing it to ultra
violet light and re-programmed
(3) High voltage (12 V) is applied to the
fuses to be burnt

3. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

(1) can be erased by electric charge and re-programmed
(2) Type: Flash Memory-semiconductor-based non-volatile, rewritable computer
memory
 combines the features of RAM and ROM
 high-speed memories, durable, and have low-energy consumption
 SECONDARY STORAGE: MAGNETIC TAPES
10 Magnetic tape belongs to the sequential access storage device and run through
the data in sequence, in order to locate a particular piece of data.

 also known as Tape Drive

 used for writing/reading of data to/from a magnetic tape ribbon
 has read/write heads for reading/writing of data on tape
 a magnetic tape reel/cartridge/cassette has to be first loaded on a tape
drive for reading/writing of data on it
 when processing is complete, the tape is removed from the tape drive for
off-line storage
 SECONDARY STORAGE: MAGNETIC TAPES
11 Magnetic tape belongs to the sequential access storage device and run through
the data in sequence, in order to locate a particular piece of data.

ADVANTAGES:
 Compact size and light weight
 Magnetic tape reels and cartridges are also easily portable from one
place to another
 Often used for transferring data and programs from one computer to
another that are not linked together
 SECONDARY STORAGE: MAGNETIC DISKS
12
Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization in a
magnetizable material to store data and is a form of non-volatile memory.

 also known as Disk Drive

 Although disk drives vary greatly in their shape, size and disk formatting
pattern, they can be broadly classified into two types:
1. Those with interchangeable magnetic disks, which allow the loading
and unloading of magnetic disks as and when they are needed for
reading/writing of data on to them.
2. Those with fixed magnetic disks, which come along with a set of
permanently fixed disks. The disks are not removable from their disk
drives.
 MAGNETIC DISKS TYPES
13
14 ASSIGNMENT 1 ( Due date 23/04/2023)

Q.1. Explain the working of Magnetic Disk with a neat diagram.

Q.2. Explain the working of Magnetic Tape with a neat diagram.

15
ROADMAP
Primary and Secondary Storage
Primary Storage: RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM
Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes, Magnetic Disks
Cartridge Tape, Hard Disks, Floppy Disks, Optical Disks,
Compact Disks, Flash Drives
Data Storage and Retrieval Methods
 CARTRIDGE TAPE
16

 A tape cartridge is a storage device that contains a spool of magnetic tape

used to store different kinds of data, from corporate data to audio and
video files.
 Each cartridge is designed to fit into a compatible audio/video recorder
system or computer system.
 HARD DISKS
17

HARD DISKS

ZIP Disk Disk Pack

allowing a user to a storage device for a computer that

download data or advanced version
information from their of the floppy disk consists of a stack of magnetic disks
computer mounted on a central hub
18

FLOPPY DISKS

A floppy disk, also known as a "floppy" or "diskette," is a type of

removable storage media used to store data on computers. The disks
are usually made from plastic and metal and can hold anywhere from
100 KB to 1.44 MB of data
 OPTICAL DISKS
19 An optical disk is an electronic data storage medium that can be
written to and read from using a low-powered laser beam.

OPTICAL DISK

DVD CD-RW
CD-ROM

store high capacity data read-only memory consisting may be written and
of a pre-pressed optical rewritten multiple
like high quality videos compact disc that contains
and movies times
data
 FLASH DRIVES
20 A flash drive is a portable computer drive that uses flash memory. Flash
drives are the larger memory modules consisting of a number of flash chips.

FLASH DRIVE

Flash Smart
memory- Memory Multi Secure
Media Digital Media
based Stick
Card card card
CompactFlash
21
ROADMAP
Primary and Secondary Storage
Primary Storage: RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM
Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes, Magnetic Disks
Cartridge Tape, Hard Disks, Floppy Disks, Optical Disks,
Compact Disks, Flash Drives
Data Storage and Retrieval Methods
22
DATA STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL

 Data storage is the process of making digital copies of files and

documents and putting them in a storage system for later use.
 Using electromagnetic, optical, or other media, data can be
stored and retrieved from storage systems.
23

DATA STORAGE METHODS

Optical Media Storage

Magnetic Storage

USB Flash Drive

hard disk drives. CD, DVD

24
DATA RETRIEVAL
METHODS

Traversing the Database Using

Keyword Searching Hypertext or Hypermedia Links

matching words in the query internet search engines

against the database index
 END OF UNIT 3
25
 CS13101
FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Instructor:
DR. DEVARANI DEVI NINGOMBAM
Assistant Professor
1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering
National Institute of Technology Patna
Email id: [email protected]
 UNIT 4

SOFTWARE
LECTURES: 2
2
3
ROADMAP
Software and its needs
Types of S/W
System Software: Operating system
Utility programs programming language: Machine language,
Assembly language
High level language: advantages and disadvantages
Application S/W and its types: Word processing,
spreadsheet, presentation, graphics, DBMS S/W.
(Lab session)
4 CLASS DISCUSSIONS
▪ Software?
set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers
and execute specific tasks
▪ Hardware?
refers to the physical devices of a computer system
▪ Program?
is a sequence of instructions written in a language that can be
understood by a computer
▪ System Software?
is a group of programs that solve a specific problem or perform a
specific type of job
5 WHY WE NEED SOFTWARE?
▪ To interact with hardware
▪ To perform various tasks
▪ To provide user interface
▪ To manage data
▪ To run applications
6
SYSTEM SOFTWARE**
▪ System software is classified into:
1. Operating system
2. Utility system
3. Device system
4. Language translators: Programming Languages
5. Linker
6. Loader
7

1. Operating System: A software that serves as a conduit between users,

hardware, and software. It oversees all of the computer's software.
2. Utility System: Aids in controlling, managing, and maintaining computer
resources. It also goes by the name of service programs.
3. Device System: Enables interaction with hardware devices.
4. Language Translators: Translate the high-level languages programs into an
equivalent machine language program with output.
It also detect and report the error during translation.
8
9
ROADMAP
Software and its needs
Types of S/W
System Software: Operating system
Utility programs programming language: Machine language,
Assembly language
High level language: advantages and disadvantages
Application S/W and its types: Word processing, spreadsheet,
presentation, graphics, DBMS S/W. (Lab session)
 Language Translators Types
10

i. Assembler: assembly language 🡪 machine language

ii. Compiler: high-level language 🡪 low-level language
- reports all the errors to the programs along with the line numbers
- example: C, C++
iii. Interpreter: high-level language 🡪 low-level language
- reports the error once after completing the translation process
- provides better error diagnostics than a compiler
- example: Python
 Machine Language vs Assembly Language**
11
12
13 TYPES OF SOFTWARE: APPLICATION SOFTWARE
▪ Program or group of programs designed for end users.
▪ Performs various tasks: creating docs, spreadsheet, database,
publications, sending mail, designing graphics, etc.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE TYPES

i. Basic Application Software

ii. Specialized Application Software
14 BASIC APPLICATION SOFTWARE
▪ General purpose application software
- example: Microsoft Office, Excel, Outlook, PowerPoint, etc.

SPECIALIZED APPLICATION SOFTWARE

▪ Designed for a specific task rather for a wide applications
- example: graphic programs, audio, video, editors, multimedia creation
programs, web authoring, and virtual reality programs, etc.
 HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE
15
ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES
16
ROADMAP
Software and its needs
Types of S/W
System Software: Operating system
Utility programs programming language: Machine language,
Assembly language
High level language: advantages and disadvantages
Application S/W and its types: Word processing, spreadsheet,
presentation, graphics, DBMS S/W. (Lab session)
 END OF UNIT 4
17
 CS13101
FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Instructor:
DR. DEVARANI DEVI NINGOMBAM
Assistant Professor
1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering
National Institute of Technology Patna
Email id: [email protected]
 UNIT 5

OPERATING SYSTEM
LECTURES: 4
2
3
ROADMAP
Operating system: Functions
Measuring System Performance
Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters
Batch Processing, Multiprogramming, Multi-Tasking,
Multiprocessing
Time Sharing, DOS, Windows, Unix/Linux
4 DEFINITION & NEED FOR OS
Definition:
▪ It is the integrated set of programs that controls the resources (the
CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc.) of a computer system.
▪ It provides its users with an interface or virtual machine that is more
convenient to use than the bare machine.
▪ Two primary objectives of an OS are:
✔ Making a computer system convenient to use
✔Managing the resources of a computer system
5
PARAMETERS FOR MEASURING SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

▪ Throughput: Amount of work that the system is able to do per unit

time.
▪ Turnaround time: Interval from the time of submission of a job to
the system for processing to the time of completion of the job
▪ Response time: Interval from the time of submission of a job to the
system for processing to the time the first response for the job is
produced by the system
6
ROADMAP
Functions
Measuring System Performance
Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters
Batch Processing, Multiprogramming, Multi-Tasking,
Multiprocessing
Time Sharing, DOS, Windows, Unix/Linux
7 BATCH PROCESSING

▪ Batch processing is the method computers use to periodically

complete high-volume, repetitive data jobs.
▪ Certain data processing tasks, such as backups, filtering, and
sorting, can be compute intensive and inefficient to run on
individual data transactions.
8 MULTIPROGRAMMING
▪ Uni-programming: Only one job is processed at a time and all system
resources are available exclusively for the job until its completion
▪ Multiprogramming: Interleaved execution of two or more different and
independent programs by a computer

Types of Multiprogramming:
▪ Multiprogramming with fixed tasks (MFT): Fixed number of jobs can be
processed concurrently
▪ Multiprogramming with variable tasks (MVT): Number of jobs can vary
 UNIPROGRAMMING SYSTEM
9 vs
MULTIPROGRAMMING SYSTEM***
 10 MULTIPROGRAMMING

▪ On a single processor computer, a

multiprogramming OS can run many
programs.
▪ In a multiprogramming OS, if one program
must wait for an input/output transfer, the
other programmes are ready to use the CPU.
▪ As a result, different jobs may have to split
CPU time.

Examples: download apps, transfer data,

MS-Excel, Google Chrome, Firefox browser,
and many more apps.
11 MULTI-TASKING

▪ It interleaved execution of multiple jobs (often referred to as tasks

of same user) in a single-user system
▪ Computer systems used for multitasking are uniprocessor systems
(having only one CPU)
▪ Treated differently from multiprogramming that refers to
interleaved execution of multiple jobs in a multiuser system
 MULTIPROCESSING**
12
▪ System with two or more CPUs having ability to execute multiple
processes concurrently
▪ Multiple CPUs are used to process either instructions from different
and independent programs or different instructions from the same
program simultaneously.
▪ Multiprocessing is the ability for computers to complete multiple
tasks at the same time without having to wait for one task to
complete before the next task can be started.
▪ A dual-core processor is twice as fast as a single processor, and a
quad-core processor is four times as fast.
13 MULTIPROCESSING SYSTEM**
14
MULTIPROCESSING vs MULTIPROGRAMMING**
15
ROADMAP
Functions
Measuring System Performance
Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters
Batch Processing, Multiprogramming, Multi-Tasking,
Multiprocessing
Time Sharing, DOS, Windows, Unix/Linux
16 TIME SHARING

▪ Simultaneous interactive use of a computer system by many users in

such a way that each one feels that he/she is the sole user of the system
▪ User terminals connected to the same computer simultaneously
▪ Uses multiprogramming with a special CPU scheduling algorithm
▪ Short period during which a user process gets to use CPU is known as
time slice, time slot, or quantum
17
TIME SHARING

the user 5 is active state but user 1, user 2, user

3, and user 4 are in waiting state whereas user
6 is in ready state.
1. Active State – The user’s program is under the
control of CPU. Only one program is available in
this state.
2. Ready State – The user program is ready to
execute but it is waiting for it’s turn to get the
CPU. More than one user can be in ready state at a
time.
3. Waiting State – The user’s program is waiting
for some input/output operation. More than one
user can be in a waiting state at a time.
18
ROADMAP
Functions
Measuring System Performance
Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters
Batch Processing, Multiprogramming, Multi-Tasking,
Multiprocessing
Time Sharing, DOS, Windows, Unix/Linux
19 UNIX OS
▪ Developed in the early 1970s at Bell Laboratories by Ken Thompson
and Dennis Ritchie Written in C high-level language, hence, highly
portable
▪ Multi-user, time-sharing OS
▪ Used on a wide variety of computers ranging from notebook
computers to super computers
▪ Structured in three layers – kernel, shell, and utilities

N/B: the kernel is the core of the operating system that controls all the tasks of the system
while the shell is the interface that allows the users to communicate with the kernel
20 MS-DOS
▪ Stands for Microsoft Disk Operating System.
▪ Single-user OS for IBM and IBM-compatible personal computers
(PC)
▪ Structured in three layers – BIOS (Basic Input Output System),
kernel, and shell
▪ Very popular in the 1980s, now not in much use and development
with the launch of Microsoft Windows OS in 1990s
21 MICROSOFT WINDOWS
▪ Developed by Microsoft to overcome limitations of MSDOS
operating system
▪ Single-user, multitasking OS
▪ Native interface is a GUI
▪ Designed to be not just an OS but also a complete operating
environment
▪ OS of choice for most PCs after 1990
22 LINUX OS
▪ Open-source OS enhanced and backed by thousands of programmers
world-wide
▪ Multi-tasking, multiprocessing OS, originally designed to be used in
PCs
 END OF UNIT 5
23
 CS13101
FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Instructor:
DR. DEVARANI DEVI NINGOMBAM
Assistant Professor
1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering
National Institute of Technology Patna
Email id: [email protected]
 UNIT 6

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
LECTURES: 8
2
3
ROADMAP
Communication Process
Data Transmission Speed
Communication Types (Modes)
 Data Transmission Medias
Modem and Its Working and Characteristics
Types of Networks
LAN Topologies
Computer Protocols
Concepts Relating to Networking
4
Q. What is a Communication System?

BASIC ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

5 DATA TRANSMISION MODES*
Example: keyboard, Television, Mouse, Radio Broadcasts, and Monitor

Example: Walkie-talkie set

Example: Telephone lines, Mobile phones

6 DATA TRANSMISION SPEED

▪ Bandwidth: Range of frequencies available for data transmission. It

refers to data transmission rate.
- Higher the bandwidth, the more data it can transmit
▪ Baud: Unit of measurement of data transfer rate.
- Measured in bits per second (bps)
7 DATA TRANSMISION SPEED CATEGORY

▪ Narrowband: Sub-voice grade channels in range from 45 to 300

baud. Mainly used for telegraph lines and low-speed terminals
▪ Voiceband: Voice grade channels with speed up to 9600 baud.
Mainly used for ordinary telephone voice communication and slow
I/O devices
▪ Broadband: High speed channels with speed up to 1 million baud
or more. Mainly used for high-speed computer-to-computer
communication or for simultaneous transmission of data
 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA**
8
data is sent from one computer to another over a transmission medium

Guided Unguided

Wired communication or wireless communication or

bounded transmission media unbounded transmission media

Radio, microwave, and

Copper wire and optical fibers
satellite transmissions
 GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA
9

Guided

Twisted Coaxial Optical

Pair Cable Fiber
 1. TWISTED PAIR: The twisting of wires reduces
10
electromagnetic interference from external sources.
Types:
1. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): costly
2. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): short distances up to 100m
The commonly used UTP cable is the Cat-5 cable which is used with fast Ethernet.

(provides
additional
protection)

Fig. Cross section of (a) UTP (b) STP

 2. COAXIAL CABLE: electrical cable with a copper conductor
11 and an insulator shielding around it and a braided metal mesh that
prevents signal interference and cross talk.

Fig. Coaxial cable (A: outer plastic

sheath, B: metal conductor (copper),
C: inner dielectric insulator,
D: copper core)
 3. OPTICAL FIBER
12 : used for transmission of information over large distances more
cost effectively than the copper wire connection.
▪ An optical fiber cable consists of
(1) core–optical fiber conductor (glass) that transmits light,
(2) cladding–an optical material that surrounds the core to prevent any light
from escaping the core, and
(3) jacket—outer covering made of plastic to protect the fiber from damage.

Fig. (a) Optical fiber (b) Cross

section of optical fiber
 TWISTED PAIR vs COAXIAL vs OFC
13
 UNGUIDED MEDIA

UNGUIDED

14 Radio Microwave Satellite

Transmission Transmission Transmission
15 1. RADIO TRANSMISSION: electromagnetic radio waves that
operate at the audio frequency are also used to transmit computer data

▪ also known as Radio Frequency (RF) Transmission

▪ computers using RF transmission do not require a direct physical
connection, instead it uses antennas to transmit and receive the
information

Fig. Radio transmission

16 2. MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION:
the technique of transmitting information over a microwave link

▪ They have a higher frequency than radio waves.

▪ Microwave transmission can be aimed at a single direction, instead
of broadcasting in all directions (like in radio waves).
▪ it does not need cables

Fig. Microwave transmission

17 3. SATELLITE TRANSMISSION:

▪ communication across longer distances can be provided by combining

radio frequency transmission with satellites.
▪ Geosynchronous satellites are placed in an orbit synchronized with the
rotation of the earth at a distance of 36,000 km above the surface of the
earth.

Fig. Satellite transmission

18 MODEM AND ITS WORKING
▪ Modem is short for MOdulator/DEModulator
▪ Special device used for conversion of digital data to analog form
(modulation) and vice-versa (demodulation)
▪ Essential piece of hardware where two digital devices want to
communicate over an analog transmission channel (say a telephone
line)
19 MODEM AND ITS WORKING

▪ Basically, what the modem does is take the digital signal from the
computer and add it on top of an analog telephone signal (i.e.,
modulates it) so that it can be transferred through the telephone
line.
▪ Since your modem sends information through a telephone line by
modulating digital signals, it also needs to have another kind of
translator that helps it demodulate the analog signals it receives via
the telephone line.
20
ROADMAP
Communication Process
Data Transmission Speed
Communication Types (Modes
 Data Transmission Medias
Modem and Its Working and Characteristics
Types of Networks
LAN Topologies
Computer Protocols
Concepts Relating to Networking
21 NETWORK TYPES**

Factors that distinguished types of network

Computer ➢ Size: area over network is spread
Network ➢ Transmission Technology: transmission
media and protocols used for connection
WAN ➢ Networking Topology: shape of network
LAN
MAN
22 1. LOCAL AREA NETWORK(LAN)

➢ Used for local communication

➢ Connected computers in a small area like a
room, building, office or a campus spread upto
a few km.
➢ LAN runs at a speed of 10 Mbps – 100 Mbps
➢ Low delays
23 2. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

➢ Spread over a city

➢ It is connected using coaxial cables or
fiber optic cables
➢ Connects several LAN spread over a city
➢ Speed: 1Gbps-100Gbps
24 3. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

➢ Connects computers over long

distances like cities, countries,
continents or worldwide.
➢ Uses telephone lines, satellite
link, radio link.
➢ Speed: 10 Mbps, 45 Mbps,
1 Gbps, 10 Gbps
25 LAN TOPOLOGIES**

LAN
Topologies

Bus Ring Star

Topology Topology Topology
26 LAN TOPOLOGIES**

RING MESH

HYBRID
BUS
27
LAN TOPOLOGIES: BUS TOPOLOGY**

▪ In this network, all the nodes including

computers and servers are connected to a
single cable termed as Bus.

▪ This network is easier compared to other

networks and is economical.

▪ Source node transmits a signal which is

broadcast to all the other nodes via Bus
cable. Though the message is broadcast,
the intended recipient receives the signal.
28
LAN TOPOLOGIES: RING TOPOLOGY**

▪ In this network, the nodes are

interconnected to make a closed loop.

▪ Each node communicates with the nodes

on its either side with the help of Token
(information passing).

▪ The nodes with Token are allowed to

transmit data. This topology eliminates
the connection of nodes with the central
node i.e. there is no need of Network
Server to control other devices.
29
LAN TOPOLOGIES: STAR TOPOLOGY**

▪ In this network, all the nodes are connected to

Central Node.

▪ The devices are not connected to each other

and transmits the messages to the Central
Node.

▪ The central node is responsible for transmitting

the message to the required destination.

▪ It is the most widely used topology for

LAN’s.
 BUS vs RING vs STAR**
30
31
ROADMAP
Communication Process
Data Transmission Speed
Communication Types (Modes
 Data Transmission Medias
Modem and Its Working and Characteristics
Types of Networks
LAN Topologies
Computer Protocols
Concepts Relating to Networking
 COMPUTER PROTOCOLS
32

▪ Computer protocol is the established set of rules that determine

how data is transmitted between different devices in the same
network.
▪ It allows connected devices to communicate with each other,
regardless of any differences in their internal processes, structure or
design.
 OSI (OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION) MODEL**
33

(DATA)

(SEGMENTS)

(PACKETS)

(FRAMES)

(BITS)
 OSI (OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION) MODEL**
34

(unique sequence number)

(IP header consists of source IP
address, Destination IP address)

source MAC address destination MAC address

 PHYSICAL LAYER
35 The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next.
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
a. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium (relationship between a
device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or optical cable)
b. Representation of bits.
c. Synchronization of bits
d. Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of
devices to the media.
e. Physical topology.
f. Transmission mode.
 DATA LINK LAYER
36 The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
The data link layer is also concerned with the following:
a. Framing (dividing digital data into small parts, or frames, to be sent
across a network)
b. Physical addressing (unique identifier associated with a network
adapter that is used for identifying a computer in a network)
c. Flow control
d. Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer
by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames
e. Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same
link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device
has control over the link at any given time.
37
NETWORK LAYER
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links).

The network layer is also concerned with the following:

a. Logical addressing (gives a network device a place where it can be
accessed on the network using an address that you assign. Logical
addresses can be created and used by the Network Layer protocols such
as IP)
b. Routing (process of path selection in any network)
 TRANSPORT LAYER
38 The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another.
The transport layer is also concerned with the following:
a. Service-point addressing (network ports to assign each sending and
receiving application a specific port number on the machine)
b. Segmentation and reassembly (A message is divided into segments; each
segment contains sequence number, which enables this layer in
reassembling the message. Message is reassembled correctly upon
arrival at the destination and replaces packets which were lost in
transmission)
c. Connection control.
d. Flow control.
e. Error control.
39 SESSION LAYER
The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

The session layer is also concerned with the following:

a. Dialog control. The session layer also decides which user/ application
send data, and at what point of time, and whether the communication
is simplex, half duplex or full duplex.
- The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows
the communication between two processes to take place in either half-
duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
a. Synchronization. The session layer adds synchronization bits to the
message to use the known state in the event of an error.
 PRESENTATION LAYER
40 The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

The presentation layer is also concerned with the following:

a. Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are
usually exchanging information in the form of character strings,
numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to bit streams
before being transmitted.
b. Encryption (process of scrambling data so that it's unreadable to
unauthorized parties)
c. Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in
the information.
 APPLICATION LAYER
41 The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
The application layer is also concerned with the following:
a. Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software
version of a physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote
host.
b. File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve
files from a remote computer for use in the local computer, and to
manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
c. Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding
and storage.
d. Directory services. This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.
 SUMMARY OF OSI LAYERS**
42
 END OF UNIT 6
43