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DM All Unit

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vanshikasehrawat1085
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Syllabus of Discrete Structures

UNIT 1:
• Propositional Logic
• Methods of
Proof UNIT 2:
• Sets, Relations and Functions
• Size of a Set

• Algebraic Structures and


Morphisms UNIT 4:
• Graphs and Trees
UNIT 1: PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
SYNTAX
The syntax of propositional logic consists in the definition of the set of all propositional logic
formulae, or the language of propositional logic formulae, which will contain formulae like:

SEMANTICS
Semantics provides the “meaning” of propositional logic formulae. It is defined very
precisely in a mathematical way. The semantics allows us to identify correct inference rules.
Example: Intuitively, the meaning of “A ∧ B” is that “this is only true if both A and B are true”.
Slide 15
Other Laws of Logic

NOTE:
Dual of proposition p:
If the proposition p,
contains only the logical
connectives
only, AND
and OR, and no other
connectives are there, then
the dual of p is obtained
by replacing AND by OR
and OR by AND, then it is
dual.
De Morgan’s Rule
Let P AND Q are two compound propositions. And the connectives are the logical
connectives between the primitive propositions. So, logical connectives are the
conjunction, disjunction and negation.
• Now, the De Morgan’s rules tell that the negation of compound proposition P can be
obtained by replacing, AND by OR, the OR by AND, and making each primitive
statements as the negation of that.
Theorem: The conditional proposition (p → q) and its
contrapositive (¬q → ¬p) are equivalent
PREDICATES AND QUANTIFIERS

Why predicate logic is required??


The Limitation of Propositional Logic: see propositional logic discusses about the propositions or the
statements which is either true or false; but it is incapable of some statements which are normally used
in mathematics or computer science and the predicate logic will handle this type of statements.

Example- p: n is an odd integer


So, if n equal to 11, then it is true. But n can be 10 or 110. Then, it is false. So, this statement is neither true
nor false. what is n? So, n is an odd integer; n can take any value. So, n is a variable. So, the statements
involving variable cannot be handled by propositional logic and for this, predicate logic is needed.
NESTED QUANTIFIERS
NEGATING NESTED QUANTIFIERS
Method of Proofs
Example
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Finite and Infinite Sets Venn Diagram
A Venn diagram is formed by overlapping closed curves, mostly circles, each representing a set, or
in other words, it is a figure used to show the relationships among sets, or groups of objects. The
given below image of Venn diagram shows the relation between finite set and infinite set.

In the above image, Set containing elements {1, 13, 27} is a finite set, and a set of natural numbers and a
set of whole numbers are infinite sets. There are multiple finite sets that can be created from an infinite set.
The image given above is showing one example of it where a finite set is lying inside infinite sets
SET

Empty Non-empty

Countable finite Infinite

Countable Countable Uncountable


Cantor’s diagonal argument

“There are infinite sets which cannot be put into one-to-one correspondence with the
infinite set of the natural numbers” — Georg Cantor, 1891

Cantor’s diagonal argument is a technique to show that integers and real numbers can
not be put in to one to one correspondence. i.e. uncountable infinite set of real number
is larger then countable infinite set of integers.

R= [0,1]
UNIT 3
Algebraic Structures
& Morphisms
AS AS AS

(N,+) Yes (Z, /) NO (O,+) NO

(N, -) NO (R, +) Yes (o, X) Yes

(N,X) Yes (R, -) Yes (M,+) Yes

(N,/) NO (R, X) Yes (M,X) Yes

(Z,+) Yes (R, /) NO

(Z, -) Yes (e,+) Yes

(Z, x) Yes (e,X) Yes

N: Natural Numbers
Z: Integers
R: Real Numbers
e: Even Numbers
O: Odd Numbers
M: Matrix
AS SG AS SG AS SG

(N,+) Yes Yes Z/ No NO O+ NO NO

(N,-) NO NO (R, +) Yes Yes (O,X) yes Yes

(N,X) Yes Yes (R, -) Yes No (M,+) Yes Yes

(N,/) NO NO (R, X) Yes Yes (M,X) Yes Yes

(Z,+) Yes Yes R/ NO NO

(Z,-) Yes NO (e,+) Yes yes

(Z,x) Yes Yes (e, X) Yes yes


AS SG MON AS SG MON AS SG MON

(N,+) Yes Yes NO Z/ No NO NO O+ NO NO NO

N- NO NO NO R+ Yes Yes Yes oX Yes Yes Yes

(N,X) Yes Yes Yes R- Yes NO NO M+ Yes Yes Yes

N/ NO NO NO Rx Yes Yes Yes MX Yes Yes Yes

(Z,+) Yes Yes Yes R/ NO NO NO

Z- Yes NO NO e+ Yes Yes Yes

(Z,x) Yes Yes Yes eX Yes Yes No


AS SG MON Grou AS SG MON Grou AS SG MON Grou
p p p

N+ Yes Yes No NO Z/ No NO NO NO O+ NO NO NO NO

N- NO NO NO NO R+ Yes Yes yes Yes OX Yes Yes yes No

NX Yes Yes yes NO R- Yes NO NO NO M+ Yes Yes yes Yes

N/ NO NO NO NO Rx Yes Yes yes No MX Yes Yes yes No

Z+ Yes Yes yes Yes R/ NO NO NO NO

Z- Yes NO NO NO e+ Yes Yes yes Yes

Zx Yes Yes yes NO eX Yes Yes NO NO


AS SG MO Gro AG AS SG MO Gro AG AS SG MO Gro AG
N up N up N up

N+ Yes Yes No NO NO Z/ No NO NO NO NO O+ NO NO NO NO NO

N- NO NO NO NO NO R+ Yes Yes yes yes Yes oX Yes Yes yes NO NO

NX Yes Yes yes NO NO R- Yes NO NO NO NO M+ Yes Yes yes yes Yes

N/ NO NO NO NO NO Rx Yes Yes yes NO NO MX Yes Yes yes no NO

Z+ Yes Yes yes yes Yes R/ NO NO NO NO NO

Z- Yes NO NO NO NO e+ Yes Yes yes yes Yes

Zx Yes Yes yes NO NO eX Yes Yes NO NO NO


Ex: 1) A = { 0,1,2,3,4} check ( A, + ) is a group or not
2) B= {0,1} check ( B, +) is a group or not
3) C = {0,1} check ( C, X) is a group or not
4) D = {1, -1} check ( D, X) is a group or not

X 1 -1 Closure ok

Associative ok
1 1 -1
Identity 1
-1 -1 1
Inverse 1=1, -1= -1
A = { 0,1,2,3} check ( A, + ) is a group or not

Addition 0 1 2 3
modulo 5
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 1 1
3 3 0 1 2
A = { 1,2,3,4} check ( A, X ) is a group or not
Multiplication 1 2 3 4
modulo 5
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
UNIT 4
Graphs and Trees

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