Circuit Analysis

OHMS LAW
• Ohm’s law states the relationship between electric current and potential
difference.
• The current that flows through most conductors is directly proportional to
the voltage applied to it.
• Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist was the first to verify Ohm’s law
experimentally.
Ohm’s Law Explanation
• Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional
to the current flowing through it, provided all physical conditions and
temperatures remain constant.
• Mathematically, this current-voltage relationship is written as,
•

• In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R, is called Resistance

and has units of ohms, with the symbol Ω.
• The same formula can be rewritten in order to calculate the current and
resistance respectively as follows:
Ohm’s law only holds true if the provided temperature and the other physical factors remain constant.
In certain components, increasing the current raises the temperature.
An example of this is the filament of a light bulb, in which the temperature rises as the current is
increased.
In this case, Ohm’s law cannot be applied. The lightbulb filament violates Ohm’s Law
 Ohm’s Law Statement: Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it,
provided all physical conditions and temperature, remain constant.

Ohm’s Law Equation: V = IR, where V is the voltage across the conductor, I is the current flowing through the
conductor and R is the resistance provided by the conductor to the flow of current.
Relationship Between Voltage, Current and
Resistance
• Analyzing rows 1, 2 and 3, we come to understand that doubling and tripling
the voltage leads to doubling and a tripling of the current in the circuit.
• Likewise, when we compare rows 1 and 4 and rows 2 and 5, we come to
understand that doubling the total resistance serves to halve the current in
the circuit.
 Water Pipe Analogy for Ohm’s Law

• Ohm’s Law describes the current flow through a resistance when different
electric potentials (voltage) are applied at each end of the resistance.
• Since we can’t see electrons, the water-pipe analogy helps us understand the
electric circuits better.
• Water flowing through pipes is a good mechanical system that is analogous
to an electrical circuit.
• Here, the voltage is analogous to water pressure, the current is the amount
of water flowing through the pipe, and the resistance is the size of the pipe.
• More water will flow through the pipe (current) when more pressure is
applied (voltage) and the bigger the pipe (lower the resistance).
 Experimental Verification of Ohm’s Law

Apparatus Required:
•Resistor
•Ammeter
•Voltmeter
•Battery
•Plug Key
•Rheostat
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1.Initially, the key K is closed and the rheostat is adjusted to get the minimum reading in ammeter A and voltmeter V.
2.The current in the circuit is increased gradually by moving the sliding terminal of the rheostat. During the process,
3. the current flowing in the circuit and the corresponding value of potential difference across the resistance wire R are
3.This way different sets of values of voltage and current are obtained.
4.For each set of values of V and I, the ratio of V/I is calculated.
5.When you calculate the ratio V/I for each case, you will come to notice that it is almost the same. So V/I = R, which
6.Plot a graph of the current against the potential difference, it will be a straight line. This shows that the current is pro
the potential difference.
 Ohm’s Law Magic Triangle

• You can make use of Ohm’s law magic triangle to remember the different
equations for Ohm’s law used to solve for different variables(V, I, R).
• If the value of voltage is asked and the values of the current and resistance
are given, then to calculate voltage simply cover V at the top. So, we are left
with the I and R or I × R. So, the equation for Voltage is Current multiplied
by Resistance. Examples of how the magic triangle is employed to determine
the voltage using Ohm’s law are given below
 Ohm’s Law Solved Problems

• Example 1: If the resistance of an electric iron is 50 Ω and a current

of 3.2 A flows through the resistance. Find the voltage between two
points.
• Example 2: An EMF source of 8.0 V is connected to a purely resistive
electrical appliance (a light bulb). An electric current of 2.0 A flows
through it. Consider the conducting wires to be resistance-free.
Calculate the resistance offered by the electrical appliance
Solution:
If we are asked to calculate the value of voltage with the value of current and resistance, then cover V in the tri
Now, we are left with I and R or more precisely I × R.
Therefore, we use the following formula to calculate the value of V:
V=I×R

Substituting the values in the equation, we get

V = 3.2 A × 50 Ω =V 160
= 160V
V
Solution:
When we are asked to determine the value of resistance when the values of voltage and current are given, we cover R in the triangle.
This leaves us with only V and I, more precisely V ÷ I.
Substituting the values in the equation, we get
R=V÷I

R=8V÷2A=4Ω
 Calculating Electrical Power Using Ohm’s Law

• The rate at which energy is converted from the electrical energy of the moving
charges to some other form of energy like mechanical energy, heat energy, energy
stored in magnetic fields or electric fields, is known as electric power.
• The unit of power is the watt.
• The electrical power can be calculated using Ohm’s law and by substituting the
values of voltage, current and resistance.
•
 Formula to find power
• When the values for voltage and current are given,

• P=VI
• When the values for voltage and resistance are given,
• P=V*V/R
• When the values for current and resistance are given,
• P=I*I*R
 Ohm’s Law Applications

• The main applications of Ohm’s law are:

• To determine the voltage, resistance or current of an electric circuit.
• Ohm’s law maintains the desired voltage drop across the electronic
components.
• Ohm’s law is also used in DC ammeter and other DC shunts to divert the
current
 Limitations of Ohm’s Law

• Following are the limitations of Ohm’s law:

• Ohm’s law is not applicable for unilateral electrical elements like diodes and
transistors as they allow the current to flow through in one direction only.
• For non-linear electrical elements with parameters like capacitance, resistance
etc. the ratio of voltage and current won’t be constant with respect to time
making it difficult to use Ohm’s law.
Kirchhoff's Circuit Law
• Kirchhoff's Circuit Laws allow us to solve complex circuit problems by
defining a set of basic network laws and theorems for the voltages and
currents around a circuit
• Using Kirchhoff's circuit law relating to the junction rule and his closed loop
rule, we can calculate and find the currents and voltages around any closed
circuit providing we know the values of the electrical components within it.
• We saw in the Resistors tutorial that a single equivalent resistance, ( RT ) can be
found when two or more resistors are connected together in either series, parallel or
combinations of both, and that these circuits obey Ohm’s Law.
• In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of rules or
laws which deal with the conservation of current and energy within electrical
circuits. These two rules are commonly known as: Kirchhoff's Circuit Laws with one of
Kirchhoff's laws dealing with the current flowing around a closed
circuit, Kirchhoff's Current Law, (KCL) while the other law deals with the voltage
sources present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, (KVL).
 Kirchhoff's First Law – The Current Law,
(KCL)
• Kirchhoff's Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge
entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other
place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the node“.
• In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a
node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0.
• This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of
Charge.
• Gustav Kirchhoff ’s Current Law is one of the fundamental laws used for
circuit analysis. His current law states that for a parallel path the total
current entering a circuits junction is exactly equal to the total current
leaving the same junction. This is because it has no other place to go as no
charge is lost.
• In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a
junction must be equal to zero as: Σ IIN = Σ IOUT
• Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value
and the two currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then
this means we can also rewrite the equation as;
• I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
• The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or
junction of two or more current carrying paths or elements such as cables
and components
A Single Junction
• Here in this simple single junction example, the current IT leaving the
junction is the algebraic sum of the two currents, I1 and I2 entering the same
junction. That is IT = I1 + I2.
• Note that we could also write this correctly as the algebraic sum of: IT –
(I1 + I2) = 0.
• So if I1 equals 3 amperes and I2 is equal to 2 amperes, then the total current,
IT leaving the junction will be 3 + 2 = 5 amperes, and we can use this basic
law for any number of junctions or nodes as the sum of the currents both
entering and leaving will be the same.
• Also, if we reversed the directions of the currents, the resulting equations
would still hold true for I1 or I2. As I1 = IT – I2 = 5 – 2 = 3 amps, and
I2 = IT – I1 = 5 – 3 = 2 amps. Thus we can think of the currents entering the
junction as being positive (+), while the ones leaving the junction as being
negative (-).
Resistors in Parallel
• Let’s look how we could apply Kirchhoff ’s current law to resistors in parallel,
whether the resistances in those branches are equal or unequal. Consider the
following circuit diagram
• In this simple parallel resistor example there are two distinct junctions for
current. Junction one occurs at node B, and junction two occurs at node E.
Thus we can use Kirchhoff ’s Junction Rule for the electrical currents at both
of these two distinct junctions, for those currents entering the junction and
for those currents flowing leaving the junction.
• To start, all the current, IT leaves the 24 volt supply and arrives at point A
and from there it enters node B. Node B is a junction as the current can now
split into two distinct directions, with some of the current flowing
downwards and through resistor R1 with the remainder continuing on
through resistor R2 via node C. Note that the currents flowing into and out
of a node point are commonly called branch currents
• We can use Ohm’s Law to determine the individual branch currents through
each resistor as: I = V/R, thus:
• For current branch B to E through resistor R1
• For current branch C to D through resistor R2
• From above we know that Kirchhoff ’s current law states that the sum of the
currents entering a junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving the
junction, and in our simple example above, there is one current, IT going into
the junction at node B and two currents leaving the junction, I1 and I2.
• Since we now know from calculation that the currents leaving the junction at
node B is I1 equals 3 amps and I2 equals 2 amps, the sum of the currents
entering the junction at node B must equal 3 + 2 = 5 amps. Thus ΣIN = IT =
5 amperes.
• In our example, we have two distinct junctions at node B and node E, thus
we can confirm this value for IT as the two currents recombine again at node
E. So, for Kirchhoff ’s junction rule to hold true, the sum of the currents
into point F must equal the sum of the currents flowing out of the junction
at node E
• As the two currents entering junction E are 3 amps and 2 amps respectively,
the sum of the currents entering point F is therefore: 3 + 2 = 5 amperes.
Thus ΣIN = IT = 5 amperes and therefore Kirchhoff ’s current law holds true
as this is the same value as the current leaving point A.
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law Example No1
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law Example No2
Find the currents flowing around the following circuit using Kirchhoff’s Current Law only
Kirchhoff's Second Law – The Voltage Law,
(KVL)
• Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the
direction of all the voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning
back to the same starting point. It is important to maintain the same
direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not
be equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff ’s voltage law when analysing series
circuits.
A Single Circuit Element
• For this simple example we will assume that the current, I is in the same
direction as the flow of positive charge, that is conventional current flow
• Here the flow of current through the resistor is from point A to point B, that
is from positive terminal to a negative terminal. Thus as we are travelling in
the same direction as current flow, there will be a fall in potential across the
resistive element giving rise to a -IR voltage drop across it.
• If the flow of current was in the opposite direction from point B to point A,
then there would be a rise in potential across the resistive element as we are
moving from a – potential to a + potential giving us a +I*R voltage drop.
A Single Circuit Loop
• Kirchhoff ’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the potential
differences in any loop must be equal to zero as: ΣV = 0. Since the two
resistors, R1 and R2 are wired together in a series connection, they are both
part of the same loop so the same current must flow through each resistor.
• Thus the voltage drop across resistor, R1 = I*R1 and the voltage drop across
resistor, R2 = I*R2 giving by KVL:
•
A Typical DC Circuit
 Common DC Circuit Theory Terms
• Circuit – a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical current flows.
• Path – a single line of connecting elements or sources.
• Node – a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were two or more circuit elements are
connected or joined together giving a connection point between two or more branches. A node is indicated
by a dot.
• Branch – a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a source which are connected
between two nodes.
• Loop – a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is encountered more
than once.
• Mesh – a mesh is a single closed loop series path that does not contain any other paths. There are no loops
inside a mesh.
Find the current flowing in
the 40Ω Resistor, R3
• he circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops.
• Using Kirchhoffs Current Law, KCL the equations are given as:
• At node A : I1 + I2 = I3
• At node B : I3 = I1 + I2
• Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as:
• Loop 1 is given as : 10 = R1 I1 + R3 I3 = 10I1 + 40I3
• Loop 2 is given as : 20 = R2 I2 + R3 I3 = 20I2 + 40I3
• Loop 3 is given as : 10 – 20 = 10I1 – 20I2
• As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the equations as;
• Eq. No 1 : 10 = 10I1 + 40(I1 + I2) = 50I1 + 40I2
• Eq. No 2 : 20 = 20I2 + 40(I1 + I2) = 40I1 + 60I2
• We now have two “Simultaneous Equations” that can be reduced by subtraction
to give us the values of I1 and I2
• Substitution of I1 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I1 as -0.143 Amps
• Substitution of I2 in terms of I1 gives us the value of I2 as +0.429 Amps
• As : I3 = I1 + I 2
• The current flowing in resistor R3 is given as : -0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps
• and the voltage across the resistor R3 is given as : 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
 Network Theory - Mesh Analysis

• In Mesh analysis, we will consider the currents flowing through each mesh.
Hence, Mesh analysis is also called as Mesh-current method.
• A branch is a path that joins two nodes and it contains a circuit element. If a
branch belongs to only one mesh, then the branch current will be equal to
mesh current.
• If a branch is common to two meshes, then the branch current will be equal
to the sum (or difference) of two mesh currents, when they are in same (or
opposite) direction
 Procedure of Mesh Analysis
• Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Mesh analysis
• Step 1 − Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or
anti-clockwise direction.
• Step 2 − Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms
of mesh currents.
• Step 3 − Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equation is obtained by
applying KVL first and then Ohm’s law.
• Step 4 − Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh
currents.
Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor
using Mesh analysis.
 Advantage of Mesh Current Analysis

• The primary advantage of Mesh Current analysis is that it generally allows

for the solution of a large network with fewer unknown values and fewer
simultaneous equations.
• Our example problem took three equations to solve the Branch Current
method and only two equations using the Mesh Current method.
• This advantage is much greater as networks increase in complexity
 Nodal Voltage Analysis

• Nodal Voltage Analysis finds the unknown voltage drops around a circuit
between different nodes that provide a common connection for two or more
circuit components
• Nodal Voltage Analysis uses the “Nodal” equations of Kirchhoff ’s first
law to find the voltage potentials around the circuit.
• So by adding together all these nodal voltages the net result will be equal to
zero
• Then, if there are “n” nodes in the circuit there will be “n-1” independent
nodal equations and these alone are sufficient to describe and hence solve
the circuit.
• At each node point write down Kirchhoff ’s first law equation, that is: “the
currents entering a node are exactly equal in value to the currents leaving the node” then
express each current in terms of the voltage across the branch. For “n”
nodes, one node will be used as the reference node and all the other voltages
will be referenced or measured with respect to this common node.
Nodal Voltage Analysis Circuit
• In the above circuit, node D is chosen as the reference node and the other
three nodes are assumed to have voltages, Va, Vb and Vc with respect to
node D. For example
• As Va = 10v and Vc = 20v , Vb can be easily found by:
For the circuit shown below, we will determine the current flowing through 1 Ohm

resistor using nodal analysis .

 Circuit’s Parameters, Constants and
Related Terms
• Different components or elements which are used in electric circuits are called
circuit’s parameters or constants i.e. resistance, capacitance, inductance, frequency
etc.
• Resistance
• Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit.
• Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω). Ohms
are named after Georg Simon Ohm (1784-1854), a German physicist who studied
the relationship between voltage, current and resistance. He is credited for
formulating Ohm's Law.
• When an electric current of one ampere passes through a component across
which a potential difference (voltage) of one volt exists, then the resistance
of that component is one ohm.
• In general, when the applied voltage is held constant, the current in a direct-
current (DC) electrical circuit is inversely proportional to the resistance. If
the resistance is doubled, the current is cut in half; if the resistance is halved,
the current is doubled
 Capacitance
• Capacitance is the ability of a component or circuit to collect and store
energy in the form of an electrical charge
• Capacitors are energy-storing devices available in many sizes and shapes.
They consist of two plates of conducting material (usually a thin metal)
sandwiched between an insulator made of ceramic, film, glass or other
materials, even air.
• Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of the electric charge on each
conductor to the potential difference (i.e., voltage) between them.
• The capacitance value of a capacitor is measured in farads (F), units named
for English physicist Michael Faraday (1791–1867).
 Inductance

• Inductance is the name given to the property of a component that opposes

the change of current flowing through it and even a straight piece of wire
will have some inductance
• It therfore follows that inductance is only present in an electric circuit when
the current is changing.
 Factors Affecting Inductance
• Number of Wire Turns in the Coil
Inductance is greater when the number of turns of wire in the coil is greater. More coils of wires indicate a
greater amount of magnetic field force for a given amount of coil current.
• Coil Area
Inductance is proportional to the coil area. Greater the coil area, the greater the inductance. Greater coil area
presents less opposition to the formation of magnetic field flux for a given amount of field force
• Core Material
The greater the magnetic permeability of the core to which the coil is wrapped around, the greater the
inductance.
• Coil Length
The longer the coil’s length, the lesser the inductance. The shorter the coil’s length, the greater the
inductance.
 Network Theory - Superposition Theorem

• Superposition theorem is based on the concept of linearity between the

response and excitation of an electrical circuit.
• It states that the response in a particular branch of a linear circuit when
multiple independent sources are acting at the same time is equivalent to the
sum of the responses due to each independent source acting at a time.
• In this method, we will consider only one independent source at a time. So,
we have to eliminate the remaining independent sources from the circuit.
• We can eliminate the voltage sources by shorting their two terminals and
similarly, the current sources by opening their two terminals.
• Therefore, we need to find the response in a particular branch ‘n’ times if
there are ‘n’ independent sources. The response in a particular branch could
be either current flowing through that branch or voltage across that branc
 Procedure of Superposition Theorem

• Step 1 − Find the response in a particular branch by considering one

independent source and eliminating the remaining independent sources
present in the network.
• Step 2 − Repeat Step 1 for all independent sources present in the network.
• Step 3 − Add all the responses in order to get the overall response in a
particular branch when all independent sources are present in the network.
Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the
following circuit using superposition theorem.
 Step 1 − Let us find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by considering only 20 V
voltage source. In this case, we can eliminate the 4 A current source by making open circuit
of it. The modified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure
 There is only one principal node except Ground in the above circuit. So, we can use nodal
analysis method. The node voltage V1 is labelled in the following figure. Here, V1 is the
voltage from node 1 with respect to ground

• .
 Limitations of Superposition Theorem

• he theorem does not apply to non-linear circuits.

• The requisite of linearity indicates that the superposition theorem is only
applicable to determine voltage and current but not power.
• Power dissipation is a nonlinear function that does not algebraically add to
an accurate total when only one source is considered at a time.
• The application of the superposition theorem requires two or more sources
in the circuit.
 Thevenin’s theorem

• Thevenin’s theorem states that any linear network having a number of voltage
sources and resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single
voltage source (VTH) in series with a resistance (RTH), where VTH is the open-circuit
voltage at the terminals of the load and RTH is the equivalent resistance measured across
the terminals while independent sources are turned off.
• Thevenin’s theorem states that any linear network with several power
sources, resistances and a variable load can be represented in a much simpler
circuit containing a single voltage source (VTH) (known as Thevenin’s
equivalent voltage) in series with a resistance (RTH) (known as Thevenin’s
equivalent resistance) and the variable load, where VTH is the open-circuit
voltage at the terminals of the load and RTH is the equivalent resistance
measured across the terminals while independent sources are turned off
Solved examples
 Norton’s theorem
• Norton's Theorem is the theorem we use for solving the given electrical
network/ circuit and is also known as the Circuit theorem
• Norton’s theorem is one of the important Network theorems.
• This theorem is useful for representing the given electric circuit into its
equivalent circuit in the simplified form.
 Norton's Theorem Statement

• Norton's theorem states that any 2-terminal linear and bilateral network or
circuit having multiple independent and dependent sources can be
represented in a simplified equivalent circuit known as Norton's equivalent
circuit
• Norton's equivalent circuit consists of Norton's current source, IN in parallel with
Norton's resistance, RN.
• In Is the short circuit current through terminals.
• Rn Is the equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.
• The parallel combination of current source and resistor is a practical current source.
• Hence, we can say that Norton's equivalent circuit is nothing but a practical current
source.
• Rn=Rth
• In=Vth/Rth
• Rth=Rn=Vth/In. This is called source transformation.