XCLOSE MATHEMATICAL Prineiple of Mathematical Induction ‘The principle of mathematical induction is a fundamental method of mathematical proof used to establish that a given statement P(7) holds true for all natural numbers n. It involves two main steps: the base case’and the jndictivé'step. Steps of Mathematical Induction: 1, Base Case: Verify that the statement P(n) is true for the initial value of m, typically n = 1 2. Inductive Step: Assume that the'statement P(n) is true for some arbitrary positive integer k. This assumption is called the inductive hypothesis. Then, show that under this assumption, the statement P(n) is also true for mt k bel How It Works: ‘+ Base Case: This step establishes that the statement Holds for the first value in the sequence, usually n = 1. ‘+ Inductive Hypothesis: Assume that the statement holds for m=k, This step is hypothetical and is used to build the next step. ‘+ Inductive Step: Using the inductive hypothesis, prove that the statement holds for n = + Lf this step is successfully completed, it shows that if the statement isfrue foF'an arbitrary k, it must also be true for k + 1. If both the base case and the inductive step are proven, it concludes that thestatement P(m) is true for all natural numbers n. Example of Mathematical Induction:Consider proving that the sum of the first n natural numbers is given by the formula: P(n): 14+24+3+...¢n= 2D 1, Base Case: For n = 1: r= 21 So, P(1) is true. 2sInductive Hypothesis: Assume P(k) is true for some k: 149463 +. bk = MOY 3, Inductive Step: Show P(k + 1) is true: 14+24+3+ — es) = Gea) Thus, P(k +1) is trugif P(k) is de Since both the base case and thé inductive step have been established, by the principle of mathematical induction, thestatement is true for all natural numbers n. ++ (k Ra) = “2 + (kK +1) Example 1: Sum of the First n Odd Numbers Statement: The sum of the first n odd numbers isn”. Proof: 1, Base Case: For n = 1: 1=P The base case holds true, 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k, i.e., 14345+...+(2k-1) =k? 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for kt + 1 14+345+...+(2k—1) + [2(k+1)—-1] =(k+1) By the inductive hypothesis: k + [2(k +1) -1] = +2k+1=(k+1)? 26The inductive step is true. Since both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all natural numbers n. Example 2: Sum of the First n Natural Numbers Statement; The sum of the first n natural numbers is given by 142434...¢n= 22+) Proof: 1. Base Case: For'n = (1 +1) a 2 1 The base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k; i.e., 2+ 3s +k = MAD 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1: Kk+1) L+2434...4+84 (k+1) OS +(k+1) Simplifying the right-hand side: k(k +1) 2 k(k +1) + 2(k + 1),g0(R8RA)(k + 2) +(k+1)= 2 > The inductive step is true. Since both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the Statement holds for all natural numbers n. Example 3: Divi: ility by 3 Statement: 7” — 4" is divisible by 3 for all natural numbers nr. Proof: 1. Base Case: For n = 3is divisible by 3. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k, 7* — 4 is divisible by 3 ais3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1: ‘peel — abt 7.7 4. at By the inductive hypothesis, we can write: Tht ght — 77k — a) 4 a*(7 — 4) Sine@7* — 4* is divisible by 3 and 7 — 4 = 77 — 4*) 4.4.3 Both terms are divisible by 3. Since both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all natural numbers 'n, Example 4: Sum of Squares of the First n Natural Numbers Statement: The sum of the squafes of the first n natural numbers is given by n(n +1)(2n +1) 6 P+P+Pe...+n? Proof: 1. Base Case: Forn = 10 +1)(2-141) 6 2 1 The base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some’k, Le., k(k-£1)(2k +1) PHP+3+..+h= 6 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1: re Patt. te a(R tap = MEEUOE AD ip Simplifying the right-hand side: k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + 6( +1)? _ ‘k + 1)[k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)] 6 _ (k+1)(2h? +7 - 6 _ (+ I(K + 2)(2k +3) 6 aneSince both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all natural numbers n. Example 5: Factorial Function and Inequality Statement: For all Ratural numbers n > 4,n! > 2”. Proof: 1. Base Case: For n = 4: 4!=24 and =16 24 > 16, so the base Case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statementis true for some k > 4, ie., iB! > 2 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + L (k +1)! = (k#1) +! By the inductive hypothesis: (k+1)!> (k+1)-2% Sincek + 1 > 5(ask > 4): (k4+1)- 2% > 2.2% = ok FE Thus: (k +1)! > 2h Since both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all natural numbers n > 4. Example 6: Geometric Series Sum Statement: The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series with ratio r # Lis: 1-r" Sn = Proof: s/61, Base Case: Forn = 1: and The base case holds true. ‘2pInductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k, i.e., 3, Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1 Sri = Se +r* By the inductive hypothesisi Since both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all natural numbers n. Example 7: Sum of Cubes Statement: The sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers is given by: P4243 +...¢n3= (neu 2 Proof: 1. Base Case: For n = 1: : eeey’ v= (———} = 1 2 The base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k, i.e., csp) 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for kt + 1: B+343+...40h = 6/6P4243" +... +k + (k+1) ) +(k+1)8 ‘Simplifying the right-hand side: Factor out (k + 1): ‘Simplify further to: (Ex) _ (ka? wa yp (Cee +2) _ (eeneen’ Since both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all natural numbers 1 Example 8: Power of 2 Inequality Statement: 2” > n? for all natural numbers n >/4. Proof: 1. Base Case: Forn = 4: 2*=16 and 4 16 16 = 16, so the base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some kt > 4, 8 wor 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1; abl 2. 2 By the inductive hypothesis: 2-% >2-K Since k > 4: 2k? > (k +1)? Expanding the right-hand side: 2k? > hk? + 2k +1 simplifying: 76> k+1 Since k > 4: 8 and 1< Thus: RD 2k+1 Sinee both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all naturallnumbers n > 4. Example 9: Fibonacci Sequence Statement: F (7) is the n-th Fibonacci number defined as F(1) = 1, F(2) = 1, and F( 1) + F(n — 2)forn > 3.Prove that F(n) <2" for alln > 1. Proof: 1. Base Case: For n = l andin = 2: F(1)=1<2! PQ)=1< 2 =4 Both base cases hold true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is trué for some\k > 2, ie., F(k) <2* and’ F(k “aye 2* 1 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1: F(k +1) = F(k) + F(kK=1) By the inductive hypothesis: F(k+1) <2 42h? 4,2" > n’. Proof: 1. Base Case: For n = 9/162#=16 and 4°=16 16 = 16, so the base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k a >k 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1: att 2.9% By the inductive hypothesis: 2.2 >2.K 2-k > (k+1)? Expanding and Simplifying: Dh? >? +2k+1 KES 2k +1 This is true for k > 4. Since both the base case and the inductive step are trueyby mathematical induction, the statement holds for all integers n > 4. Example 12: Inequality involving Binomial Coefficients (1) =? =e Statement: For n > 1, Proof: 1, Base Case: For n = 1 1 E()-()-Q)rreree =0 The base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k > 1, i.e., k £0) jo 10/163. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1 k+ ) > (}) ( k ) HS )-EC) + x ( J jo a j-1 Using Pascal's identity: k BD5)-26)-E 08) 8 Q)-te ee j-0 mo io Since both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all integers m= 1. Example 13: Strong Induction for Fibonacci Sequence Statement: Every natural number n > I can be written as a sum of distinct Fibonacci numbers. Proof: Use strong induction to prove the statement, Let P(r) be the statement that n can be written as a sum of distinct Fibonacci numbers. 1, Base Case: Forn = 1 1 The base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for all such that L< k 1. Example 14: Powers of 3 Inequality Statement: For all n > 1,3" > n’. Proof: 1, Base Case: Forn = 1 3'=3 and 1=1 3 > 1,so the base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k > 1, ie., neFok 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1: 3htt _ 3. 3k By the inductive hypothesis: 3 > 3K Singe k > 1: 3-k > (k+1)8 Expandingand simplifying: BkS > ho + 8k? + 3k +1 Since 3k* > k* for kt> 1, the’statement holds true. Since both the base Case and theiinductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all integers n > 1. Example 15: Sum of Reciprocals Statement: The sum of the reciprocals ofthe first n natural numbers is less than or equal to 1 + In(n) for all n > 1. Proof: 1. Base Case: For n = 1 and 1+In(1) =f 1 Le The base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for somek. > 1 By the inductive hypothesis: 1261 1 1 Zé je. 7 <1 tink) + Me ist Since In(k + 1) > In(k) + ;4; fork > 1: Lie 1+In(k) + Ey S1+m(k+1) Sineé'both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all integers n > 1 Example 16: Sum of Cubes Formula Statement: The sum of the cubes oftthe first n natliral numbers is given by: (se) PH Peds n' Proof: 1. Base Case: Forn = 1 B= uai+1)\? 2 The base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some #21, 1e., y) 2 PB +e = ( 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1: k(k +1) 2 3425435+.. +e +G+n= ( ) +(k+1)% Simplifying the right-hand side: (seen) +(k+1)= (eeeny’ + (k+1)* Factor out (k + 1): 13/16Simplify further to: k +alk 2) = ery (G2NE +2) _ (deneaiy’ Sinceibeth the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all natural numbers n. eso ( Example 17: Inequ: ity with Factorials Statement: For alhintegersin > 5,n! > 2". Proof: 1. Base Case: For n = 5!1=120 and 2°=32 120 > 32, so the base ase holds true, 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k > 5, ie, kl > 2 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1 (k4 1)! = (b 4) BD By the inductive hypothesis: (k +1)! = (b +1) > (ayer Since k +1 > (k +1) -2* > 2.2% = 2th Thus: (k+ 1)! > 2*+1 Since both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all integers n > 5. Example 18: Powers of 3 Inequality Statement: For all n > 1,3" > n’, Proof: 1. Base Case: For n = 3 and I'=1 tans> 1, so the base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k > 1, ie, sto 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1: ght! By the inductive hypothesis: 3.3 Sine@ k 2 B-k > (k +1) Expanding and simplifying 3k° > kS + 3k? 4 3k 41 Since 3k° > k* for k 21, the statement holds true. Since both the base case and the indiietive step ar€ltrue, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all integers n. > 1 Example 19: Sum of Powers of 2 ‘Statement: The sum of the first n powers of 2is given bys 142444+8+..42" Meo 1 Proof 1. Base Case: For n — 1 1=2'-1=1 The base case holds true. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k 14244484... 421 = #1 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for f+ 1: 1424+448+...+2 14 2 = (21) 42" Simplifying the right-hand side: (2-1) +2" at—p=2tt_4 ‘Since both the base case and the inductive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all integers n. ise Example 20: Sum of Even Numbers ‘Statement: The sum of the first n even natural numbers is given by:Example 20: Sum of Even Numbers Statement: The sum of the first n even natural numbers is given by: 24+4464...+2n=n(n+1) Proof: 1.Base Case: For n = 2=1(1+1) ‘The base case hOlds true 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume the statement is true for some k > 1, ie., 2Q44464...42k =K(k +1) 3. Inductive Step: Show that the statement holds for k + 1: 244464 ...4 2k + 2(k +1) =k(k +1) 4+ 2(k +1) ‘Simplifying the right-hand side: (1) + 200891) = (k +1)(k +2) Since both the base case and the induttive step are true, by mathematical induction, the statement holds for all integers n. 16/16