been subjected to high intensity red light before viewing the flag.

The color of the flag

SUBJECT NAME : DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING (EC5A1) will appear to shift in hue toward the red component cyan.

UNIT I 11. Define Resolutions

Resolution is defined as the smallest number of discernible detail in an image.
PART- A Spatial resolution is the smallest discernible detail in an image and gray level resolution
refers to the smallest discernible change is gray level.
1. Define Image
An image may be defined as two dimensional light intensity function f(x, y) where x and 12. What is meant by pixel?
y denote spatial co-ordinate and the amplitude or value of f at any point (x, y) is called A digital image is composed of a finite number of elements each of which has a particular
intensity or grayscale or brightness of the image at that point. location or value. These elements are referred to as pixels or image elements or picture
elements or pels elements.
2. What is Dynamic Range?
The range of values spanned by the gray scale is called dynamic range of an 13. Define Digital image
image. Image will have high contrast, if the dynamic range is high and image will have When x, y and the amplitude values of f all are finite discrete quantities , we call
dull washed out gray look if the dynamic range is low. the image digital image.
DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
(2marks and 16 marks questions and answers) 3. Define Brightness
Brightness of an object is the perceived luminance of the surround. Two objects
14. What are the steps involved in DIP?
1. Image Acquisition
with different surroundings would have identical luminance but different brightness. 2. Preprocessing
3. Segmentation
5. What do you meant by Gray level? 4. Representation and Description
Gray level refers to a scalar measure of intensity that ranges from black to grays 5. Recognition and Interpretation
and finally to white.
15. What is recognition and Interpretation?
6. What do you meant by Color model? Recognition means is a process that assigns a label to an object based on the
A Color model is a specification of 3D-coordinates system and a subspace within information provided by its descriptors.
that system where each color is represented by a single point. Interpretation means assigning meaning to a recognized object.

7. List the hardware oriented color models 16. Specify the elements of DIP system
1. RGB model 1. Image Acquisition
2. CMY model 2. Storage
3. YIQ model 3. Processing
4. HSI model 4. Display

8. What is Hue and saturation? 17. List the categories of digital storage
Hue is a color attribute that describes a pure color where saturation gives a 1. Short term storage for use during processing.
measure of the degree to which a pure color is diluted by white light. 2. Online storage for relatively fast recall.
3. Archival storage for infrequent access.
9. List the applications of color models 18. What are the types of light receptors?
1. RGB model--- used for color monitors & color video camera The two types of light receptors are
2. CMY model---used for color printing • Cones and
3. HIS model----used for color image processing • Rods
4. YIQ model---used for color picture transmission
19. Differentiate photopic and scotopic vision
10. What is Chromatic Adoption?
` The hue of a perceived color depends on the adoption of the viewer. For example, Photopic vision Scotopic vision
the American Flag will not immediately appear red, white, and blue of the viewer has

1. The human being can resolve Several rods are connected to 256 * 256 * 5 = 327680 bits.
the fine details with these cones one nerve end. So it gives the PART-B
because each one is connected to overall picture of the image. 28. Write the expression to find the number of bits to store a digital image? 1. Explain Brightness adaptation and Discrimination
its own nerve end. The number of bits required to store a digital image is The digital images are displayed as a discrete set of intensities, the eye’s ability
2. This is also known as bright This is also known as thin light b=M X N X k to discriminate between different intensity levels.
light vision. vision. When M=N, this equation becomes Subjective brightness is a logarithmic function of the light intensity incident on the
b=N^2k eye. The long solid curve represents the range of intensities t o which the visual system
20. How cones and rods are distributed in retina? can adapt.
In each eye, cones are in the range 6-7 million and rods are in the range 75-150 29. Write short notes on neighbors of a pixel. In photopic vision alone the range is about 10^6.
million. The pixel p at co-ordinates (x, y) has 4 neighbors (ie) 2 horizontal and 2 vertical It accomplishes the large variation by changes in its overall sensitivity phenomenon is
neighbors whose co-ordinates is given by (x+1, y), (x-1,y), (x,y-1), (x, y+1). This is known as brightness adaptation.
21. Define subjective brightness and brightness adaptation called as direct neighbors. It is denoted by N4(P) The eye’s ability to discriminate between different intensity levels at any specific
Subjective brightness means intensity as preserved by the human visual system. Four diagonal neighbors of p have co-ordinates (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-1), (x-1, y-1), adaptation.
Brightness adaptation means the human visual system can operate only from (x-1, y+1). It is denoted by ND(4).
scotopic to glare limit. It cannot operate over the range simultaneously. It accomplishes Eight neighbors of p denoted by N8(P) is a combination of 4 direct neighbors and
this large variation by changes in its overall intensity. 4 diagonal neighbors.

22. Define weber ratio 30. Explain the types of connectivity.

I+I
The ratio of increment of illumination to background of illumination is called as weber 1. 4 connectivity
ratio.(ie) Δi/i 2. 8 connectivity
If the ratio (Δi/i) is small, then small percentage of change in intensity is needed (ie) good 3. M connectivity (mixed connectivity)
brightness adaptation.
If the ratio (Δi/i) is large , then large percentage of change in intensity is needed (ie) poor 31. What is meant by path? The eye is capable of detecting contouring effects in monochrome Image
brightness adaptation. Path from pixel p with co-ordinates (x, y) to pixel q with co-ordinates (s,t) is a whose overall intensity is represented by fewer than approximately two dozen levels.
sequence of distinct pixels with co-ordinates. The second phenomenon called simultaneous contrast is related to the fact that a region’s
23. What is meant by machband effect? perceived brightness does not depend on its intensity. They app ear to the eye become
Machband effect means the intensity of the stripes is constant. Therefore it 32. Give the formula for calculating D4 and D8 distance. dark eras the background gets lighter.
preserves the brightness pattern near the boundaries, these bands are called as machband D4 distance ( city block distance) is defined by
effect. D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t| 2.Explain sampling and quantization:
D8 distance(chess board distance) is defined by For computer processing, the image function f(x,y)must be digitized both spatially
24. What is simultaneous contrast? D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|, |y-t|). and in amplitude. Digitization of spatial co-ordinates is called image sampling and
The region reserved brightness not depend on its intensity but also on its amplitude digitization is called grey level quantization.
background. All centre square have same intensity. However they appear to the eye to 33. What is geometric transformation? Sampling:
become darker as the background becomes lighter. Transformation is used to alter the co-ordinate description of image. Consider a digital image of size 1024*1024,256 with a display area used for the
The basic geometric transformations are image being the same ,the pixels in the lower resolution images where duplicated inorder
25. What is meant by illumination and reflectance? 1. Image translation to fulfill the entire display .the pixel replication produced a checker board effect, which is
Illumination is the amount of source light incident on the scene. It is represented 2. Scaling visible in the image of lower resolution .it is not possible to differentiate a 512*512
as i(x, y). 3. Image rotation images from a1024*1024 under this effect. but a slight increase in grainess and a small
Reflectance is the amount of light reflected by the object in the scene. It is decrease in sharpness is noted.
represented by r(x, y). 34. What is image translation and scaling? A 256*256 image shows a fine checker board pattern in the edges and more
Image translation means reposition the image from one co-ordinate location to pronounced grainess there out the image .these effect is much more visible in 128*128
26. Define sampling and quantization another along straight line path. images and it becomes quite pronounced in 64*64 and 32*32 images.
Sampling means digitizing the co-ordinate value (x, y). Scaling is used to alter the size of the object or image (ie) a co-ordinate system is Quantization:
Quantization means digitizing the amplitude value. scaled by a factor. It discusses the effects produced when the number of bits used to represent the
grey level in an image is decreased .this is illustrated by reducing the grey level required
27. Find the number of bits required to store a 256 X 256 image with 32 gray levels 35. Define the term Luminance to represent a 1024*1024,512 image.
32 gray levels = 25 Luminance measured in lumens (lm), gives a measure of the amount of energy an The 256,128,and 64 level image are visually identical for all practical purposes
= 5 bits observer perceiver from a light source. the 32 level images has developed a set of rigid like structure in areas of smooth grey

lines.this effect caused by the user insufficient number of grey levels in smooth areas of prosuces a black .When black is added giving rise to the CMYK color model.This is four The knowledge base also can be quite complex such as an interrelated list of all
digital image is called a false contouring.this is visible in images displayed using 16 or coluring printing . major possible defects in a materials inspection problem or an image database containing
lesser gray level values. high resolution satellite images of a region in connection with change detection
PART-C application.
3.Explain about Mach band effect? Although we do not discuss image display explicitly at this point it is
Two phenomena demonstrate that perceived brightness is not only a function of 1. Describe the fundamental steps in image processing? important to keep in mind that viewing the results of image processing can take place at
intensity. They are mach band pattern and simultaneous contrast. Digital image processing encompasses a broad range of hardware, software and the output of any step.
Mach band pattern: theoretical underpinnings.
It states that the visual system tends to undershoot or overshoot around the boundary of 2. Explain the basic Elements of digital image processing:
regions of different intensities .This is called mach band pattern. Although the width of Five elements of digital image processing,
the stripe is constant, it is perceived as if the brightness pattern is strongly scalloped near • image acquisitions
the boundaries by darker part. • storage
Simultaneous contrast is related to the fact that a regions perceived brightness does not • processing
depend only on its intensity. In the figure all the center square have the same intensity • communication
however they appear to the eye as the background gets lighter. • display
Example: A piece of paper seems white when lying on the desk but can appear when 1)Image acquisition :
used to shield the eyes while looking at brighter sky. Two devices are required to acquire a digital image ,they are
1)physical device:
4. Explain color image fundamentals. Produces an electric signal proportional to the amount of light energy sensed.
Although the process followed by the human brain in perceiving and interpreting 2)a digitizer:
color is a physiopsychological phenomenon that is not yet fully understood, the physical Device for converting the electric output into a digital form.
nature of color can be expressed on a formal basis supported by experimental and 2.storage:
theoretical results. The problem domain in this example consists of pieces of mail and the objective is to
An 8 bit image of size 1024*1024 requires one million bits of storage.three types
Basically, the colors that humans and some other animals perceive in an object are read the address on each piece. Thus the desired output in this case is a stream of
of storage:
determined by the nature of the light reflected from the object. The visible light is alphanumeric characters.
1.short term storage:
composed of a relatively narrow band of frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum. A The first step in the process is image acquisition that is acquire a digital image .To
It is used during processing. it is provide by computer memory. it consisits of
body that reflects light that is balanced in all visible wavelengths appears white to the do so requires an imaging sensor and the capability to digitize the signal produced by the
frame buffer which can store one or more images and can be accessed quickly at the
observer. For example, green objects reflect light with wavelengths primarily in the 500 sensor.
video rates.
to 570 nm range while absorbing most of the energy at other wavelengths. After the digital image has been obtained the next step deals with preprocessing
2.online storage:
Three basic quantities are used to describe the quality of a chromatic light source: that image. The key function of this is to improve the image in ways that increase the
It is used for fast recall. It normally uses the magnetic disk,Winchester disk with100s 0f
radiance, luminance and brightness. Radiance is the total amount of energy that flows chances for success of the other processes.
megabits are commonly used .
from the light source, and is usually measured in watts(W). Luminance, measured in The next stage deals with segmentation. Broadly defined segmentation partitions
3.archival storage:
lumens(lm), gives a measure of the amount of energy an observer perceives from a loght an input image into its constituent parts or objects. The key role of this is to extract
They are passive storage devices and it is used for infrequent access.magnetic
source. Finally, brightness is a subjective descriptor that is practically impossible to individual characters and words from the background,
tapes and optical disc are the media. High density magnetic tapes can store 1 megabit in
measure. The output of the segmentation stage usually is raw pixel data, constituting either
about 13 feet of tape .
the boundary of a region or all the points in the region itself.
3)Processing:
5. Explain CMY model. Choosing a representation is only part of the solution for transforming raw data
Processing of a digital image p involves procedures that are expressedin terms of
This model deals about the cyan,magenta and yellow are the secondary colors of into a form suitable for subsequent computer processing. Description also called feature
algorithms .with the exception of image acquisition and display most image processing
light.When a surface coated with cyan pigment is illuminated with white light no red selection deals with extracting features that result in some quantitative information of
functions can be implemented in software .the need for a specialized hardware is called
lihgt is reflected from the surface.Cyan subtracts red light from reflected white interest that are basic for differentiating one class of object from another.
increased speed in application. Large scale image processing systems are still being used
light,which itself is composed of equal amounts of red,green and blue light.in this mode The last stage involves recognition and interpretation. Recognition is the process
for massive image application .steps are being merge for general purpose small computer
cyan data input or perform an RGB to CMY conversion internally. that assigns a label to an object based on the information provided by its descriptors.
equipped with image processing hardware.
C=1-R Interpretation involves assigning meaning to an ensemble of recognized objects.
4)communication:
M= 1 - G Knowledge about a problem domain is coded into an image processing system in
Communication in ip involves local communication between ip systems and remote
Y= 1 - B the form of knowledge database. This knowledge may be simple as detailing regions of
communication from one point to another in communication with the transmission of
All color values have been normalized to the range [0,1].the light reflected from a surface an image where the information of interest is known to be located thus limiting the search
image hardware and software are available for most of the computers .the telephone line
coated with pure cyan does not contain red .RGB values can be obtained easily from a set that has to be conducted in seeking that information.
can transmit a max rate of 9600 bits per second.so to transmit a 512*512,8 bit image at
of CMY values by subtracting the individual Cmy values from 1.Combining these colors
this rate require at last 5 mins.wireless link using intermediate stations such as satellites The innermost membrance of the eye is retina, which lines the inside of the wall’s • Intensity is a most useful descriptor of monochromatic images.
are much faster but they are costly. entire posterior portion. There are 2 classes of receptors, Converting colors from RGB to HSI
5)display: 1. Cones Given an image in RGB color format ,
Monochrome and colour tv monitors are the principal display devices used in modern 2. Rods • the H component of each RGB pixel is obtained using the equation
ips.monitors are driven by the outputs of the hardware in the display module of the Cones: H = {theta if B<=G
computer. The cones in each eye between 6and7 million. They are located primarily in the
360-theta if B>G
3. Explain the Structure of the Human eye central portion of the retina called the fovea, and highly sensitive to Colour.
Rods:
The number of rods is much larger; some 75 to 150 millions are distributed over the with theta = cos-1{1/2[R-G) +(R-B)/[(R-G)2 + (R-B)(G-B)]1/2}
retinal surface. • The saturation component is given by
Fovea as a square sensor array of size 1.5mm*1.5mm. S =1-3/(R+G+B)[min(R,G,B)]
• the intensity component is given by
4. Explain the RGB model I=1/3(R+G+B)
RGB model,each color appears in its primary spectral components of red ,green Converting colors from HSI to RGB
and blue.This model is based on a Cartesian coordinate system.This color subspace of Given values of HSI in the interval [0,1],we now want to find the corresponding
interest is the cube.RGB values are at three corners cyan.magenta and yellow are at three RGB values in the same range .We begin by multiplying H by 360o,which returns the hue
other corner black is at the origin and white is the at the corner farthest from the origin to its original range of [0o,360o]
this model the gray scale extends from black to white along the line joining these two RG sector(0o<=120o).when h is in this sector ,the RGB components are given by the
points .The different colors in this model are points on or inside the cube and are defined equations
by vectors extending from the origin. B = I (1 - S)
Images represented in the RGB color model consist of three component
R = I [1 + S cos H/cos(60o - H)]
images,one for each primary colors.The no of bits used to represented each pixel in which
each red,green and blue images is an 8 bit image.Each RGB color pixel of values is said G = 1 - (R + B)
to be 24 bits .The total no of colors in a 24 bit RGB images is 92803=16777,216.
The acquiring a color image is basically the process is shown in fig,. A color image can GB Sector(120o <= H < 240o).If the given value of H is in this ,we first subtract 120o
be acquired by using three filters,sensitive to red,green and blue.When we view a color from it
scene with a monochrome camera equipped with one of these filters the result is a H = H -120o
monochrome image whose intensity is proportional to the response of that filter. Then the RGB components are
The eye is early a sphere, with an average diameter of approximately 20 mm. Repeating this process with each filter produces three monochrome images that are the B = I (1 – S)
Three membrance encloses the eye, RGB component images of the color scene.the subset of color is called the set of safe
1. Cornea
G = I [1 + S cos H/cos(60o - H)]
RGB colors or the set of all system safe colors. In inter net applications they are called
2. Sclera or Cornea: safe Web colors or safe browser colors.There are 256 colors are obtained from different B = 1 - (R + G)
3. Retina combination but we are using only 216 colors . BR Sector(240o <=H<=360o).Finally if H is in this range we subtract 240o from it
. The cornea is a tough, transparent tissue that covers the anterior surface of the eye. H = H - 240o
Sclera: Then the RGB components are
Sclera is an opaque membrance e that encloses the remainder of the optical globe. 5.Descibe the HSI color image model G = I (1 - S)
Choroid: The HSI Color Model B = I [1 + S cos H/cos(60o - H)]
-Choroid directly below the sclera. This membrance contains a network of blood The RGB,CMY and other color models are not well suited for describing colors in
vessels that serve as the major source of nutrition to the eye.
R = 1 - (G + B)
terms that are practical for human interpretation.For eg,one does not refer to the color of
6. Describe the basic relationship between the pixels
-Choroid coat is heavily pigmented and helps to reduce the amount of extraneous an automobile by giving the percentage of each of the primaries composing its color.
2-D Mathematical preliminaries
light entering the eye. When humans view a color object we describe it by its hue, saturation and
-The choroid is divided into the ciliary body and the iris diaphragm. brightness. • Neighbours of a pixel
Lens: • Hue is a color attribute that describes a pure color. • Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions and Boundaries
The lens is made up of concentric lay ours of fibrous cells and is suspended by • Saturation gives a measure of the degree to which a pure color is diluted by white • Distance measures
fibrous that attach to the ciliary body. It contains 60to 70% of water about 60%fat and m light. Neighbours of a pixel
ore protein than any other tissue in the eye. • A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has four horizontal and vertical neighbours whose
• Brightness is a subjective descriptor that is practically impossible to measure. It
Retina: coordinates are given by
embodies the achromatic notion of intensity and is one of the key factors in
(x+1,y), (x-1,y), (x,y+1), (x,y-1).
describing color sensation

• This set of pixels, called the 4-neighbours of p, is denoted by N4(p). Each pixel is 9. Specify the properties of 2D Fourier transform.
a unit distance from (x,y) and some of the neighbours of p lie outside the digital 3. What are the applications of transform? The properties are
image if (x,y) is on the border of the image. 1) To reduce band width • Separability
• The four diagonal neighbours of p have coordinates 2) To reduce redundancy • Translation
(x+1,y+1), (x+1,y-1), (x-1,y+1), (x-1,y-1) 3) To extract feature. • Periodicity and conjugate symmetry
• And are denoted by ND(p). These points together with the 4-neighbours are called • Rotation
the 8-neighbours of p, denoted by N8(p). 4. Give the Conditions for perfect transform • Distributivity and scaling
Adjacency, Connectivity, Regions and Boundaries Transpose of matrix = Inverse of a matrix.
• Average value
Three types of adjacency: Orthoganality.
• Laplacian
• 4-adjacency. Two pixels p and q with values from V are 4-adjacent if q is in the
5. What are the properties of unitary transform? • Convolution and correlation
set N4(p).
• 8-adjacency. Two pixels p and q with values from V are 8-adjacent if q is in the 1) Determinant and the Eigen values of a unitary matrix have unity magnitude • sampling
set N8(p). 2) the entropy of a random vector is preserved under a unitary Transformation
3) Since the entropy is a measure of average information, this means information 10. Mention the separability property in 2D Fourier transform
• M-adjacency. Two pixels p and q with values from V are m-adjacent if
is preserved under a unitary transformation. The advantage of separable property is that F(u, v) and f(x, y) can be obtained by
q is in N4(p), or q is in ND(p) and the set N4(p)  N4(q) has no pixels whose
6. Define Fourier transform pair successive application of 1D Fourier transform or its inverse.
values are from V.
• A (digital) path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x,y) to pixel q with The Fourier transform of f(x) denoted by F(u) is defined by n-1
F(u, v) =1/N ∑ F(x, v) e –j2πux/N
coordinates (s,t) is a sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates ∝

(x0,y0), (x1,y1),................(xn,yn) F(u)= ∫ f(x) e-j2πux dx ----------------(1) x=0

-∝ Where
Where (x0,y0)= (x,y), (xn,yn)=(s,t) and pixels (xi,yi) and (xi-1,yi-1) are adjacent for
1<=i<=n. N is the length of the path. The inverse fourier transform of f(x) is defined by n-1
F(x, v)=N[1/N ∑ f(x, y) e –j2πvy/N
Distance measures ∝ y=0
• For pixels p,q and z with coordinates (x,y), (s,t) and (v,w) respectively, D is a f(x)= ∫F(u) ej2πux dx --------------------(2)
11. List the Properties of twiddle factor.
distance function or metric if -∝
1. Periodicity
 D(p,q)>=0 (D(p,q)=0 iff p=q), The equations (1) and (2) are known as fourier transform pair.
WN^(K+N)= WN^K
 D(p,q) = D(q,p) and
 D(p,z) <= D(p,q) + D(q,z) 7. Define Fourier spectrum and spectral density
2. Symmetry
• The Euclidean distance between p and q is defined as, Fourier spectrum is defined as
WN^(K+N/2)= -WN^K
 De(p,q) = [(x-s)2+(y-t)2]
F(u) = |F(u)| e jφ(u)
• The D4 distance (also called city-block distance) between p and q is defined as
Where
12. Give the Properties of one-dimensional DFT
|F(u)| = R2(u)+I2(u)
 D4(p,q) = |x-s|+|y-t| 1. The DFT and unitary DFT matrices are symmetric.
φ(u) = tan-1(I(u)/R(u))
• The D8 distance (also called chessboard distance) between p and q is defined as 2. The extensions of the DFT and unitary DFT of a sequence and their
Spectral density is defined by
 D8(p,q) = max( |x-s|+|y-t|) inverse transforms are periodic with period N.
p(u) = |F(u)|2
3. The DFT or unitary DFT of a real sequence is conjugate symmetric
p(u) = R2(u)+I2(u)
about N/2.
UNIT II
8. Give the relation for 1-D discrete Fourier transform pair
1. What is the need for transform? 13. Give the Properties of two-dimensional DFT
The discrete Fourier transform is defined by
The need for transform is most of the signals or images are time domain signal (ie) 1. Symmetric
n-1
signals can be measured with a function of time. This representation is not always best. 2. Periodic extensions
F(u) = 1/N ∑ f(x) e –j2πux/N
For most image processing applications anyone of the mathematical transformation are x=0 3. Sampled Fourier transform
applied to the signal or images to obtain further information from that signal. 4. Conjugate symmetry.
The inverse discrete Fourier transform is given by
n-1
2. What is Image Transform? 14. What is meant by convolution?
f(x) = ∑ F(u) e j2πux/N
An image can be expanded in terms of a discrete set of basis arrays called basis The convolution of 2 functions is defined by
x=0
images. These basis images can be generated by unitary matrices. Alternatively, a given f(x)*g(x) = ∫ f(α ) .g(x- α ) dα
These equations are known as discrete Fourier transform pair.
NxN image can be viewed as an N^2x1 vectors. An image transform provides a set of where α is the dummy variable
coordinates or basis vectors for vector space.

15. State convolution theorem for 1D N-1 K=1

• If f(x) has a fourier transform F(u) and g(x) has a fourier transform G(u) then • Inverse f(x)= ∑ α(u) c(u) cos[((2x+1) uп)/2N] where x=0,1,2,…N-1
f(x)*g(x) has a fourier transform F(u).G(u). V=0 K-L Transform Y= A(X- MX)
• Convolution in x domain can be obtained by taking the inverse fourier transform
of the product F(u).G(u). 23. Write slant transform matrix SN. 26. Give the equation for singular value decomposition of an image?
• Convolution in frequency domain reduces the multiplication in the x domain
f(x).g(x)  F(u)* G(u)
1 0
• These 2 results are referred to the convolution theorem. 1 0 0 0 U= m=1∑rψ√λm φmT
-aN bN
aN bN This equation is called as singular value decomposition of an image.
16. What is wrap around error? S
0
The individual periods of the convolution will overlap and referred to as 0 I(N/2-1) 0 I(N/2-1) N/2 27. Write the properties of Singular value Decomposition(SVD)?
wrap around error • The SVD transform varies drastically from image to image.
• The SVD transform gives best energy packing efficiency for any given image.
17. Give the formula for correlation of 1D continuous function. SN = 1/√2 1 0 0 -1
0 0 • The SVD transform is useful in the design of filters finding least square,minimum
The correlation of 2 continuous functions f(x) and g(x) is defined by -bN aN bN aN
solution of linear equation and finding rank of large matrices.
f(x) o g(x) = ∫ f*(α ) g(x+α ) dα S
0
0 I(N/2-1) 0 -I(N/2-1) N/2
PART-B
18. What are the properties of Haar transform.
1. Write short notes on Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT)
1. Haar transform is real and orthogonal.
• I-D DCT
2. Haar transform is a very fast transform
24. Define Haar transform. I-D DCT is defined as
3. Haar transform has very poor energy compaction for images
The Haar transform can be expressed in matrix form as, C(u)= α(u) x=0∑N-1f(x)cos[(2x+1)uπ/2N] for u=0,1,2,…….N-1
4. The basic vectors of Haar matrix sequensly ordered.
T=HFH Inverse DCT is defined as
Where F = N X N image matrix f(x)= u=0∑N-1 α(u)C(u)cos[(2x+1)uπ/2N] for x=0,1,2,…….N-1
19. What are the Properties of Slant transform
H = N X N transformation matrix In both cases α(u)=1/√N for u=0 and √2/√N for u=1,2,…….N-1
1. Slant transform is real and orthogonal.
2. Slant transform is a fast transform T = resulting N X N transform. • 2-D DCT
3. Slant transform has very good energy compaction for images I-D DCT is defined as
4. The basic vectors of Slant matrix are not sequensely ordered. 25. Define K-L transform. C(u,v)= α(u) α(v) x=0∑N-1 y=0∑N-1f(x,y)cos[(2x+1)uπ/2N]cos[(2y+1)vπ/2N]
Consider a set of n or multi-dimensional discrete signal represented as column vector for u,v=0,1,2,…….N-1
20. Specify the properties of forward transformation kernel x1,x2,…xn each having M elements, Inverse DCT is defined as
The forward transformation kernel is said to be separable if g(x, y, u, v) f(x,y)=u=0∑N-1 v=0∑N-1 α(u) α(v)C(u,v)cos[(2x+1)uπ/2N] cos[(2y+1)uπ/2N]
g(x, y, u, v) = g1(x, u).g2(y, v) X1 for x,y=0,1,2,…….N-1
The forward transformation kernel is symmetric if g1 is functionally equal to g2 X2 In both cases α(u)=1/√N for u=0 and √2/√N for u=1,2,…….N-1
g(x, y, u, v) = g1(x, u). g1(y,v) X= .
. 2. Describe Fast Fourier Transform
21. Define fast Walsh transform. Xn • The Fourier transform of f(x) denoted by F(u) is defined by
The Walsh transform is defined by ∝
The mean vector is defined as Mx=E{x} F(u)= ∫ f(x) e-j2πux dx ----------------(1)
n-1 x-1
w(u) = 1/N ∑ f(x) π (-1) bi(x).bn-1-i (u) Where E{x} is the expected value of x. M -∝
x=0 i=0 For M vector samples mean vector is Mx=1/M ∑ Xk • The inverse fourier transform of f(x) is defined by
K=1 ∝

22. Give the relation for 1-D DCT. T f(x)= ∫F(u) ej2πux dx --------------------(2)
The co-variant matrix is, Cx=E{(X-Mx)(X-Mx)} -∝
• The 1-D DCT is,
Where T-vector transposition X->N-D vector The equations (1) and (2) are known as fourier transform pair.
N-1
Cx->nxn matrix. M T F(u)=1/2M x=0∑ 2M-1f(x) W2Mux
C(u)=α(u)∑ f(x) cos[((2x+1)uп)/2N] where u=0,1,2,….N-1
For M samples, Cx=1/M ∑ (xk-Mx)(xk-Mx). F(u)=1/2{1/M x=0∑ M-1f(2x)W2Mu2x + 1/M x=0∑ M-1f(2x+1)W2Mu(2x+1)
X=0
F(u)=1/2{1/M x=0∑ M-1f(2x)WMux + 1/M x=0∑ M-1f(2x+1)WMux .W2Mu }
 F(u)=1/2{Feven(u)+Fodd(u).W2Mu} PART-C Polar Coordinates x=rcosθ, y=rsinθ, u=wsinΦ, v=wsinΦ then f(x,y) and F(u,v)
F(u+M)=1/2{1/M x=0∑ M-1f(2x)WM(u+M)x + 1/M x=0∑ M-1f(2x+1)WM(u+M)x .W2Mu+M } become f(r,θ) and F(w,Φ) respectively. Rotating f(x,y) by an angle θ0 rotates F(u,v) by
F(u+M)=1/2{1/M x=0∑ M-1f(2x)WMux - 1/M x=0∑ M-1f(2x+1)WMux .W2Mu } 1Explain Discrete Fourier Transform in detail. the same angle. Similarly rotating F(u,v) rotates f(x,y) by the same angle.
F(u+M)=1/2[Feven(u)+Fodd(u) .W2Mu] • ID Case i.e, f(r,θ+ θ0) F(w,Φ+ θ0)
F(u)=1/N x=0∑N-1f(x)exp[-j2πux/N] for u=0,1,2,…….N-1------------------(1) 5. Distributivity and scaling
3.Write short notes on Hotelling transform • Distributivity:
f(x)= u=0∑N-1F(u)[j2πux/N], for x=0,1,2,…….N-1--------------------------(2) The Discrete Fourier Transform and its inverse are distributive over addition but
Consider a set of n or multi-dimensional discrete signal represented as column vector Equations (1) and (2) called Discrete Fourier transform pair not over multiplication.
x1,x2,…xn each having M elements, The values u=0,1,2,………N-1 in the discrete Fourier transform corresponds to the F[f1(x,y)+f2(x,y)]=F[f1(x,y)]+F[f2(x,y)]
samples of the continuous transform at values 0, ∆u, 2∆u….(N-1)∆u. In other words F(u) F[f1(x,y).f2(x,y)]≠F[f1(x,y)].F[f2(x,y)]
X1 corresponds F(u∆u). The terms ∆u and ∆x related by the expression ∆u=1/N∆x • Scaling
X2 • 2D Case For the two scalars a and b,
X= . F(u,v)=1/MN x=0∑M-1y=0∑N-1f(x,y)exp[-j2πux/M+vy/N] Af(x,y) aF(u,v) and f(ax,by) 1/│ab│F(u/a,v/b)
. for u=0,1,2,…….M-1, v=0,1,2,……..N-1 6. Laplacian
Xn f(x,y)=x=0∑M-1y=0∑N-1F(u,v)exp[j2πux/M+vy/N] The Laplacian of a two variable function f(x,y) is defined as ▼2f(x,y)=∂2f/∂x2+∂2f/∂y2
for x=0,1,2,…….M-1, y=0,1,2,……..N-1 7. Convolution and Correlation
• The mean vector is defined as Mx=E{x},Where E{x} is the expected value of x. For a square image M=N, FT pair will be • Convolution
M F(u, v)=1/N x=0∑N-1y=0∑N-1f(x,y)exp[-j2π(ux +vy)/N] The convolution of two functions f(x) and g(x) denoted by f(x)*g(x) and is
For M vector samples mean vector is Mx=1/M ∑ Xk for u, v=0,1,2,…….N-1 defined by the integral, f(x)*g(x)=-∞∫∞f(α)g(x-α)dα where α is a dummy variable.
K=1 f(x, y)=x=0∑N-1y=0∑N-1F(u,v)exp[j2π(ux+vy)/N] Convolution of two functions F(u) and G(u) in the frequency domain
for x, y=0,1,2,…….N-1 =multiplication of their inverse f(x) and g(x) respectively.
• The co-variant matrix is, Cx=E{(X-Mx)(X-Mx)} Ie, f(x)*g(x) F(u)G(u)
Where T-vector transposition X->N-D vector,Cx->nxn matrix. 2.Explain the Properties of 2D discrete Fourier Transform • Correlation
M 1. Separability The correlation of two functions f(x) and g(x) denoted by f(x)оg(x) and is defined
For M samples, Cx=1/M ∑ (xk-Mx)(xk-Mx). F(u, v)=1/N x=0∑N-1y=0∑N-1f(x,y)exp[-j2π(ux +vy)/N] for u, v=0,1,2,…….N-1 by the integral, f(x)оg(x)=-∞∫∞f*(α)g(x+α)dα where α is a dummy variable.
K=1 f(x, y)=x=0∑N-1y=0∑N-1F(u,v)exp[j2π(ux+vy)/N] for x, y=0,1,2,…….N-1 For the discrete case fe(x)оge(x)= 1/M M=0∑M-1f*(m)g(x+m)
F(u,v)=1/N x=0∑N-1F(x,v)exp[-j2πux/N] fe(x)= {f(x), 0≤x≤A-1,
K-L Transform Y= A(X- MX) where F(x,v)=N[1/Ny=0∑N-1f(x,y)exp[-j2πvy/N {0 , A≤x≤M-1
2. Translation ge(x)= {g(x), 0≤x≤B-1,
The translation properties of the Fourier Transorm pair are {0 , B≤x≤N-1
• Features: f(x,y)exp[-j2π(u0x +v0y)/N] F(u-u0,v-v0) are Fourier Transform pair.
And f(x-x0,y-y0) F(u,v)exp[-j2π(ux0 +vy0)/N] 3.Discuss Hadamard transform in detail
Where the double arrow indicates the correspondence between a function and its • ID Hadamard transform
Fourier transform.
o HT is based on the statistical properties of vector representation 3. Periodicity and Conjugate Symmetry
f(x) (-1) ∑i =0
n −1
∑
N −1
o HT has several useful properties that makes an important tool for image • Periodicity: b (x) b (u)
processing H(u)=1/N x =0 i i
The Discrete Fourier Transform and its inverse are periodic with period N; that is,
o It converts discrete signal s into a sequence of uncorrelated coefficients F(u,v)=F(u+N,v)=F(u,v+N)=F(u+N,v+N)
= ∑
n −1
• Conjugate symmetry: x =0 f (x) g (x , u )
If f(x,y) is real, the Fourier transform also exhibits conjugate symmetry,
where g (x, u)= 1/N (-1) ∑i =0 bi(x) bi(u) which is known as 1D forward
n −1
F(u,v)=F*(-u,-v) or │F(u,v) │=│F(-u,-v) │ where F*(u,v) is the complex
conjugate of F(u,v) Hadamard kernel.
bk(x) is the kth bit binary representation of z
bi (z)=1

4. Rotation • Inverse 1D Hadamard Transform

∑ ∑ ∑
N −1 n −1 N −1

f(x ) = u =0 H(u) i =0 bi(x) bi(u) f(x)= u =0 H(u) h(x,u) u v 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 + + + + + + + +

∑ (-1) ∑
N −1 n −1 1 + + + + - - - -
f(x ) = u =0 H(u) h(x,u) x=0,1….N-1 where h (x, u)= i =0 bi(x) pi(u) 2 + + - - + + - -

∑
n −1
3 + + - - - - + +
h(x,u) = (-1) i =0 bi(x) bi(u) • 2D ordered HT Pair 4 + - + - + - + -

∑ ∑ ∑
n −1 N −1 n −1
5 + - + - - + - +
• 2D Hadamard Transform H(u,v) = 1/N x =0 y =0
f(x , y) (-1) i =0 [bi(x) pi(u) + bi(y) 6 + - - + + - - +
pi(v)] 7 + - - + - + + -

∑ ∑
n −1 N −1

∑
n −1
∑ ∑
n −1 N −1

H(u,v) = 1/N x =0 y =0 f(x , y) (-1) i =0 b (x) b (u) + b (y) b (v) = x =0 y =0

f(x , y) g(x,y,u,v)
i i i i
2D Walsh Transform
W(u,v)=1/N x=0∑ y=0∑
N-1
f(x,y) i=0Π (-1)
N-1 n-1 b (x)b (u)+ b (y)b (v)
∑
n −1 i n-1-i i n-1-i

∑ ∑
n −1 N −1
=
f(x , y) g(x,y,u,v) where g (x, y ,u , v)= 1/N (-1) i =0 [bi(x) pi(u) + bi(y) pi(v)] forward transformational kernel, g(x,y,u,v)=1/N{ i=0Π n-1(-1)bi(x)bn-1-i(u) + bi(y)bn-1-i(v)}
x =0 y =0
W(u,v)= x=0∑ N-1 y=0∑ N-1f(x,y)g(x,y,u,v)
∑
n −1

∑ ∑ ∑
where g (x, y ,u , v)= 1/N (-1) b (x) b (u) + b (y) b (v) n −1 N −1 n −1
i =0
i i i i Similarly ,f(x,y)= = 1/N u =0 v =0 H(u.v) (-1) i =0 [bi(x) pi(u) + bi(y) pi(v)] 2D Inverse Walsh Transform
∑
n −1

= 1/N ∑u =0 ∑v =0
n −1 N −1
Similarly ,f(x,y)= b (x) b (u) + b (y) b (v) f(x,y) =u=0∑ N-1 v=0∑ N-1W(u,v) i=0Π n-1(-1)bi(x)bn-1-i(u) + bi(y)bn-1-i(v)
H(u.v) (-1) i =0
i i i i
∑ ∑
n −1 N −1

f(x,y)= = u =0 v =0 H (u.v) h(x, y , u , v) f(x,y) = u=0∑ N-1 v=0∑ N-1W(u,v)h(x,y,u,v)

∑ ∑
f(x,y)= n −1 N −1
= u =0 v =0 H (u.v) h(x, y , u , v) inverse transformational kernel, h(x,y,u,v)= i=0Π n-1(-1)bi(x)bn-1-i(u) + bi(y)bn-1-i(v)
(-1) ∑
n −1

∑
n −1
Where h( x , y , u , v) = 1/N i =0 [ bi(x) pi(u) + bi(y) pi(v)]
Where h( x , y , u , v) = 1/N (-1) i =0 [ bi(x) bi(u) + bi(y) bi(v) ] which is the inverse Walsh transformational kernels are separable and symmetric
kernel Therefore ,forward and reverse kernel are same g(x,y,u,v)=g1(x,u) g1(y,v)
• Ordered Hadamard Transform h(x,y,u,v) =h1(x,u) h1(y,v)
4. Explain Walsh Transform with suitable equations
1D Ordered Hadamard Transform Walsh Transform {1/√N i=0Π n-1(-1)bi(x)bn-1-i(u)} {1/√N i=0Π n-1(-1)bi(y)bn-1-i(v)}

f(x) (-1) ∑i =0
n −1
∑
N −1
H(u)=1/N x =0 b (x) p (u) Walsh Transform can be obtained by successive doubling method
i i
For N=2n, Walsh transform function f(x) is denoted by W(u).W(u) is obtained by W(u)=1/2[Weven(u)+Wodd(v)]
substituting the forward transformational kernel, W(u+m)=1/2[Weven(u)-Wodd(v)]
∑
n −1
= x =0 f (x) g (x , u ) M=N/2 u=0,1,….,N-1

where g (x, u)= 1/N (-1) ∑i =0 bi(x) pi(u)

n −1
g(x,u)=1/N i=0Π n-1(-1)bi(x)bn-1-i(u) 5. Explain Discrete cosine transform in detail
The Walsh transform of f(x)
po(u) = b (n-1) (u) The discrete cosine transform(DCT) gets its name from the fact that the rows of
W(u)=1/N x=0∑ N-1f(x) i=0Π n-1(-1)bi(x)bn-1-i(u) the N*N transform matrix C are obtained as a function of cosines.
p1 (u) = b (n-1) (u) + b (n-2) (u)
W(u)= x=0∑ N-1f(x)g(x,u) (2 j +1)iΠ
Where bk(z) is the kth bit in the binary representation of z |C|i,j= 1 / N cos i=0,j=0,1,....N-1
p2 (u) = b (n-2) (u) + b (n-3) (u) 2N
. (2 j +1)iΠ
. • Inverse Walsh Transform 2 / N cos i=1,2.....N-1,j=0,1,....N-1
2N
. The rows of the transform matrix are shown in graphical form. Here the amount
. f(x) =u=0∑ N-1W(u) i=0Π n-1(-1)bi(x)bn-1-i(u)
of variation increases as we progress down the row; that is the frequency of the rows
pn-1 (u) = b1(u) + b o (u) f(x) = u=0∑ N-1W(u)h(x,u)
increases as we go from top to bottom.
inverse transformational kernel, h(x,u)= i=0Π n-1(-1)bi(x)bn-1-i(u)
• Inverse Hadamard Transform forward and inverse transformational kernel differs by 1/N
∑ H(u) (-1) ∑i =0 bi(x) pi(u)
N −1 n −1

f(x)= u =0
When N=8

In DFT, to find the Fourier coefficients for s sequence of length N, we assume • The enhancement technique based on this type of approach is referred to as mask
that the sequence is periodic with period N. The DFT assumes that the sequence outside processing.
the interval behaves in a different manner. This introduces sharp discontinuities, at the
beginning and the end of the sequence. In order to represent these sharp discontinuities,
the DFT needs nonzero coefficients for the high-frequency components. Because these 5. Define histogram.
components are needed only at the two end points of the sequence, their effect needs to The histogram of a digital image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is a
be cancelled out at other points in the sequence. Thus, the DFT adjusts other coefficients discrete function h(rk)=nk.
6) accordingly. When we discard the high frequency coefficients during the compression rk-kth gray level
0) process, the coefficients that were cancelling out the high-frequency effect in other parts nk-number of pixels in the image having gray level rk.
of the sequence result in the introduction of additional distortion.
3) The DCT can be obtained using the DFT by mirroring the original N-point 6.What is meant by histogram equalization?
sequence to obtain a 2N-point sequence. The DCT is simply the first N points of the
resulting 2N-point DFT. When we take the DFT of the 2N-point mirrored sequence, we
again have to assume periodicity. Here it does not introduce any sharp discontinuities at k k
the edges. Sk= T(rk) = ∑ Pr(rj) = ∑ nj/n where k=0,1,2,….L-1
The DCT is better at energy compaction for most correlated sources when j=0 j=0
compared to the DFT. For Markov sources with high correlation coefficient ρ , This transformation is called histogram equalization.
E[ xnxn + 1]
ρ= ,
E[ xn 2] 7.Differentiate linear spatial filter and non-linear spatial filter.
7) The compaction ability of the DCT is very close to that of the KLT. As many sources can
be modelled as Markov sources with high values for ρ , this superior compaction ability s.no. Linear spatial filter Non-linear spatial filter
1) has made the DCT the most popular transform. It is a part of many international
4) standards, including JPEG,MPEG and CCITT H.261. 1. Response is a sum of products of They do not explicitly use co-
the filter co-efficient. efficients in the sum-of-products.
UNIT III 2. R = w(-1,-1) f(x-1,y-1) + R = w1z1 + w2z2 + … +w9z9
w(-1,0) f(x-1,y) + … + 9
w(0,0) f(x,y) + … + = ∑ wizi
1. Specify the objective of image enhancement technique. w(1,0) f(x+1,y) + i=1
The objective of enhancement technique is to process an image so that the result is w(1,1) f(x+1,y+1).
more suitable than the original image for a particular application.
8. Give the mask used for high boost filtering.
2) 2. List the 2 categories of image enhancement.
5) • Spatial domain refers to image plane itself & approaches in this category are
based on direct manipulation of picture image.
• Frequency domain methods based on modifying the image by fourier transform. 0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1

3. What is the purpose of image averaging?

-1 A+4 -1 -1 A+8 -1
An important application of image averaging is in the field of astronomy, where
Fig .Basic set of the discrete cosine transform. The numbers correspond to the row of the imaging with very low light levels is routine, causing sensor noise frequently to render
transform matrix. single images virtually useless for analysis. 0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1
Also, the basis matrices show increased variation as we go from the top-left
matrix, corresponding to the θ 00 coefficient, to the bottom-right matrix, corresponding 4. What is meant by masking?
to the θ (N-1)(N-1) coefficient. • Mask is the small 2-D array in which the values of mask co-efficient determines
The DCT is closely related to the discrete Fourier transform(DFT) and DCT can the nature of process. 9. What is meant by laplacian filter?
be obtained from DFT. In terms of compression, the DCT performs better than the DFT. The laplacian for a function f(x,y) of 2 variables is defined as,
2 2 2 2 2
 ▼f = ∂ f / ∂ x + ∂ f / ∂ y .
19. What are the two properties in Linear Operator? he(M-1) he(M-2) he(M-3)………. he(0)
• Additivity
• Homogenity
10. Write the steps involved in frequency domain filtering. 20. Give the additivity property of Linear Operator 26. What is the concept algebraic approach?
1. Multiply the input image by (-1) to center the transform. H[f1(x,y)+f2(x,y)]=H[f1(x,y)]+H[f2(x,y)] The concept of algebraic approach is to estimate the original image which
2. Compute F(u,v), the DFT of the image from (1). The additive property says that if H is the linear operator,the response to a sum of minimizes a predefined criterion of performances
3. Multiply F(u,v) by a filter function H(u,v). two is equal to the sum of the two responses.
4. Compute the inverse DFT of the result in (3). 27. What are the two methods of algebraic approach?
5. Obtain the real part of the result in (4). 21. How a degradation process is modeled? • Unconstrained restoration approach
6. Multiply the result in (5) by (-1) • Constrained restoration approach

11. What do you mean by Point processing? 28. Define Gray-level interpolation
Image enhancement at any Point in an image depends only on the gray level at η(x,y) Gray-level interpolation deals with the assignment of gray levels to pixels in the
that point is often referred to as Point processing. spatially transformed image
H
12. Define Derivative filter? g(x,y) 29. What is meant by Noise probability density function?
For a function f (x, y), the gradient f at co-ordinate (x, y) is defined as the vector The spatial noise descriptor is the statistical behavior of gray level values in the
f(x,y)
∆f = ∂f/∂x noise component of the model.
∂f/∂y
∆f = mag (∆f) = {[(∂f/∂x) 2 +(∂f/∂y) 2 ]} 1/2 A system operator H, which together with an additive white noise term η(x,y) a
30. Why the restoration is called as unconstrained restoration?
operates on an input image f(x,y) to produce a degraded image g(x,y).
In the absence of any knowledge about the noise ‘n’, a meaningful criterion
13. Define spatial filtering function is to seek an f^ such that H f^ approximates of in a least square sense by
Spatial filtering is the process of moving the filter mask from point to point in an 22.Give the homogenity property in Linear Operator
assuming the noise term is as small as possible.
image. For linear spatial filter, the response is given by a sum of products of the filter H[k1f1(x,y)]=k1 H[f1(x,y)]
Where H = system operator.
coefficients, and the corresponding image pixels in the area spanned by the filter mask. The homogeneity property says that,the response to a constant multiple of
f^ = estimated input image.
any input is equal to the response to that input multiplied by the same constant.
g = degraded image.
14. What is a Median filter?
The median filter replaces the value of a pixel by the median of the gray levels in 23. Give the relation for degradation model for continuous function
31. Which is the most frequent method to overcome the difficulty to formulate the
the neighborhood of that pixel. g(x,y) =-∞∫∞∫f(α,β)§(x-α,y-β).dαdβ+η(x,y)
spatial relocation of pixels?
The point is the most frequent method, which are subsets of pixels whose location
15. What is maximum filter and minimum filter? 24. What is Fredholm integral of first kind?
in the input (distorted) and output (corrected) imaged is known precisely.
The 100th percentile is maximum filter is used in finding brightest points in an ∞
image. The 0th percentile filter is minimum filter used for finding darkest points in an g(x,y) = ∫∫f(α,β)h(x,α,y,β)dα dβ
32. What are the three methods of estimating the degradation function?
image. ∞
1. Observation
which is called the superposition or convolution or fredholm integral of first kind. It
2. Experimentation
16. Write the application of sharpening filters states that if the response of H to an impulse is known, the response to any input f(α,β)
3. Mathematical modeling.
1. Electronic printing and medical imaging to industrial application can be calculated by means of fredholm integral.
2. Autonomous target detection in smart weapons. 33. What are the types of noise models?
25. Define circulant matrix
A square matrix, in which each row is a circular shift of the preceding row and the • Guassian noise
17. Name the different types of derivative filters • Rayleigh noise
1. Perwitt operators first row is a circular shift of the last row, is called circulant matrix.
• Erlang noise
2. Roberts cross gradient operators
• Exponential noise
3. Sobel operators
he(o) he(M-1) he(M-2)………… he(1) • Uniform noise
18. What is meant by Image Restoration? he(1) he(0) he(M-1)………. he(2) • Impulse noise
Restoration attempts to reconstruct or recover an image that has been degraded by He = .
using a clear knowledge of the degrading phenomenon. . 34. Give the relation for guassian noise

Guassian noise: The simplest approach to restoration is direct inverse filtering, an estimate F^(u,v)
The PDF guassian random variable Z is given by of the transform of the original image simply by dividing the transform of the degraded Noise
P(Z)=e-(Z-μ)2/2σ2/√2πσ image G^(u,v) by the degradation function. • H is a linear positive invariant process the the degraded image is given in the
Z->Gray level value F^ (u,v) = G^(u,v)/H(u,v) spatial domain by
σ->standard deviation g(x,y)=h(x,y)*f(x,y)+ŋ(x,y)
σ2->varianze of Z 41. What is pseudo inverse filter? where h(x,y) is the spatial representation of the degradation function and the
μ->mean of the graylevel value Z It is the stabilized version of the inverse filter.For a linear shift invariant system symbol “*” indicates spatial convolution.
with frequency response H(u,v) the pseudo inverse filter is defined as • The convolution in the spatial domain is equal to multiplication in the frequency
35. Give the relation for rayleigh noise H-(u,v)=1/(H(u,v) H=/0 domain.
Rayleigh noise: 0 H=0 • The equivalent frequency domain representation is
The PDF is 42. What is meant by least mean square filter?
P(Z)= 2(z-a)e-(z—a)2/b/b for Z>=a The limitation of inverse and pseudo inverse filter is very sensitive noise. The G(u,v)=H(u,v)F(u,v)+N(u,v)
0 for Z<a wiener filtering is a method of restoring images in the presence of blurr as well as noise. Where the terms in capital letters are the Fourier transforms of the corresponding
terms in the previous equation.
mean μ=a+√πb/4 43. Give the difference between Enhancement and Restoration
standard deviation σ2=b(4-π)/4 • Enhancement technique is based primarily on the pleasing aspects it might present 3.Write short notes on Median Filters
to the viewer. For example: Contrast Stretching. Introduction:
36. Give the relation for Gamma noise • Where as Removal of image blur by applying a deblurrings function is considered -Median Filter is one of the part of the smoothing filter.
Gamma noise: a restoration technique -No mask is used in the median filters.
The PDF is -We choose 3x3 sub-image arranged in ascending order and leave first
P(Z)=ab zb-1 ae-az/(b-1) for Z>=0 four values.
0 for Z<0 3 5 7
mean μ=b/a PART-B 2 10 20
standard deviation σ2=b/a2 1.Discuss different mean filters 30 9 4
37. Give the relation for Exponential noise Arithmetic mean filter
Exponential noise ƒ^(x,y)=1/mn Σ g(s,t) 2,3,4,5,7,9,10,20,30
The PDF is (s,t)ЄSxy -Take the median value.
P(Z)= ae-az Z>=0 Geometric mean filter -This median filter is the non-linear spatial filtering.
0 Z<0 An image restored using a geometric mean filter is given by the expression 1)median filtering smoothing
mean μ=1/a f^(x,y) = [ п g(s,t) ] 2)Max filter
standard deviation σ2=1/a2 (s,t)ЄSxy 3)Min filter
here ,each restored pixel is given by the product of the pixels in the subimage Max filter:
38. Give the relation for Uniform noise window , raised to the power 1/mn R=Max
Uniform noise: • Harmonic filters -Max filter gives the brightest points
The PDF is The harmonic mean filtering operation is given by the expression Min filter:
P(Z)=1/(b-a) if a<=Z<=b ƒ ^(x,y) = mn/∑(1/g(s,t)) R=Min
0 otherwise • Contra harmonic mean filter -It helps to get the largest point in the image.
mean μ=a+b/2 Contra harmonic mean filtering operation yields a restored image based on the
standard deviation σ2=(b-a)2/12 expression
Q+1 Q 4. Write short notes on Wiener Filtering.
39. Give the relation for Impulse noise f^(x,y)=∑g(x,t) /∑g(s,t) • The inverse filtering approach makes no explicit provision for handling noise.
Impulse noise: where Q is called the order of the filter.This filter is well suited for • An approach that incorporate both the degradation function and statistical
The PDF is reducing or virtually eliminating the effect of salt and pepper noise. characteristics of noise into the restoration process.
P(Z) =Pa for z=a
• The method is founded on considering images and noise as random processes,and
Pb for z=b 2. Draw the degradation model and explain. the objective is to find an estimate f of the uncorrupted image f such that the mean
0 Otherwise F(x,y) square error between them is minimized.
40. What is inverse filtering? • This error measure is given by
Degadation function + G(x,y) Restoration filters(s)

2
e =E{(f-f^)2}
where E{.}is the expected value of the argument. Histogram Specfication
• It is assumed that the noise and the image are uncorrelated,that one or other has • Histogram equalization method does not lent itself to interactive application .
zero mean:and that the gray levels in the estimate are a linear function of the • Let Pr(r) and Pz(z) be the original and desired probability function. Suppose the
levels in the degradated image. histogram equalization is utilized on the original image
• Based on these conditions,the minimum of the error function in Eq is given in the S=T(r)=∫Pr(w) dw ………………………………….(5)
frequency domain by the expression
 This result is known as the wiener filter after N.Wiener,who • Desired image levels could be equalized using the transformation function
proposed the concepts in the year shown.the filter which consists V=G(z)=∫Pr(w)dw ……………………………..(6)
of the term inside the brackets also is commonly referred to as the • The inverse process is, z=G-¹(v). Here Ps(s) and Pv(v) are identical uniform
minimum mean square error filter or the least square error filter. densities
• We include references at the end of sources containing detailed derivations of the Z=G-¹(s)
wiener filter. Assume that G-¹(s) is single-valued, the procedure can be summarized as follow
 The restored image in the spatial domain is given by the inverse 1. Equalize the level of the original image using eqn(4)
Fourier transform of the frequency domain estimate F(u,v). 2. Specify the desired density function and obtain the transformation function G(z)
• If the noise is zero,then the noise power spectrum vanishes and the wiener filter using eqn(6)
reduces to the inverse filter. 3. Apply the inverse transformation function Z=G-¹(s) to the level obtained in step
 However the power spectrum of the undegraded image seldom is 1.
known. Where k is a specified constant. we can obtain result in combined transformation function
 Example illustrates the power spectrum of wiener filtering over z=G-¹[T(r)] ……………………………..(7)
direct inverse filtering.the value of K was chosen interactively to Histogram specification for digital image is limited one
yield the best visual results. Histrogram Equalization 1. First specify a particular histogram by digitizing the given function.
o It illustrates the full inverse filtered result similarly is the radially limited • Let the variable r represent the gray levels in the image to be enhanced. The pixel 2. Specifying a histogram shape by means of a graphic device whose output is fed
inverse filter . value are continous quantities normalized that lie in the interval [0,1] with r=0 into the processor executing the histogram specification algorithm.
represent black with r=1 represent white.
• These images are duplicated here for convenience in making comparisons.
• The transformation of the form 2. Explain Spatial Filtering
 As expected ,the inverse filter produced an unusable image.The
• S=T(r) …………………………………(1) • The use of spatial mask for the image processing usually called spatial filtering
noise in the inring filter.
• Which produce a level s for every pixel value r in the original image.it satisfy and spatial mask are spatial filters.
• The wiener filter result is by no means perfect,but it does give us a hint as to
condition: • The linear filter classified into
image content.
o T(r) is the single-valued and monotonically increasing in the interval o Low pass
• The noise is still quite visible, but the text can be seen
0≤r≤1 and o High pass
through a “curtain” of noise.
o 0≤T(r)≤1 for 0≤r≤1 o Band pass filtering
PART-C  Condition 1 preserves the order from black to white in the gray • Consider 3*3 mask
1.Explain Histogram processing scale.
• The Histogram of the digital image with gray levels in the range [0,L-1]is the  Condition 2 guarantees a mapping that is consistent with the W1 W2 W3
discrete function p(rk)=nk/n where rk is the kth gray level, nk is the number of allowed range of pixel values.
W4 W5 W6
pixel,n is the total number of pixel in the image and k=0,1,2,…….L-1. R=T-¹(s) 0≤s≤1 ………………………..(2)
• P(rk) gives the an estimate probability of occurrence of gray-level rk.. Figure • The probability density function of the transformed graylevel is W7 W8 W9
show the the histogram of four basic types of images. Ps(s)=[pr(r)dr/ds] r=T-¹(s) …………………….(3)
Figure: Histogram corresponding to four basic image types • Consider the transformation function
S=T(r)= ∫Pr(w)dw 0≤r≤1 …………………….(4) • Denoting the gray level of pixels under the mask at any location by
Where w is the dummy variable of integration . z1,z2,z3……,z9, the response of a linear mask is
From Eqn(4) the derivative of s with respect to r is R=w1z1+ w2z2 +………..+w9z9
ds/dr=pr(r)
Substituting dr/ds into eqn(3) yields
Ps(s)=[1] 0≤s≤1
Smoothing Filters 1.Spatial transformations:-
• Lowpass Spatial filtering: An image f of pixel coordinates(x,y) undergoes geometric distortion to
 The filter has to have positive coefficient. produce an image g with coordinates(x’,y’).this transformation may be expressed • The inverse (exponential) operation yields the desird enhanced image, denoted by
 The response would be the sum of gray levels of nine pixels which as g(x,y); that is,
could cause R to be out of the gray level range. x’=r(x,y) Ln[f(x,y)] = ln[i(x,y) r(x,y)]
 The solution is to scale the sum by dividing R by 9.The use of the y’=s(x,y) F[ln(f(x,y))] = F[ln(i(x,y)]+F[ln( r(x,y))]
form of mask are called neighborhood averaging • where r(x,y) and s(x’,y’) are the spatial transformations that produced the
geometrically distorted image g(x’,y’).
1 1 1
• If r(x,y) and s(x,y) were known analytically recovering f(x,y) from the distorted • This method is based on a special case of a class of systems know as
1/9 1 1 1 image g(x’,y’) by applying the transformations in reverse might possible homomorphism systems.
1 1 1 theoretically. • In this particular application,
• The method used most frequently to formulate the spatial relocation of pixels by  The key to the approach is the separation of the illumination and
• Median filtering: the use of tiepoints,which are a subset of pixels whose location in the input and reflectance components achieved in the from.
 To achive noise reduction rather than blurring. output image is known precisely.  The homomorphism filter function can then operate on these on
 The gray level of each pixel is replaced by the median of the gray • The vertices of the quadrilaterals are corresponding tiepoints. these component separately.
level in the neighbourhood of that pixel  r(x,y)=c1x+c2y+c3xy+c4  The illumination components of an image generally is
Sharpening Filters  S(x,y)=c5x+c6y+c7xy+c8 characterized by slow spatial variations.
• Basic highpass spatial filtering:  x’=c1x+c2y+c3xy+c4  While the reflectance component tends to vary abruptly,
 The filter should be positive ecoefficient near the center and  y’=c5x+c6y+c7xy+c8 particularly at the junction, while the reflectance component tends
negative in the outer periphery. • Since there are a total of eight known tiepoints these equations can be solved for to vary abruptly, particularly at the junctions of dissimilar objects.
 The sum of the coefficient are 0. eight coefficients ci,i=1,2,…8.  A good deal of control can be gained over the illumination and
 This eliminate the zero- frequency term reducing significantly the • The coefficient constitute the geometric distortion model used to transform all reflectance components with a homomorphic filter.
global contrast of the image pixels within the quadrilateral region defined by the tiepoints used to obtain the  This control requires specification of a filter function H(u.v) that
coefficients. affects the low - and high – frequency components of the Fourier
-1 -1 -1
• Tiepoints are established by a number of different techniques depending on the transform in different ways.
1/9* -1 8 -1 application.
-1 -1 -1 2. Gray level Interpolation:- 5.Explain the different Noise Distribution in detail.
• High_boost filtering: • Depending on the values of coefficients ci equations can yield noninteger values Introduction:
The definition is for x’ and y’. • Noise are unwanted signal which corrupts the original signal.
High-boost=(A)(Original)-Lowpass • Because the distorted image g is digital ,its pixel values are defined only at integer • Origin of noise source is during image acquisition and/or transmission and
=(A-1) (Original)+ Original –Lowpass co ordinates . digitization.
=(A-1) (Original)+Hignpass • Thus using non integer values for x’, y’ causes a mapping into locations of g for • During capturing ,performance of imaging sensors are affected by the
• Derivative Filters: which no gray levels are defined. environmental conditions due to the quality of sensors.
 Averaging is anlog to integration , differentiation can be expected • The technique is used to accomplish this is called gray level interpolation. • Image acquisition are the principle source of noise.
to have opposite effect and thus sharpen the image • Due to the interference in the transmission it will affect the transmission of the
4.Describe homomorphic filtering image.
• The illumination – reflectance model can be used to develop a frequency domain • Types:
3. Explain the Geometric Transformations used in image restoration. procedure for improving the appearance of an image by simultaneous gray – level Rayleigh noise:
• Geometric transformations are used for image restoration, modify the spatial compression and contrast enhancement. The PDF is
relationship between the pixels in an image. • An image can be expressed as the product of illumination and reflectance P(Z)= 2(z-a)e-(z—a)2/b/b for Z>=a
• Geometric transformations are often called rubber sheet transformations, because components. 0 for Z<a
they are may be viewed as the process of printing an image on a sheet of rubber. f(x,y) = i(x,y) r(x,y)
• The geometric transformations consists of two basic operations: F(f(x,y)) = F(i(x,y) r(x,y)) mean μ=a+√πb/4
(1) Spatial transformation standard deviation σ2=b(4-π)/4
(2) Gray level interpolation Where F i(u,v)) and F(r(u,v)) are the Fourier transformation of i(x,y)and r(x,y)
respectively. Gamma noise:
The PDF is

P(Z)=ab zb-1 ae-az/(b-1) for Z>=0 6. What are the two properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels? 14. Define pattern.
0 for Z<0 (1) The strength of the response of the gradient operator used to produce the edge A pattern is a quantitative or structural description of an objective or some other entity
mean μ=b/a pixel. of interest in an image,
2 2
standard deviation σ =b/a (2) The direction of the gradient.
Exponential noise 15. Define pattern class.
The PDF is 7. What is edge? A pattern class is a family of patterns that share some common properties .Pattern
P(Z)= ae-az Z>=0 An edge isa set of connected pixels that lie on the boundary between two regions classes are denoted w1,w2,----wm, where M is the number of classes .
0 Z<0 edges are more closely modeled as having a ramplike profile. The slope of the ramp is
mean μ=1/a inversely proportional to the degree of blurring in the edge. 16.List the three pattern arrangements.
standard deviation σ2=1/a2 Vectors
8. Give the properties of the second derivative around an edge? Strings
Uniform noise: • The sign of the second derivative can be used to determine whether an edge pixel Treestching
The PDF is lies on the dark or light side of an edge.
P(Z)=1/(b-a) if a<=Z<=b • It produces two values for every edge in an image. 17. Give the decision theoretic methods.
0 otherwise • An imaginary straightline joining the extreme positive and negative values of the Matching-Matching by minimum distance classifier
mean μ=a+b/2 second derivative would cross zero near the midpoint of the edge. Matching by correlation
standard deviation σ2=(b-a)2/12
Impulse noise: 9. Define Gradient Operator? 18. Define training pattern and training set.
The PDF is First order derivatives of a digital image are based on various approximation of The patterns used to estimate the parameters are called training patterns,anda set of such
P(Z) =Pa for z=a the 2-D gradient. The gradient of an image f(x,y) at location(x,y) is defined as the vector patterns from each class is called a training set.
Pb for z=b Magnitude of the vector is
0 Otherwise ∆f=mag( ∆f )=[Gx2+ Gy2]1/2 19. Define training
∞(x,y)=tan-1(Gy/Gx) The process by which a training set is used to obtain decision functions is called
UNIT I V ∞(x,y) is the direction angle of vector ∆f learning or training.

1. What is segmentation? 10. What is meant by object point and background point? 20. What are the layers in back propagation network?
Segmentation subdivides on image in to its constitute regions or objects. The level To execute the objects from the background is to select a threshold T that Input layer, Hidden layer and out put layer
to which the subdivides is carried depends on the problem being solved .That is separate these modes. Then any point (x,y) for which f(x,y)>T is called an object point.
segmentation should when the objects of interest in application have been isolated. Otherwise the point is called background point. PART –B
1. Write short notes on image segmentation.
2. Write the applications of segmentation. 11. What is global, Local and dynamic or adaptive threshold? • Segmentation subdivides on image in to its constitute regions or objects. The level
• Detection of isolated points. When Threshold T depends only on f(x,y) then the threshold is called global . If T to which the subdivides is carried depends on the problem being solved .
• Detection of lines and edges in an image. depends both on f(x,y) and p(x,y) is called local. If T depends on the spatial coordinates x • Examples: In autonomous air to ground target acquisition applications identifying
and y the threshold is called dynamic or adaptive where f(x,y) is the original image. vehicles on a road is of interest.
3. What are the three types of discontinuity in digital image? • The first step is to segment the road from the image and then to segment the
Points, lines and edges. 12. Define region growing? elements of the road down to objects of a range of sizes that correspond potential
Region growing is a procedure that groups pixels or subregions in to layer regions vehicles.
4. How the derivatives are obtained in edge detection during formulation? based on predefined criteria. The basic approach is to start with a set of seed points and • In target acquistition ,the system designer has n control of the environment.
The first derivative at any point in an image is obtained by using the magnitude of from there grow regions by appending to each seed these neighbouring pixels that have • So the usual approach is to focus on selecting the types of sensors most likely to
the gradient at that point. Similarly the second derivatives are obtained by using the properties similar to the seed. enhance the objects of interest .
laplacian. • Example is the use of infrared imaging to detect objects with a strong heat
13. Specify the steps involved in splitting and merging? signature,such as tanks in motion.
5. Write about linking edge points. Split into 4 disjoint quadrants any region Ri for which P(Ri)=FALSE. • Segmentation algorithms for monochrome images are based on one of the two
The approach for linking edge points is to analyze the characteristics of pixels in a Merge any adjacent regions Rj and Rk for which P(RjURk)=TRUE. basic properties of gray level values . They are discontinuity and similarity.
small neighborhood (3x3 or 5x5) about every point (x,y)in an image that has undergone Stop when no further merging or splitting is positive.
edge detection. All points that are similar are linked, forming a boundary of pixels that
share some common properties.

• Based on the first category ,the approach is based on abrupt changes in gray level The Laplacian sigmoid activation functions are considered. The population size adapts to the properties
and the areas of interest based on this category are detection of isolated points • The laplacian of a 2-D function f(x,y) is a second order derivatives defined as of evolution during the algorithm run using simple resizing strategy. In this application
and detection of lines and edges in an image. ▼²ƒ=∂²ƒ/∂²x+∂²ƒ/∂²y pixel-by-pixel brightness processing with use of ANN paradigm is adopted. The topology
• Based on the second category the approach is based on thresholding, region • The first laplacian is combined with smoothing as a precursor to finding edges via of ANN is tuned simultaneously with connections weights. The ANN approximating T
growing and region splitting and merging . zero crossings. Consider the function. function should have three input nodes and one output node. During the training we
• The concept of segmenting an image based on discontinuity or similarity of the ▼² ƒ=8z5-(z1+z2+z3+z4+z6+z7+z8+z9) evaluate each ANN with respect to the visual quality of the processed images.
gray level values of its pixels is applicable to both static and dynamic images. 0 -1 0
-1 4 -1 The three-step procedure for image enhancement is proposed:
2. Write short notes on edge detection (1) multiplicative adjustment of image brightness
0 -1 0
Edge Detection: (2) local level processing using ANN;
• Edge detection is “local” image processing methods designed to detect edge (3) global level auto smoothing algorithm.
3.Write Short notes on edge linking by local processing.
pixels. • One of the simplest approaches f or linking edge points is to analyze the
• Concept that is based on a measure of intensity-level discontinuity at a point. The artificial neural network training stage with use of single 128х128 pixels image takes
characteristics of the pixels in a small neighborhood about every point in an about 70 seconds on the Intel Pentium IV 3 GHz processor. After completion of the
• It is possible to link edge points into edge segments, and sometimes these image that has undergone edge detection. learning process the obtained artificial neural network is ready to process
segments are linked in such a way that they correspond to boundaries, but this is • Two properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels in the analysis are arbitrary images that were not presented during the training. The processing time for
not always the case.  The strength of the response of the gradient operator used to 512х512 pixels image is about 0.25 second. The ANN, as a rule, included 3 input nodes,
The image gradient and its properties: produce the edge pixel, one or more hidden nodes and one output node.
• The tool of choice for finding edge strength and direction at location (x,y) of an  The direction of the gradient.
image, f, is the gradient, denoted by ▼ƒ, a and defined as the vector The first property is given by the value of ▼f.
gx ∂ƒ/∂x Thus an edge pixel with coordinates (x’,y’) and in the predefined neighborhood of (x,y) is
similar in magnitude to the pixel at (x,y) if |▼f(x,y) - ▼(x’,y’)|<=T where T is a
▼ƒ≡grad(ƒ)≡ gy = ∂ƒ/∂y nonnegative threshold.
The direction of the gradient vector is given by
• The magnitude length of vector ▼ƒ, denoted as M(x,y) α(x,y)=tanˉ¹ gy/gx
M(x,y)=mag(▼ƒ)=√gx²+gy² Then an edge pixel at (x’,y’) in the predefined neighborhood of (x,y) has an angle similar
Is the value of the rate of change in the direction of the to the pixel at (x,y) if | α(x,y)= α(x’,y’)|<A where A is an angle threshold. Note that the
gradient vector. direction of the edge at (x,y) in reality is perpendicular to the direction of the gradient
• The direction of the gradient vector is given by the angle vector at that point.
α(x,y)=tanˉ¹ gy/gx A point in the predefined neighborhood of (x,y) is linked to the pixel at (x’,y’) if both
magnitude and direction criteria are satisfied. This process is repeated for every location
measured with respect to the x-axis. in the image. A record must be kept of linked points as the center of the neighborhood is
• Follows, using these differences as our estimates of the partials, that ∂ƒ/∂x=-2 and moved from pixel to pixel. A simple bookkeeping procedure is to assign a different gray
∂ƒ/∂y=2 at the point in equation. Then level to each set of linked edge pixels.
gx ∂ƒ/∂x -2
▼ƒ= = = 4.Write short notes on the applications of artificial neural networks in image
gy ∂ƒ/∂y 2 processing.

from which we obtain M(x,y)=2√2 at that point. The real-time automatic images processing and pattern recognition are very important for
Gradient operators: many problems in medicine, physics, geology, space research, military applications and
• Obtaining the gradient of an image requires computing the partials derivatives so on. For example, it is necessary for pilots and drivers for immediate decision-making
∂ƒ/∂x and ∂ƒ/∂y at every pixel location in the image. in poor visibility conditions. An approach to image enhancement through artificial neural
network’s (ANN) processing is proposed.ANN is for images enhancement through
gx=∂ƒ(x,y)/ ∂x= ƒ(x+1,y)- ƒ(x,y) approximation of image transform function T. This function is approximated with use of
gy=∂ƒ(x,y)/ ∂y= ƒ(x,y+1)- ƒ(x,y) ANN which is trained evolutionary in the time of test images processing. Each ANN is PART-C
• An approach used frequently is to approximate the gradient by absolute value: genetically encoded as the list of its connections. Truncation selection is used for parental
▼ƒ≈‫׀‬Gx‫‌׀׀‬+‌ ‫׀‬Gy subpopulation formation. Original crossover and mutation operators, which respect 1.Discuss region oriented segmentation in detail
structures of the ANNs undergoing recombination and mutation, are used. Nodes with
 The objective of segmentation is to partition an image into regions. We We introduced a simple model in which an image f(x,y) is formed as the
approached this problem by finding boundaries between based on discontinuities in gray product of a reflectance component r(x,y) and an illumination components i(x,y).
levels, segmentation was accomplished via thresholds based on the distribution of pixels consider the computer generated reflectance function.
properties, such as gray level values or color.  The histogram of this function is clearly bimodal and could be portioned easily by
Basic Formulation: placing a single global threshold, T, in the histogram valley.
Let Represent the region of image. We may view segmentation as a process that  Multiplying the reflectance function by the illumination function.
partition R into n subregions,R1,R2,………………,such that  Original valley was virtually eliminated, making segmentation by a single
n threshold an impossible task.
(a) ΣRi=R  Although we seldom have the reflectance function by itself to work with, this
i=1 Fig: Structure of a basic neuron
simple illustration shows that the reflective nature of objects and background can
(b) Ri is a connected region, i=1,2,…………..n. be such that they are separable.
(c) Ri∩Rj=Фfor all i and j,i≠j. ƒ(x,y)=i(x,y)r(x,y)
(d) P(Ri)=TRUE for i=1,2,……………………n. Back propagation training algorithm:
Taking the natural logarithm of this equation yields a sum: Basic neuron: Figure shows the Structure of a basic neuron. A set of inputs applied
(e) P(RiURj)=FALSE for i≠j. z(x,y)=ln ƒ(x,y) either from the outside of from a previous layer. Each of these is multiplied by a weight
=ln i(x,y)+ln r(x,y) and the products are summed. This summation of this products is turned NET and must
Here, P(Ri) is a logical predicate defined over the points in set Ri and Ф is the null set. =i (x,y)+r (x,y)
 Condition (a) indicates that the segmentation must be complete that is every pixel must be calculated for each neuron in the network. After NET is calculated an activation
 If i (x,y) and r (x,y) are independent random variable, the histogram of z(x,y) is function F is applied to modify it, thereby producing the signal out
be in a region. given by the convolution of the histogram of i (x,y) and r (x,y).
 Condition (b) requires that points in a region must be connected in some predefined Where,
 But if i (x,y) had a border histogram the convolution process would smear the NET=x1w1+x2w2+……………………xnwn
sense. histogram of r (x,y), yielding a histogram for z(x,y) whose shape could be quite n
 Condition(c) indicates that the regions must be disjoint. different from that of the histogram of r (x,y). NET=Σxiwi
 Condition(d) deals with the properties that must be satisfied by the pixels in a segmented  The degree of distortion depends on the broadness of the histogram of i (x,y), i=1
region. which in turn depends on the nonuniformity of the illumination function. and out=F(NET)
Region Growing:  We have dealt with the logarithm of ƒ(x,y), instead of dealing with the image
As its name implies region growing is a procedure that groups pixel or subregions function directly.
into larger regions based on predefined criteria. The basic approach is to start with a set  When access to the illumination source is available, a solution frequently used in
of “seed” points and from these grow regions. practice to compensate for nonuniformity is to project the illumination pattern
 If the result of these computation shows clusters of values, the pixels whose properties onto a constant, white reflective surface.
place them near the centroid of these clusters can be used as seeds.  This yields an image g(x,y)=ki(x,y), where k is a constant that depends on the
 Descriptors alone can yield misleading results if connectivity or adjacency information is surface and i(x,y) is the illumination pattern.
not used in the region growing process.  For any image ƒ(x,y)=i(x,y)r(x,y) obtained from the same illumination function,
Region Splitting and Merging: simply dividing ƒ(x,y) by g(x,y) yields a normalized function h(x,y)=
The procedure just discussed grows regions from a set of seed points. An ƒ(x,y)/g(x,y)= r(x,y)/k.
alternative into subdivided an image initially into a set of arbitrary, disjointed regions and
 Thus, if r(x,y) can be segmented by using a single threshold T, then h(x,y) can be
then merge and/or split the regions in an attempt to satisfy the conditions.
segmented by using single threshold of value T/k.
R1 R2

R3 2.Explain Back propogation neural networks in detail

R41 R42
R43 R44
1. Split into four disjoint quadrants any region Ri for which P(Ri)=FALSE.
Fig: Back propagation neural network
2. Merge any adjacent regions Rj and Rk for which P(RjURk)=TRUE.
3. Stop when no further merging or splitting is possible.
Mean and standard deviation of pixels in a region to quantify the texture of region.
Multilayer Back Propagation Network:
Role of thresholding:
Figure shows the Back propagation neural network .The first set of neurons
serve only as distribution points. They perform no input summation. The input signal is
simply passed into the weight on there outputs. Each neuron in subsequent layers

produces NET and OUT signals as described above. A neuron is associated with the set Because the petals of all flowers vary in width and length to some degree the pattern 3. What are two main types of Data compression?
of weights that connects to its input. The input of distribution layer is designated as layer vectors describing three flowers also will vary, not only between different classes ,but • Lossless compression can recover the exact original data after compression. It is
0. Backpropagation can be applied to network with a number of layers. However only also with in a class. used mainly for compressing database records, spreadsheets or word processing
two layers of weights are needed to demonstrate the algorithm. The result of this classic feature selection problem shows that the degree of class files, where exact replication of the original is essential.
Steps involved in backpropagation training: seperability depends strongly on the choice of pattern measurements selected for an • Lossy compression will result in a certain loss of accuracy in exchange for a
 Select the next training pair from the training set. Apply input vector to the network application. substantial increase in compression. Lossy compression is more effective when
input. used to compress graphic images and digitised voice where losses outside visual
 Calculate the output of the network. or aural perception can be tolerated.
 Calculate the error between the output network and the desired output. 4. What is the need for Compression?
 Adjust the weight of the network in a way that minimizes the error. In terms of storage, the capacity of a storage device can be effectively increased with
 Repeat steps1 through 4 for each vector in the training until the error for the entire set methods that compress a body of data on its way to a storage device and decompresses
acceptably low. it when it is retrieved.
Forward pass: In terms of communications, the bandwidth of a digital communication link can be
Step 1 and 2 can be expressed in vector form as follows: an input vector x is effectively increased by compressing data at the sending end and decompressing data at
applied and the output vector y is produced. Calculations in multilayer network are done the receiving end.
layer by layer starting at the layer nearest to the inputs. The NET value of each neuron in At any given time, the ability of the Internet to transfer data is fixed. Thus, if data can
the first layer is calculated as the weight sum of its neurons input. The activation function effectively be compressed wherever possible, significant improvements of data
F then ‘squashes’ NET to produce the OUT value for each neuron in that layer. Once a throughput can be achieved. Many files can be combined into one compressed document
set a output for a layer is found, it serves as input to the next layer. This process is making sending easier.
repeated layer by layer until the final set of output network is produced. 5. What are different Compression Methods?
Reverse bias: Run Length Encoding (RLE)
Because a target value is available for each neuron in the output layer, Arithmetic coding
adjusting ht associated weights id easily accomplished as a modification of the delta rule. Huffman coding and
Interior layers are referred to as hidden layers as their outputs has no target values for Transform coding
comparison. Hence the training is more complicated. Hidden layers have no target 6. Define is coding redundancy?
vectors so the ordinary training process described above can not be used. If the gray level of an image is coded in a way that uses more code words than
necessary to represent each gray level, then the resulting image is said to contain coding
redundancy.
3.Disscuss in detail on pattern and pattern classes.
7. Define interpixel redundancy?
A pattern is a quantitative or structural description of an objective or some other entity The value of any given pixel can be predicted from the values of its neighbors.
of interest in an image, The information carried by is small. Therefore the visual contribution of a single pixel to
an image is redundant. Otherwise called as spatial redundant geometric redundant or
A pattern class is a family of patterns that share some common properties .Pattern interpixel redundant.
classes are denoted w1,w2,----wm, where M is the number of classes Eg: Run length coding
Three principle pattern arrangements used in practice are vectors(for quantitative
descriptors ) and strings and trees (for structural descriptions) . 8. What is run length coding?
Patternvectors are represented by bold lower case letters such as x,y, and z,where UNIT V Run-length Encoding, or RLE is a technique used to reduce the size of a repeating
Each component x represent the ith descriptors.Pattern vectors are represented in string of characters. This repeating string is called a run; typically RLE encodes a run of
coloumns (i.e. n x 10 marices) or in the equilant form x=9x1,x2,------xn)T,T-transpose. 1. What is image compression? symbols into two bytes, a count and a symbol. RLE can compress any type of data
The nature of the pattern vector depends on the measurement technique used to describe Image compression refers to the process of redundancy amount of data required to regardless of its information content, but the content of data to be compressed affects the
the physical pattern itself. represent the given quantity of information for digital image. The basis of reduction compression ratio. Compression is normally measured with the compression ratio:
Ex. If we want to describe the three types of iris floers(iris setosa,virginica,and process is removal of redundant data. 9. Define compression ratio.
versicolor)by measuring the width and length of the petals.It is represented in the vector Compression Ratio = original size / compressed size: 1
form x=[x1,x2]T;x1,x2 correspond to width length respectively.Three pattern classes are 2. What is Data Compression? 10. Define psycho visual redundancy?
w1,w2,w3 corresponding to the three verities. Data compression requires the identification and extraction of source redundancy. In In normal visual processing certain information has less importance than other
other words, data compression seeks to reduce the number of bits used to store or information. So this information is said to be psycho visual redundant.
transmit information.

11. Define encoder A code word that is not a prefix of any other code word is called instantaneous or The Major Steps in JPEG Coding involve:
Source encoder is responsible for removing the coding and interpixel redundancy prefix codeword.  DCT (Discrete Cosine Transformation)
and psycho visual redundancy.  Quantization
There are two components  Zigzag Scan
A) Source Encoder 20. Define arithmetic coding  DPCM on DC component
B) Channel Encoder In arithmetic coding one to one corresponds between source symbols and code  RLE on AC Components
word doesn’t exist where as the single arithmetic code word assigned for a sequence of
 Entropy Coding
12. Define source encoder source symbols. A code word defines an interval of number between 0 and 1.
27. What is MPEG?
Source encoder performs three operations
The acronym is expanded as "Moving Picture Expert Group". It is an international
1) Mapper -this transforms the input data into non-visual format. It reduces the 21. What is bit plane Decomposition?
standard in 1992. It perfectly Works with video and also used in teleconferencing
interpixel redundancy. An effective technique for reducing an image’s interpixel redundancies is to
28. Draw the JPEG Encoder.
2) Quantizer - It reduces the psycho visual redundancy of the input images .This process the image’s bit plane individually. This technique is based on the concept of
step is omitted if the system is error free. decomposing multilevel images into a series of binary images and compressing each
3) Symbol encoder- This reduces the coding redundancy .This is the final stage of binary image via one of several well-known binary compression methods.
encoding process.
22. Draw the block diagram of transform coding system
13. Define channel encoder
The channel encoder reduces reduces the impact of the channel noise by inserting
redundant bits into the source encoded data. Input image Wavelet transform Quantizer Symbol Compressed
Eg: Hamming code encoder image

14. What are the types of decoder?

Source decoder- has two components 29. Draw the JPEG Decoder.
a) Symbol decoder- This performs inverse operation of symbol encoder.
b) Inverse mapping- This performs inverse operation of mapper. Symbol Inverse wavelet Decompressed
Channel decoder-this is omitted if the system is error free. Compressed image decoder transform image

15. What are the operations performed by error free compression?

1) Devising an alternative representation of the image in which its interpixel
redundant are reduced.
2) Coding the representation to eliminate coding redundancy 23. How effectiveness of quantization can be improved?
• Introducing an enlarged quantization interval around zero, called a dead 30. What is zig zag sequence?
16. What is Variable Length Coding? zero. The purpose of the Zig-zag Scan:
Variable Length Coding is the simplest approach to error free compression. It • Adapting the size of the quantization intervals from scale to scale. In  To group low frequency coefficients in top of vector.
reduces only the coding redundancy. It assigns the shortest possible codeword to the most either case, the selected quantization intervals must be transmitted to the  Maps 8 x 8 to a 1 x 64 vector
probable gray levels. decoder with the encoded image bit stream.

17. Define Huffman coding 24. What are the coding systems in JPEG?
• Huffman coding is a popular technique for removing coding redundancy. 1. A lossy baseline coding system, which is based on the DCT and is
• When coding the symbols of an information source the Huffman code adequate for most compression application.
yields the smallest possible number of code words, code symbols per 2. An extended coding system for greater compression, higher
source symbol. precision or progressive reconstruction applications.
18. Define Block code 3. a lossless independent coding system for reversible compression.
Each source symbol is mapped into fixed sequence of code symbols or code 25. What is JPEG?
words. So it is called as block code. The acronym is expanded as "Joint Photographic Expert Group". It is an international
standard in 1992. It perfectly Works with color and grayscale images, Many applications
19. Define instantaneous code e.g., satellite, medical,...
26. What are the basic steps in JPEG?
31. Define I-frame • The codes generated using this technique or procedure are called Huffman codes.
I-frame is Intraframe or Independent frame. An I-frame is compressed 1. Coding Redundancy : • These codes are prefix codes and are optimum for a given model.
independently of all frames. It resembles a JPEG encoded image. It is the reference point We developed this technique for image enhancement by histogram processing on the
for the motion estimation needed to generate subsequent P and P-frame. assumption that the grey levels of an image are random quantities. Here the grey level The Huffman procedure is based on two observations regarding
histogram of the image also can provide a great deal of insight in the construction of optimum prefix codes
32. Define P-frame codes to reduce the amount of data used to represent it. 1.In an optimum code, symbols that occur more frequently will have
P-frame is called predictive frame. A P-frame is the compressed difference 2. Interpixel Redundancy : shorter code words than symbols that occur less frequently.
between the current frame and a prediction of it based on the previous I or P-frame Inorder to reduce the interpixel redundancy in an image, the 2-D pixel array normally 2.in an optimum code ,the two symbols that occur least frequently will
used for human viewing and interpretation must be transformed in to more efficient form. have the same length
33. Define B-frame
B-frame is the bidirectional frame. A B-frame is the compressed difference 3. Psychovisual Redundancy: Design of a Huffman Code
between the current frame and a prediction of it based on the previous I or P-frame or Certain information simply has less relative importance than other information in the
next P-frame. Accordingly the decoder must have access to both past and future reference normal visual processing. This information is called Psycovisual Redundant. To design a Huffman code ,we first sort the letters in descending probability
frames.
2. Explain the Coding phase in JPEG Find the Huffman code for the following:
P(A)=0.2, p(B)=0.1, p(C)=0.2,p(D)=0.05,p(E)=0.3,p(F)=0.05,p(G)=0.1
In this approach the lable for the DC and AC coefficient are coded differently using
Huffman codes. The DC coefficient values partitioned into categories. The categories are
PART B then Huffman coded. The AC coefficient is generated in slightly different manner. There
are two special codes: End-of-block(EOF) and ZRL

Table: Coding of the differences of the DC labels

1. Define Compression and explain data Redundancy in image
compression 0 0
1 -1 1
Compression: It is the process of reducing the size of the given data or an image. It will 2 -3 -2 2 3
help us to reduce the storage space required to store an image or File. 3 -7 ……………………. -4 4 ……… 7
……………………………………….
Data Redundancy: Table: sample table for obtaining the Huffman code for a given label value and run length
The data or words that either provide no relevant information or simply
restate that which is already known .It is said to be data redundancy. Z/C Codeword Z/c Codeword ….. Z/C Codeword
0/0 1010 F/0 11111111001
Consider N1 and N2 number of information carrying units in two data sets 0/1 00 1/1 1100 F/1 111111111111110101
that represent the same information ……………………
Data Redundancy Rd = 1-1/Cr Find the average length and entropy
To encode the AC coefficient First using Zigzag scan. We obtain
Where Cr is called the Compression Ratio. -9 3 0 0 0 0 0 ……… 0 Average length =I= k =1 ∑ M
p(ak)l(ak)
The first value belong to category 1. transmit the code corresponding to 0/1 follow by a I=3(0.2)+3(0.1)+3(0.2)+5(0.05)+1(0.3)+5(0.05)+4(0.1)
` Cr=N1/N2. single bit 1 to indicate that the value being transmitted is 1 and not -1 .Simillarly other =2.7 bits/symbol
AC coefficient code are transmited.
Types of Redundancy To obtain the reconstruction of the original block Dequantization is performed and taking Entropy =H(ak)= - k =1 ∑ M
p(ak)log2p(ak)
inverse transform of the coefficient we get the reconstructed block
There are three basic Redundancy and they are classified as =0.7667
1) Coding Redundancy 3.Explain Huffman coding with an example.
2) Interpixel Redundancy
3) Psychovisual Redundancy. • This technique was developed by David Huffman. Find Efficiency

Efficiency = η = Entropy/average length EZW coder was introduced by Shapiro. It is a quantization and coding strategy that
=0.284% characteristics of the wavelet decomposition.The particular characteristic used by the
EZW algorithm is that there are wavelet coefficients in different subbands that represent
Find redundancy the same spatial location in the image.
Source In 10-band decomposition ,the coefficient a in the upper-left corner of band I
Redundancy =Re =1-η = 0.716 Source Channel Channel Channel
Decode represents the same spatial location as coefficient a1 represents the same spatial location
Encoder Encoder Decoder
r as coefficients a11,a12,a13,a14 in band V. Each of these pixel represents the same spatial
location as four pixels in band VIII.
PART -C

1) Define Compression and Explain the general compression system model The Source Encoder Will removes the input redundancies. The channel a
Compression: It is the process of reducing the size of the given data or an image. It will encoder will increase the noise immunity of the source encoder’s output. If the channel II
help us to reduce the storage space required to store an image or File. between encoder and decoder is noise free then the channel encoder and decoder can be V
omitted.
Image Compression Model: a3 a4

There are two Structural model and they are broadly Classified as follows
1. An Encoder VI VII
2. A Decoder. Quantize I
Mapper Symbol
r Encoder

Encoder Channel
Decoder

MAPPER:
It transforms the input data in to a format designed to reduce the interpixel redundancy in
the input image.
An Input image f(x,y) is fed in to encoder and create a set of symbols and after
transmission over the channel ,the encoded representation is fed in to the decoder. QUANTIZER:
It reduce the accuracy of the mapper’s output.

A General Compression system model: SYMBOL ENCODER: We can visualize the relationships of these coefficients in form of tree:The
It creates a fixed or variable length code to represent the quantizer’s output coefficient a forms the root of the tree with three descendants a1,a2,a3.
The General system model consist of the following components,They are and maps the output in accordance with the code. EZW algorithm is a multiple pass algorithm,with each pass consisting of two
broadly classified as steps.
1. Source Encoder 1.significance map encoding or the dominant pass
2. Channel Encoder 2.refinement or the subordinate pass
3. Channel If Cmax is the value of the largest coefficient,the initial value of the threshold T0 is
4. Channel Decoder Symbol Inverse given by
5. Souce Decoder decoder mapper [Log Cmax]
T0=2
SYMBOL DECODER:
The inverse operation of the source encoder’s symbol will be performed This selection guarantees that the largest coefficient will lie in the interval[T0,2T0].In
and maps the blocks. each pass,the threshold Ti is reduced to half the value it had in the previous pass:

Ti=1/2(Ti-1)
2.Explain the concepts of Embedded Zero Tree coding
For given value of Ti,we assign one of four possible labels to the coefficients:

-Simple
1.significance positive(sp) -Main
2.significant negative(sn) -Snr-scalable MPEG7:
3.zerotree root(zr) -Spatially scalable -Focus on the development of a multimedia content description interface seems to be
4.isolated zero(iz) -High somewhat removed from the study of data compression
-Simple profile uses the Bframes.but removal of the Bframes makes the requirements -These activities relate to the core principles of data compression which is the
The coefficients labeled significant are simply those that fall in the outer levels of the simpler. development of compact descriptions of information
quantized and are assigned an initial reconstructed value of 1.5Ti or -1.5Ti,depending on MPEG 4
whether the coefficient is positive or negative. -Provides a more abstract approach to the coding of multimedia.The standard views the 4. Discuss about Vector quantization procedure in detail
multimedia scene as a collection of objects.These objects can be coded independently.
3.Discuss MPEGcompression standard -Language called the binary format for scenes based on the virtual reality modeling Source Encoder Decoder Reconstruction
language has been developed by Mpeg. output
Introduction: -The protocol for managing the elementary streams and their multiplexed version called Group
Find closest Table Unblock
-The basic structure of the compression algorithm proposed by mpeg is very similar to the delivery multimedia integration framework is a part of Mpeg4 code-vector lookup
into
that of ITU-T H.261 -The different objects that makeup the scene are coded and sent to the multiplexer vectors
-In mpeg the blocks are organized in macro blocks which are defined in the same manner -The information about the presence of these objects is also provided to the motion
as that of H.261 algorithm compensator predictor
-The mpeg standard initially had applications that require digital storage and retrieval as a -It is also used in facial animation controlled by facial definition parameter
major focus -It allows for object scalability.

Frames
I-Frames Motion Video
DCT Q
-Mpeg includes some frames periodically that are coded without any reference to the past texture Multiplex
Frames. These frames are called I-frames coding
-I-frames do not use temporal correlation for prediction.Thus the number of frames
between two consecutive Iframes is a trade-off between compression efficiency and
convenience. Q-1
In vector quantization we group the source output into blocks or vectors. This vector of
P and B frames source outputs forms the input to the vector quantizer. At both the encoder and decoder of
-In order to improve the compression efficiency mpeg1 algorithm contains two other the vector quantizer, we have a set of L-dimensional vectors called the codebook of the
types of frames: predictive coded and bidirectionally predictive coded frames Inverse vector quantizer. The vectors in this codebook are known as code-vectors. Each code
-Generally the compression efficiency of P-frames is substantially higher than Iframes DCT vector is assigned a binary index.
Anchor frames At the encoder, the input vector is compared to each code-vector in order to find
-The I and P frames are sometimes are anchor frames the code vector closest to the input vector
-To compensate for the reduction in the amount of compression due to the frequent use of In order to inform the decoder about which code vector was found to be the
Iframes the mpeg standard introduced Bframes closest to the input vector, we transmit or store the binary index of the code-vector.
Group of pictures(GOP) Predictor 1 Frame Because the decoder has exactly the same codebook, it can retrieve the code vector
-GOP is a small random access unit in the video sequence switch store Although the encoder have to perform considerable amount of computations in
-The GOP structure is set up as a tradeoff between the high compression efficiency of Predictor 2 order to find the closest reproduction vector to the vector of source outputs, the decoding
-Motion compensated coding and the coding and the fast picture acquisition capability of consists of a table lookup. This makes vector quantization a very attractive encoding
periodic intra-only processing scheme for applications in which the resources available for decoding are considerably
Predictor 3
-The format for mpeg is very flexible however the mpeg committee has provided some less than the resources available for encoding
suggested value for the various parameters
-For Mpeg 1 these suggested values are called the constraint parameter bitstream Advantages of vector quantization over scalar quantization
MPEG2 For a given rate (bits per sample), use of vector quantization results in lower distortion
-It takes a toolkit approach providing a number of subsets each containing different Shape
than when scalar quantization is used at the same rate
ion
estimat
n
Motio

options coding
Vectors of source output values tend to fall in clusters. By selecting the quantizer
-For a particular application the user can select from a set of profiles and levels output points to lie in these clusters, we have more accurate representation of the source
Types of profiles output
 • Second element 3 JPEG is a transform coding approach using DCT. Consider 8*8 block of the
Use: l2=0+(0.8-0)0.82=0.656 image as shown in table
One application for which vector quantizer has been extremely popular is image u2=0+(0.8-0)0.1=0.8
compression. Table : an 8*8 block of an image
interval [0.656,0.8) is in the upper limit. Send the binary code 1 and scale
Disadvantage of vector quantization: 124 125 122 120 122 119 117 118
Vector quantization applications operate at low rates. For applications such as l2=2(0.656-0.5)=0.312 121 121 120 119 119 120 120 118
high-quality video coding, which requires higher rates this is definitely a problem. u2=2(0.8-0.5)=0.6 125 124 123 122 121 121 120 120
To solve these problems, there are several approaches which entails some 124 124 125 125 126 125 124 124
structure in the quantization process • Third element 2 127 127 128 129 130 128 127 125
l3=0.312+(0.6-0.312)0.8=0.5424 143 142 143 142 140 139 139 139
Tree structures vector quantizers: u3=0.312+(0.6-0.312)0.82=0.54816 150 148 152 152 152 152 150 151
This structure organizes codebook in such a way that it is easy to pick which part 156 159 158 155 158 158 157 156
contains the desired output vector interval [0.5424,0.54816) is in the upper limit. Send the binary code 1 and scale The Transform
The transform used in the Jpeg scheme is the DCT .The input image is first “level
Structured vector quantizers: l3=2(0.5424-0.5)=0.0848 shifted by 2p-1 ie) subtract 2p-1 from each pixel value. Then the image is divided into
Tree-structured vector quantizer solves the complexity problem, but acerbates the u3=2(0.54816-0.5)=0.09632 blockes of size 8*8 , which are transformed using an 8*8 forward DCT .The table show
storage problem the DCT coefficient.
We now take entirely different tacks and develop vector quantize that do not have interval [0.0848,0.09632) is in the lower limit. Send the binary code 0 and scale
these storage problems; however we pay for this relief in other ways Table: The DCT coefficient
l3=2*0.0848=0.1696
5. Explain Arithmetic coding with an example u3=2*0.09632=0.19264 39.88 6.56 -2.24 1.22 -0.37 -1.08 0.79 1.13
Algorithm Implementation -102.43 4.56 2.26 1.12 0.35 -0.63 -1.05 -0.48
Sequence being encoded as: interval [0.1696,0.19264) is in the lower limit. Send the binary code 0 and scale 37.77 1.31 1.77 0.25 -1.50 -2.21 -0.10 0.23
ln=ln-1+(un-1-ln-1)fx(xn-1) -5.67 2.24 -1.32 -0.81 1.41 0.22 -0.13 0.17
un= ln-1+(un-1-ln-1)fx(xn) l3=2*0.1696=0.3392 -3.37 -0.74 -1.75 0.77 -0.62 -2.65 -1.30 0.76
n becomes larger values gets closer and closer together. The intervals becomes narrower, u3=2*0.19264=0.38528 5.98 -0.13 -0.45 -0.77 1.99 -0.26 1.46 0.00
there are 3 possibilities 3.97 5.52 2.39 -0.55 -0.051-0.84 -0.52 -0.13
1. the interval is entirely confined to the lower half of the unit interval [0,0.5) interval [0.3392,0.38528) is in the lower limit. Send the binary code 0 and scale -3.43 0.51 -1.07 0.87 0.96 0.09 0.33 0.01
2. the interval is entirely confined to the upper half of the unit interval [0.5,1)
3. the interval is in the midpoint of the unit interval l3=2*0.3392=0.6784 Quantization
u3=2*0.38528=0.77056 The JPEG algorithm uses uniform midthread quantization to quantize the various
We want to have the sub interval (tag) in the full [0,1) interval coefficient. The quantizer step sizes are organized in a table called the quantization table
E1:[0,0.5) E1(x)=2x interval [0.6784,0.77056) is in the upper limit. Send the binary code 1 and scale as shown in table
E1:[0.5,1) E1(x)=2(x-0.5) Table: Sample Quantization table
This process of generating the bits if the tag without waiting to see the entire sequence is l3=2(0.6784-0.5)=0.3568 16 11 10 16 24 40 51 61
called incremental encoding u3=2(0.77056-0.5)=0.54112 12 12 14 19 26 58 60 55
14 13 16 24 40 57 69 56
Tag generation with scaling The interval [0.3598,0.54112) is either in the upper or the lower half of unit interval so 14 17 22 29 51 87 80 62
Eg: A={a1,a2,a3} P(a1)=0.8 P(a2)=0.02 P(a3)=0.18 Fx(1)=0.8 Fx(2)=0.82 Fx(3)=1 proceed 18 22 37 56 68 109103 77
Encode the sequence 1321 • Fourth element 1 24 35 55 64 81 104 113 92
l4=0.3568+(0.54112-0.3568)0=0.3568 49 64 78 87 103 121 120 101
Solution: u4=0.3568+(0.54112-0.3568)0.8=0.504256 72 92 95 98 12 100 103 99
• first element is 1
Initialize u0=1 l0=0 Stop the encoding. The lable corresponding to the quantized value of the transform coefficient θij is obtained
l1=0+(1-0)0=0 Binary sequence generated is 110001. Transmit 1 followed by many 0 required by the as
u1=0+(1-0)0.8=0.8 word length Lij=θij/Qij+0.5
The interval [0,0.8) is either in the upper or the lower half of unit interval so proceed 6. Explain about JPEG compression scheme in detail.

Where Qij is the (i,j)th element of the quantization table. The reconstructed value is • For facsimile images, p(w/w) and p(w/b) are generally significantly higher than • Except for the optional codes, there are separate codes for black and white run
obtained by multiplying the lable with corresponding entry in the quantization table p(b/w) and p(b/b) lengths.
Table: The quantizer lable • The markov model is represented by the state diagram • This coding scheme is generally referred to as a modified Huffman scheme
21 0 0 0 0 0 0 • The entropy using a probability model and the iid assumption was significantly • In the two dimensional scheme ,instead of reporting the run lengths ,which in
-9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 more than the entropy using the markov model terms our Markov model is the length of time we remain in one state ,we
3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • Let us try to interpret what the model says about the structure of the data . report the transition times when we move from one state to another state.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • The highly skewed nature of the probabilities p(b/w) and p(w/w),and to a lesser
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 extent p( w/b) and p(b/b), says that once a pixel takes on a particular color, it is
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 highly likely that the following pixels will also be of the same color
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Coding
In this approach the lable for the DC and AC coefficient are coded differently
using Huffman codes. The DC coefficient values partitioned into categories. The
categories are then Huffman coded. The AC coefficient is generated in slightly different
manner. There are two special codes: End-of-block(EOF) and ZRL

Table: Coding of the differences of the DC labels

• So, rather than code the color of each pixel separately , we can simply code
1 0 the length of the runs of each color .
1 -1 1 • For example, if we had 190 white pixels followed by 30 black pixels ,
2 -3 -2 2 3 followed by another 210 white pixels , instead of coding the 430 pixels
3 -7 ……………………. -4 4 ……… 7 individually, we would code the sequence 190, 30, 210, along with an
indication of the color of the first string of pixels .
Table: sample table for obtaining the Huffman code for a given label value and run length • Coding the lengths of runs instead of coding individual values is called run-
length coding
Z/C Codeword Z/c Codeword ….. Z/C Codeword
0/0 1010 F/0 11111111001
0/1 00 1/1 1100 F/1 111111111111110101 CCITT GROUP 3 AND 4-RECOMMENDATIONS T.4 AND T.6
……………………
• The one dimensional coding scheme is a run-length coding scheme in which
each line is represented as a series of alternating white runs and black runs.
To encode the AC coefficient First using Zigzag scan. We obtain
The first run is always a white run. If the first pixel is a black pixel, then we
-9 3 0 0 0 0 0 ……… 0
assume that we have a white run of length zero.
The first value belong to category 1. transmit the code corresponding to 0/1 follow by a
• Runs of different lengths occur with different probabilities, therefore they are
single bit 1 to indicate that the value being transmitted is 1 and not -1 .Simillarly other
coded using a variable length code..
AC coefficient code are transmited.
To obtain the reconstruction of the original block Dequantization is performed and taking • The number of possible lengths of runs is extremely large and it is not simply
inverse transform of the coefficient we get the reconstructed block feasible to build a codebook that large.
7. Describe the concepts of run length coding • Therefore instead of generating a Huffman code for each run length r1, the the
run length is expressed in the form
• The model that gives rise to run-length coding is the capon model[40], a two-state R1=64*m+t for t=0.1….63 and m=1,2…..27
markov model with state sw and sb • When we have to represent a run length r1, instead of finding a code for r1,we
• The transition probabilities p(w/b) and p(b/w), and the probability of being in use the corresponding codes for m and t.
each state p(sw) and p(sb), completely specify this model . • The codes for t are called the terminating codes and the codes for m are called
make up codes.