Carnegie Mellon

Linking
15-213: Introduction to Computer Systems
13th Lecture, Oct. 13, 2015

Instructors:
Randal E. Bryant and David R. O’Hallaron

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Today
 Linking
 Case study: Library interpositioning

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Example C Program

int sum(int *a, int n); int sum(int *a, int n)

{
int array[2] = {1, 2}; int i, s = 0;

int main() for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {

{ s += a[i];
int val = sum(array, 2); }
return val; return s;
} }
main.c sum.c

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Static Linking
 Programs are translated and linked using a compiler driver:
▪ linux> gcc -Og -o prog main.c sum.c
▪ linux> ./prog

main.c sum.c Source files

Translators Translators
(cpp, cc1, as) (cpp, cc1, as)

main.o sum.o Separately compiled

relocatable object files

Linker (ld)

Fully linked executable object file

prog (contains code and data for all functions
defined in main.c and sum.c)
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Why Linkers?
 Reason 1: Modularity

▪ Program can be written as a collection of smaller source files,

rather than one monolithic mass.

▪ Can build libraries of common functions (more on this later)

▪ e.g., Math library, standard C library

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Why Linkers? (cont)

 Reason 2: Efficiency

▪ Time: Separate compilation

▪ Change one source file, compile, and then relink.
▪ No need to recompile other source files.

▪ Space: Libraries
▪ Common functions can be aggregated into a single file...
▪ Yet executable files and running memory images contain only
code for the functions they actually use.

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What Do Linkers Do?

 Step 1: Symbol resolution

▪ Programs define and reference symbols (global variables and functions):

▪ void swap() {…} /* define symbol swap */
▪ swap(); /* reference symbol swap */
▪ int *xp = &x; /* define symbol xp, reference x */

▪ Symbol definitions are stored in object file (by assembler) in symbol table.
▪ Symbol table is an array of structs
▪ Each entry includes name, size, and location of symbol.

▪ During symbol resolution step, the linker associates each symbol reference
with exactly one symbol definition.

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What Do Linkers Do? (cont)

 Step 2: Relocation

▪ Merges separate code and data sections into single sections

▪ Relocates symbols from their relative locations in the .o files to

their final absolute memory locations in the executable.

▪ Updates all references to these symbols to reflect their new

positions.

Let’s look at these two steps in more detail….

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Three Kinds of Object Files (Modules)

 Relocatable object file (.o file)
▪ Contains code and data in a form that can be combined with other
relocatable object files to form executable object file.
▪ Each .o file is produced from exactly one source (.c) file

 Executable object file (a.out file)

▪ Contains code and data in a form that can be copied directly into
memory and then executed.

 Shared object file (.so file)

▪ Special type of relocatable object file that can be loaded into
memory and linked dynamically, at either load time or run-time.
▪ Called Dynamic Link Libraries (DLLs) by Windows

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Executable and Linkable Format (ELF)

 Standard binary format for object files

 One unified format for

▪ Relocatable object files (.o),
▪ Executable object files (a.out)
▪ Shared object files (.so)

 Generic name: ELF binaries

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ELF Object File Format

 Elf header
▪ Word size, byte ordering, file type (.o, exec, 0
.so), machine type, etc. ELF header
 Segment header table Segment header table
▪ Page size, virtual addresses memory segments (required for executables)
(sections), segment sizes. .text section
 .text section .rodata section
▪ Code .data section
 .rodata section .bss section
▪ Read only data: jump tables, ... .symtab section
 .data section .rel.txt section
▪ Initialized global variables .rel.data section
 .bss section .debug section
▪ Uninitialized global variables
▪ “Block Started by Symbol” Section header table
▪ “Better Save Space”
▪ Has section header but occupies no space
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ELF Object File Format (cont.)

 .symtab section
0
▪ Symbol table ELF header
▪ Procedure and static variable names
Segment header table
▪ Section names and locations (required for executables)
 .rel.text section .text section
▪ Relocation info for .text section
.rodata section
▪ Addresses of instructions that will need to be
modified in the executable .data section
▪ Instructions for modifying. .bss section
 .rel.data section .symtab section
▪ Relocation info for .data section
▪ Addresses of pointer data that will need to be .rel.txt section
modified in the merged executable .rel.data section
 .debug section .debug section
▪ Info for symbolic debugging (gcc -g)
Section header table
 Section header table
▪ Offsets and sizes of each section
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Linker Symbols
 Global symbols
▪ Symbols defined by module m that can be referenced by other modules.
▪ E.g.: non-static C functions and non-static global variables.

 External symbols
▪ Global symbols that are referenced by module m but defined by some
other module.

 Local symbols
▪ Symbols that are defined and referenced exclusively by module m.
▪ E.g.: C functions and global variables defined with the static
attribute.
▪ Local linker symbols are not local program variables

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Step 1: Symbol Resolution

Referencing
a global…
…that’s defined here

int sum(int *a, int n); int sum(int *a, int n)

{
int array[2] = {1, 2}; int i, s = 0;

int main() for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {

{ s += a[i];
int val = sum(array, 2); }
return val; return s;
} main.c } sum.c

Defining
a global Referencing Linker knows
Linker knows a global… nothing of i or s
nothing of val …that’s defined here
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Local Symbols
 Local non-static C variables vs. local static C variables
▪ local non-static C variables: stored on the stack
▪ local static C variables: stored in either .bss, or .data

int f()
{
static int x = 0;
Compiler allocates space in .data for
return x;
} each definition of x

int g() Creates local symbols in the symbol

{ table with unique names, e.g., x.1
static int x = 1; and x.2.
return x;
}

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How Linker Resolves Duplicate Symbol

Definitions
 Program symbols are either strong or weak
▪ Strong: procedures and initialized globals
▪ Weak: uninitialized globals

p1.c p2.c
strong int foo=5; int foo; weak

strong p1() { p2() { strong

} }

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Linker’s Symbol Rules

 Rule 1: Multiple strong symbols are not allowed
▪ Each item can be defined only once
▪ Otherwise: Linker error

 Rule 2: Given a strong symbol and multiple weak symbols,

choose the strong symbol
▪ References to the weak symbol resolve to the strong symbol

 Rule 3: If there are multiple weak symbols, pick an arbitrary

one
▪ Can override this with gcc –fno-common

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Linker Puzzles
int x;
p1() {} p1() {} Link time error: two strong symbols (p1)

int x; int x; References to x will refer to the same

p1() {} p2() {} uninitialized int. Is this what you really want?

int x; double x;
int y; p2() {} Writes to x in p2 might overwrite y!
p1() {} Evil!

int x=7; double x; Writes to x in p2 will overwrite y!

int y=5; p2() {} Nasty!
p1() {}

int x=7; int x; References to x will refer to the same initialized

p1() {} p2() {} variable.

Nightmare scenario: two identical weak structs, compiled by different compilers

with different alignment rules.
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Global Variables
 Avoid if you can

 Otherwise
▪ Use static if you can
▪ Initialize if you define a global variable
▪ Use extern if you reference an external global variable

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Step 2: Relocation
Relocatable Object Files Executable Object File

System code .text 0

Headers
.data
System data System code

main()
.text
main.o
swap()
main() .text

int array[2]={1,2} .data More system code

System data
sum.o .data
int array[2]={1,2}
sum() .text
.symtab
.debug

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Relocation Entries
int array[2] = {1, 2};

int main()
{
int val = sum(array, 2);
return val;
} main.c

0000000000000000 <main>:
0: 48 83 ec 08 sub $0x8,%rsp
4: be 02 00 00 00 mov $0x2,%esi
9: bf 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edi # %edi = &array
a: R_X86_64_32 array # Relocation entry

e: e8 00 00 00 00 callq 13 <main+0x13> # sum()

f: R_X86_64_PC32 sum-0x4 # Relocation entry
13: 48 83 c4 08 add $0x8,%rsp
17: c3 retq
main.o

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition Source: objdump –r –d main.o 21
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Relocated .text section

00000000004004d0 <main>:
4004d0: 48 83 ec 08 sub $0x8,%rsp
4004d4: be 02 00 00 00 mov $0x2,%esi
4004d9: bf 18 10 60 00 mov $0x601018,%edi # %edi = &array
4004de: e8 05 00 00 00 callq 4004e8 <sum> # sum()
4004e3: 48 83 c4 08 add $0x8,%rsp
4004e7: c3 retq

00000000004004e8 <sum>:
4004e8: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax
4004ed: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx
4004f2: eb 09 jmp 4004fd <sum+0x15>
4004f4: 48 63 ca movslq %edx,%rcx
4004f7: 03 04 8f add (%rdi,%rcx,4),%eax
4004fa: 83 c2 01 add $0x1,%edx
4004fd: 39 f2 cmp %esi,%edx
4004ff: 7c f3 jl 4004f4 <sum+0xc>
400501: f3 c3 repz retq

Using PC-relative addressing for sum(): 0x4004e8 = 0x4004e3 + 0x5

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition Source: objdump -dx prog 22
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Loading Executable Object Files Memory

invisible to
Executable Object File Kernel virtual memory
0 user code
ELF header
User stack
Program header table (created at runtime)
%rsp
(required for executables)
(stack
.init section pointer)
.text section Memory-mapped region for
.rodata section shared libraries

.data section
.bss section brk
.symtab Run-time heap
(created by malloc)
.debug
Read/write data segment Loaded
.line (.data, .bss) from
the
.strtab Read-only code segment executable
Section header table (.init, .text, .rodata) file
0x400000
(required for relocatables) Unused
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Packaging Commonly Used Functions

 How to package functions commonly used by programmers?
▪ Math, I/O, memory management, string manipulation, etc.

 Awkward, given the linker framework so far:

▪ Option 1: Put all functions into a single source file
Programmers link big object file into their programs
▪
▪ Space and time inefficient
▪ Option 2: Put each function in a separate source file
▪ Programmers explicitly link appropriate binaries into their
programs
▪ More efficient, but burdensome on the programmer

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Old-fashioned Solution: Static Libraries

 Static libraries (.a archive files)
▪ Concatenate related relocatable object files into a single file with an
index (called an archive).

▪ Enhance linker so that it tries to resolve unresolved external references

by looking for the symbols in one or more archives.

▪ If an archive member file resolves reference, link it into the executable.

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Creating Static Libraries

atoi.c printf.c random.c

Translator Translator ... Translator

atoi.o printf.o random.o

unix> ar rs libc.a \
Archiver (ar)
atoi.o printf.o … random.o

libc.a C standard library

 Archiver allows incremental updates

 Recompile function that changes and replace .o file in archive.

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Commonly Used Libraries

libc.a (the C standard library)
▪ 4.6 MB archive of 1496 object files.
▪ I/O, memory allocation, signal handling, string handling, data and time,
random numbers, integer math
libm.a (the C math library)
▪ 2 MB archive of 444 object files.
▪ floating point math (sin, cos, tan, log, exp, sqrt, …)

% ar –t libc.a | sort % ar –t libm.a | sort

… …
fork.o e_acos.o
… e_acosf.o
fprintf.o e_acosh.o
fpu_control.o e_acoshf.o
fputc.o e_acoshl.o
freopen.o e_acosl.o
fscanf.o e_asin.o
fseek.o e_asinf.o
fstab.o e_asinl.o
… …
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libvector.a
Linking with
Static Libraries int addcnt = 0;

void addvec(int *x, int *y,

#include <stdio.h> int *z, int n) {
#include "vector.h" int i;

int x[2] = {1, 2}; addcnt++;

int y[2] = {3, 4}; for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
int z[2]; z[i] = x[i] + y[i];
} addvec.c
int main()
{ int multcnt = 0;
addvec(x, y, z, 2);
printf("z = [%d %d]\n”, void multvec(int *x, int *y,
z[0], z[1]); int *z, int n)
return 0; {
} main2.c int i;

multcnt++;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
z[i] = x[i] * y[i];
} multvec.c
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Linking with Static Libraries

addvec.o multvec.o

main2.c vector.h Archiver

(ar)
Translators
(cpp, cc1, as) libvector.a libc.a Static libraries

Relocatable main2.o addvec.o printf.o and any other

object files modules called by printf.o

Linker (ld)

Fully linked
prog2c
executable object file

“c” for “compile-time”

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Using Static Libraries

 Linker’s algorithm for resolving external references:
▪ Scan .o files and .a files in the command line order.
▪ During the scan, keep a list of the current unresolved references.
▪ As each new .o or .a file, obj, is encountered, try to resolve each
unresolved reference in the list against the symbols defined in obj.
▪ If any entries in the unresolved list at end of scan, then error.

 Problem:
▪ Command line order matters!
▪ Moral: put libraries at the end of the command line.
unix> gcc -L. libtest.o -lmine
unix> gcc -L. -lmine libtest.o
libtest.o: In function `main':
libtest.o(.text+0x4): undefined reference to `libfun'

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Modern Solution: Shared Libraries

 Static libraries have the following disadvantages:
▪ Duplication in the stored executables (every function needs libc)
▪ Duplication in the running executables
▪ Minor bug fixes of system libraries require each application to explicitly
relink

 Modern solution: Shared Libraries

▪ Object files that contain code and data that are loaded and linked into
an application dynamically, at either load-time or run-time
▪ Also called: dynamic link libraries, DLLs, .so files

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Shared Libraries (cont.)

 Dynamic linking can occur when executable is first loaded
and run (load-time linking).
▪ Common case for Linux, handled automatically by the dynamic linker
(ld-linux.so).
▪ Standard C library (libc.so) usually dynamically linked.

 Dynamic linking can also occur after program has begun

(run-time linking).
▪ In Linux, this is done by calls to the dlopen() interface.
▪ Distributing software.
▪ High-performance web servers.
▪ Runtime library interpositioning.

 Shared library routines can be shared by multiple processes.

▪ More on this when we learn about virtual memory
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Dynamic Linking at Load-time

main2.c vector.h unix> gcc -shared -o libvector.so \
addvec.c multvec.c
Translators
(cpp, cc1, as) libc.so
libvector.so
Relocatable main2.o Relocation and symbol
object file table info

Linker (ld)

Partially linked prog2l

executable object file

Loader libc.so
(execve) libvector.so

Code and data

Fully linked
executable Dynamic linker (ld-linux.so)
in memory
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Dynamic Linking at Run-time

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <dlfcn.h>

int x[2] = {1, 2};

int y[2] = {3, 4};
int z[2];

int main()
{
void *handle;
void (*addvec)(int *, int *, int *, int);
char *error;

/* Dynamically load the shared library that contains addvec() */

handle = dlopen("./libvector.so", RTLD_LAZY);
if (!handle) {
fprintf(stderr, "%s\n", dlerror());
exit(1);
} dll.c

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Dynamic Linking at Run-time

...

/* Get a pointer to the addvec() function we just loaded */

addvec = dlsym(handle, "addvec");
if ((error = dlerror()) != NULL) {
fprintf(stderr, "%s\n", error);
exit(1);
}

/* Now we can call addvec() just like any other function */

addvec(x, y, z, 2);
printf("z = [%d %d]\n", z[0], z[1]);

/* Unload the shared library */

if (dlclose(handle) < 0) {
fprintf(stderr, "%s\n", dlerror());
exit(1);
}
return 0;
} dll.c

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Linking Summary
 Linking is a technique that allows programs to be
constructed from multiple object files.

 Linking can happen at different times in a program’s

lifetime:
▪ Compile time (when a program is compiled)
▪ Load time (when a program is loaded into memory)
▪ Run time (while a program is executing)

 Understanding linking can help you avoid nasty errors and

make you a better programmer.

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Today
 Linking
 Case study: Library interpositioning

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Case Study: Library Interpositioning

 Library interpositioning : powerful linking technique that
allows programmers to intercept calls to arbitrary
functions
 Interpositioning can occur at:
▪ Compile time: When the source code is compiled
▪ Link time: When the relocatable object files are statically linked to
form an executable object file
▪ Load/run time: When an executable object file is loaded into
memory, dynamically linked, and then executed.

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Some Interpositioning Applications

 Security
▪ Confinement (sandboxing)
▪ Behind the scenes encryption
 Debugging
▪ In 2014, two Facebook engineers debugged a treacherous 1-year
old bug in their iPhone app using interpositioning
▪ Code in the SPDY networking stack was writing to the wrong
location
▪ Solved by intercepting calls to Posix write functions (write, writev,
pwrite)

Source: Facebook engineering blog post at

https://code.facebook.com/posts/313033472212144/debugging-
file-corruption-on-ios/

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Some Interpositioning Applications

 Monitoring and Profiling
▪ Count number of calls to functions
▪ Characterize call sites and arguments to functions
▪ Malloc tracing
▪ Detecting memory leaks
▪ Generating address traces

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Example program
 Goal: trace the addresses
and sizes of the allocated
#include <stdio.h> and freed blocks, without
#include <malloc.h>
breaking the program, and
int main() without modifying the
{ source code.
int *p = malloc(32);
free(p);
return(0);  Three solutions: interpose
} int.c
on the lib malloc and
free functions at compile
time, link time, and
load/run time.

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Compile-time Interpositioning
#ifdef COMPILETIME
#include <stdio.h>
#include <malloc.h>

/* malloc wrapper function */

void *mymalloc(size_t size)
{
void *ptr = malloc(size);
printf("malloc(%d)=%p\n",
(int)size, ptr);
return ptr;
}

/* free wrapper function */

void myfree(void *ptr)
{
free(ptr);
printf("free(%p)\n", ptr);
}
#endif mymalloc.c
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Compile-time Interpositioning
#define malloc(size) mymalloc(size)
#define free(ptr) myfree(ptr)

void *mymalloc(size_t size);

void myfree(void *ptr);
malloc.h

linux> make intc

gcc -Wall -DCOMPILETIME -c mymalloc.c
gcc -Wall -I. -o intc int.c mymalloc.o
linux> make runc
./intc
malloc(32)=0x1edc010
free(0x1edc010)
linux>

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Link-time Interpositioning
#ifdef LINKTIME
#include <stdio.h>

void *__real_malloc(size_t size);

void __real_free(void *ptr);

/* malloc wrapper function */

void *__wrap_malloc(size_t size)
{
void *ptr = __real_malloc(size); /* Call libc malloc */
printf("malloc(%d) = %p\n", (int)size, ptr);
return ptr;
}

/* free wrapper function */

void __wrap_free(void *ptr)
{
__real_free(ptr); /* Call libc free */
printf("free(%p)\n", ptr);
}
#endif mymalloc.c
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Link-time Interpositioning
linux> make intl
gcc -Wall -DLINKTIME -c mymalloc.c
gcc -Wall -c int.c
gcc -Wall -Wl,--wrap,malloc -Wl,--wrap,free -o intl
int.o mymalloc.o
linux> make runl
./intl
malloc(32) = 0x1aa0010
free(0x1aa0010)
linux>

 The “-Wl” flag passes argument to linker, replacing each

comma with a space.
 The “--wrap,malloc ” arg instructs linker to resolve
references in a special way:
▪ Refs to malloc should be resolved as __wrap_malloc
▪ Refs to __real_malloc should be resolved as malloc
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#ifdef RUNTIME
Load/Run-time
#define _GNU_SOURCE
#include <stdio.h> Interpositioning
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <dlfcn.h>

/* malloc wrapper function */

void *malloc(size_t size)
{
void *(*mallocp)(size_t size);
char *error;

mallocp = dlsym(RTLD_NEXT, "malloc"); /* Get addr of libc malloc */

if ((error = dlerror()) != NULL) {
fputs(error, stderr);
exit(1);
}
char *ptr = mallocp(size); /* Call libc malloc */
printf("malloc(%d) = %p\n", (int)size, ptr);
return ptr;
}
mymalloc.c
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Load/Run-time Interpositioning
/* free wrapper function */
void free(void *ptr)
{
void (*freep)(void *) = NULL;
char *error;

if (!ptr)
return;

freep = dlsym(RTLD_NEXT, "free"); /* Get address of libc free */

if ((error = dlerror()) != NULL) {
fputs(error, stderr);
exit(1);
}
freep(ptr); /* Call libc free */
printf("free(%p)\n", ptr);
}
#endif
mymalloc.c

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Load/Run-time Interpositioning
linux> make intr
gcc -Wall -DRUNTIME -shared -fpic -o mymalloc.so mymalloc.c -ldl
gcc -Wall -o intr int.c
linux> make runr
(LD_PRELOAD="./mymalloc.so" ./intr)
malloc(32) = 0xe60010
free(0xe60010)
linux>

 The LD_PRELOAD environment variable tells the dynamic

linker to resolve unresolved refs (e.g., to malloc)by looking
in mymalloc.so first.

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 48

 Carnegie Mellon

Interpositioning Recap
 Compile Time
▪ Apparent calls to malloc/free get macro-expanded into calls to
mymalloc/myfree
 Link Time
▪ Use linker trick to have special name resolutions
▪ malloc → __wrap_malloc
▪ __real_malloc → malloc
 Load/Run Time
▪ Implement custom version of malloc/free that use dynamic linking
to load library malloc/free under different names

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 49