Prokaryotic Cells

Characteristics:-

Do not have a nucleus; their DNA is located in a region called the nucleoid.

Generally smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells.

Lack membrane-bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cells
Characteristics:-

Have a defined nucleus that contains their DNA.

Larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells.

Contain membrane-bound organelles (like mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, etc.).

Difference

Cell Membrane :-

All prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a thin and flexible cell membrane that covers the cytoplasm.
This membrane acts as a semi-permeable barrier, allowing only a few molecules to pass through while
keeping most chemicals inside the cell. This helps maintain the cell’s internal balance.

Additionally, the cell membrane can detect chemical signals and identify other cells.

Chemical analysis shows that the cell membrane is mostly made of proteins and lipids, with small
amounts of carbohydrates. Studies using electron microscopes have led to the fluid-mosaic model of the
cell membrane.
In this model, there is a lipid bilayer with proteins embedded in it. The lipid bilayer gives the membrane
its flexibility. Carbohydrates are also present, often attached to proteins or lipids.

Nucleus:-
Eukaryotic cells have a noticeable nucleus. In animal cells, it is usually in the center, while in mature
plant cells, a large central vacuole pushes it to the side. The nucleus is surrounded by a double
membrane called the nuclear envelope, which has small pores that allow certain substances to pass
through.

Inside the nuclear envelope is a fluid called nucleoplasm, which contains one or two nucleoli and
chromosomes. The nucleolus is a dark spot where ribosomal RNA is made and assembled into
ribosomes. Chromosomes can only be seen during cell division; during the non-dividing phase
(interphase), they appear as fine thread-like structures called chromatin. Chromosomes are made of
DNA and proteins.

Prokaryotic cells do not have a distinct nucleus. Their chromosome consists only of DNA and is located in
the cytoplasm.

Cytoplasm:-

Cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance between the cell membrane and the nuclear envelope. It is semi-
transparent and contains water where many organic molecules (like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids)
and inorganic salts are dissolved.

Cytoplasm provides space for organelles to work properly and is where many chemical reactions happen.
For example, glycolysis, which is the breakdown of glucose for energy, occurs in the cytoplasm.

Mitochondria:-

Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are double-membraned structures found only in eukaryotic

cells. They are where aerobic respiration occurs and are the main energy producers. The outer
membrane is smooth, while the inner membrane has many folds called cristae, which increase the
surface area for reactions to happen.

Mitochondria also have their own DNA and ribosomes, and their ribosomes are more similar to those of
bacteria than to eukaryotic ribosomes.

Ribosomes:-

Ribosomes are tiny structures that can be found floating freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER). They are made up of nearly equal parts proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
Ribosomes don’t have membranes, so they are also present in prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic ribosomes
are slightly larger than those in prokaryotes.

Ribosomes are where proteins are made, which is crucial for cell function. Because of this, many
ribosomes are found throughout the cell. When a ribosome is not active, it breaks apart into two smaller
units.

Endoplasmic Reticulum:-

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of connected channels that stretches from the cell
membrane to the nuclear envelope. It comes in two forms:

1. **Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)**: This has a rough appearance because it is covered in
ribosomes. The RER is involved in making proteins.

2. **Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)**: This type does not have ribosomes. The SER helps with fat
metabolism, transports materials within the cell, and detoxifies harmful chemicals that enter the cell.

Golgi Apparatus:-

An Italian physician named Camillo Golgi discovered a stack of flattened sacs in cells called cisternae. This
whole structure is known as the Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex, and it is present in both plant and
animal cells.

The Golgi apparatus modifies molecules from the rough ER and packs them into small sacs called Golgi
vesicles. These vesicles can be sent to different parts of the cell or released outside the cell as secretions.

Lysosomes:-

In the mid-twentieth century, Belgian scientist Christian René de Duve discovered lysosomes. These are
single-membrane organelles that contain powerful digestive enzymes. Lysosomes break down food and
waste materials within the cell. When they work, a lysosome fuses with a vacuole that holds the material
to be digested, and its enzymes break it down.

Cytoskeleton:-
The cytoskeleton is a network made up of microfilaments and microtubules. Microtubules are made of
tubulin protein and help cells maintain their shape. They are also key parts of cilia and flagella.
Microfilaments are thinner and made of actin protein; they help cells change their shape.
Centrioles:-

Animals and many unicellular organisms have hollow, cylindrical structures called centrioles. Each
centriole is made up of nine triplets of microtubules, which are made from tubulin protein. Animal cells
have two centrioles located near the outside of the nucleus, and together they are called a centrosome.
Their main job is to help form spindle fibers during cell division. In some cells, centrioles also help create
cilia and flagella.

Cell Wall:-

Not all living organisms have cell walls, like animals and many animal-like protists. A cell wall is a strong,
non-living structure found outside the plasma membrane. It gives shape, strength, protection, and
support to the living part of the cell (called protoplasm).

In plant cells, the cell wall contains various chemicals. The outer layer is called the primary wall, and its
most common component is cellulose. Some plant cells, like xylem cells, also have a thicker secondary
wall inside the primary wall, which contains lignin and other substances. There are small openings, called
plasmodesmata, in the cell walls of neighboring cells that connect their cytoplasm.

Fungi and many protists also have cell walls, but they do not contain cellulose. For example, fungi have
cell walls made of chitin. Prokaryotes have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, which is a mix of amino
acids and sugars.

Cell Organelles:-

Organelles are small structures within cells that perform dedicated functions. There are about a dozen
types of organelles commonly found in eukaryotic cells. We will go through the basic facts about
important cell organelles.

Plastids:-

Plastids are membrane-bound organelles found only in plant cells and photosynthetic protists (like
algae). There are three types: chloroplasts, leucoplasts, and chromoplasts.
Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, have a double membrane. The outer membrane is smooth, while the
inner membrane forms sacs called thylakoids. Stacks of thylakoids are called grana (plural: grana) and
float in the inner fluid of chloroplasts called stroma. Chloroplasts are where photosynthesis happens,
and they contain chlorophyll, the green pigment needed for this process.

Chromoplasts are another type of plastid. They contain colorful pigments and are found in flower petals
and fruits, helping to attract pollinators and spread seeds.

Leucoplasts are the third type. They are colorless and store starch, proteins, and lipids, and are found in
parts of the plant where food is stored.

Vacuoles:-

Vacuoles are fluid-filled organelles surrounded by a single membrane. Cells usually have many small
vacuoles in their cytoplasm. When a plant cell matures, its small vacuoles absorb water and merge to
form one large central vacuole, making the cell turgid.

Some cells take in materials from outside as food vacuoles and digest them with the help of lysosomes.
Unicellular organisms use contractile vacuoles to get rid of waste from their bodies.