Module I

BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
REFERENCES:
ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS by P.K.NAG 3RD EDITION
 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
• 0 th law – when a body A is in thermal
equilibrium with a body B, and also separately
with a body C, then B and C will be in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
• Significance- measurement of property called
temperature.
 A

B C
Evacuated tube

100o C Steam point

Thermometric property
50o C (physical characteristics of reference
body that changes with temperature) –
rise of mercury in the evacuated tube

0o C

bulb
Steam at
P =1
iceatm T= 30oC
 REASONS FOR NOT TAKING ICE POINT AND
STEAM POINT AS REFERENCE TEMPERATURES
• Ice melts fast so there is a difficulty in
maintaining equilibrium between pure ice and
air saturated water.
Pure ice

Air saturated water

• Extreme sensitiveness of steam point with

pressure
 TRIPLE POINT OF WATER AS NEW
REFERENCE TEMPERATURE
• State at which ice liquid water and water
vapor co-exist in equilibrium and is an easily
reproducible state. This point is arbitrarily
assigned a value 273.16 K
• i.e. T in K = 273.16 X / Xtriple point
• X- is any thermomertic property like P,V,R,rise
of mercury, thermo emf etc.
 OTHER TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
AND THERMOMETRIC PROPERTIES
• Constant volume gas thermometers-
pressure of the gas
• Constant pressure gas thermometers-
volume of the gas
• Electrical resistance thermometer-
resistance of the wire
• Thermocouple-
thermo emf
 CELCIUS AND KELVIN(ABSOLUTE) SCALE
H2
Thermometer
Ar
T in oC
N2
Pg O2

gas

-273 oC
(0 K)

Absolute pressure P
This absolute 0K cannot be obtatined (Pg+Patm)
since it violates third law.
 SYSTEMS, BOUNDARY AND
SURROUNDING
Systems are any matter/ space on which our
attention is focussed
Systems are of three types
• closed system – no matter interaction with the
system, but there is energy interaction.
• Open system – there is matter as well as energy
interaction with the system.
• Isolated system- there is neither matter nor
energy interaction with the system. System and
surroundings together constitutes an isolated
system.
 CONTROL MASS / CLOSED SYSTEM E.G.
moving boundary work output

Surroundings
(piston + cylinder)
system

System (amount of gas)

boundary
Heat input

fuel
 generator
OPEN SYSTEM E.G.
Stationary boundary
Work output System (stationary space) boundary

turbine Hydraulic turbine(pelton wheel)

nozzle penstock

Water + energy
input
Water + energy
output
Control volume/ open system
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Characteristics of a system by which its
physical condition may be described are called
properties of a system. These are macroscopic
in nature(physically measurable).
E.g. pressure, volume, temperature etc
• When all the properties of a system have a
definite value, the system is said to exist at a
definite state.
 STATE OF A SYSTEM
P

Low pressure
Mean pressure P2
High pressure

P1

V2 V1 V

Any operation in which one or more of the properties of a system changes is called a
change of state
INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
• Intensive- independent of mass in the system
• Extensive- dependent of mass in the system
Mass= m/2
Pressure = P
Temp = T
Volume= V/2
Density,
Mass/Volume = ρ
Specific volume,
Volume /mass =υ

Capital letter denotes Extensive property (except P and T)

and small letter denotes specific property(Extensive property per unit mass)
 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE
• Cycle consists of a series of change of state
such that final state is same as the initial state
 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
systems
• A system consisting of only single phase is
called homogeneous system

steam

heterogeneous

water homogeneous

• A system consisting of more than one phase is

heterogeneous system
 WORK
HEAT AND
ENERGY
 ENERGY
ENERGY IN
ENERGY IN STORAGE
TRANSIT/MOTION 1. Energy that is stored in the
1. Energy that crosses the system
boundary of the system 2. Energy in form of KE, PE,
2. Energy in the form of heat or internal energy (sum of all
work. forms of molecular energy)
3. Specified as amount of energy 3. Specify as change in energy
transfer e.g. Change in KE, PE, etc
e.g. amount of heat 4. These are properties of a
transferred, amount of work system like T,P,V, mass etc
transferred. 5. They are point functions
4. They are not properties of a i.e. they are independent of
system. the path followed by the
5. They are path function i.e. system during a process.
amount of energy transfer
depends on the path
followed by the system during
a process
 DEFINING A PATH

100 N
P

10 N
Path unknown
Apiston
=1 m2
(shown by broken line)

P= 110 N/m22
10 N/m
V
Now the system and surroundings Now the system and surroundings are not
are in equilibrium in equilibrium
 SPONTANEOUS PROCESS

• fast process
• Path cannot be defined
• There is dissipation effects like friction
• System or surroundings can be restored to their
initial state.
• System may not follow the same path if we
reverse the process
• Spontaneous process are also called irreversible
process.
 DEFINING A PATH
DECADES ARE
At last on a December 31 st 2090
P PASSING BY

10 N
Path known
Apiston
(shown by a
=1 m2
continuous line)

P= 110
10 N/m
N/m22 2
10.01
10.02 N/m
V
Now also systemand
the system andsurroundings
surroundingsare
arein Departure of
Quasistatic process-
state ofprocess
the system
in which
fromsystem
almost in equilibrium
equilibrium and surroundingsequilibrium
thermodynamic are almostwill
in equilibrium
be
throughout thesmall
infinitesimally process .
 QUASI STATIC PROCESS

• Infinitely slow process

• Path can be defined
• There is no dissipation effects like friction
• Both System and surroundings can be restored to
their initial state.
• System follows the same path if we reverse the
process
• Quasi static process are also called reversible
process
 POINT FUNCTION/STATE FUNCTION
Cyclic integral(integral over a cycle)
of any point function(property) is = 0

P
oʃ dV = 0

V2 dV V1
V
ʃ dV = V2 –V1 = ΔV These are
called exact
∫dP = P2 – P1 = ΔP
differential
∫dT = T2 –T1 = ΔT functions.
 PATH FUNCTION Path B has more area than
curve B so work required in
So heat and work are path functions.
Also they are not exact differentials P path B is more than A even
though the end states are
same for A and B
B

A
P

F
dx

V2 V1
V
P dV

Then the total work required to move

the piston from V1 to V2 , W = ∫ PdV =
Small amount of work required to move the piston area under PV curve
through a distance dx = δW= F dx =P A dx = PdV
 Additional comments on heat and
work transfer
• Heat transfer to a system is taken as positive
• Heat transfer from a system is taken as negative
• Work transfer to a system is taken as negative
• Work transfer from a system is taken as positive

system
FIRST LAW
 Work o/p

• Law of conservation of energy-

Energy can neither be created
nor destroyed. It can only be
converted from one form to Increase in
another, here Q= W + ΔU internal
energy

Q-W = ΔU Heat i/p

δQ-δW=dU
In differential form
fuel
 Specific heat (c)
• Defined as amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of any
substance through a unit degree. Its SI unit is
J/kg K or J/kgoC
• i.e. c = Q/m ΔT or c = δQ /m dT
• δ Q= m c dT
• Q = m c ΔT
 Specific heat at constant volume(cV)
• Defined as amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of any
substance through a unit degree in a contant
volume process. Its SI unit is J/kg K or J/kgoC
• i.e. cV = Q/m ΔT or cV = δQ /m dT
• δ Q= m cV dT
• Q = m cV ΔT
 final
internal
energy
U2

Initial
internal
energy
U1

δQ-δW=dU
δQ=dU
heat
m cV dT=dU
cV = (du/dT)V
Specific heat at constant pressure(cP)
• Defined as amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of any
substance through a unit degree in a constant
pressure process. Its SI unit is J/kg K or J/kgoC
• i.e. cP = Q/m ΔT or cP = δQ /m dT
• δ Q= m cP dT
• Q = m cP ΔT
Specific heat at constant pressure( cP)
moving boundary work output
W δW=PdV

δQ-δW=dU
P δQ - PdV=dU
m cP dT=dU + PdV
Enthalpy H = U + PV
Heat input h=u+Pv
dh = du +d(pv)
In a constant pressure process
vdP=0
So dh = du + pdv
fuel
cP = (dh/dT)p
AN EXPERIMENT BY JOULES ON FIRST LAW

motor
Work i/p
stirrer 2

Fluid
system Heat o/p

1
Heat insulation
water
Joule found that heat output in process 2-1 was exactly equal to work
input in process 1-2
 Joules experiment cont.
Process 1-2
• Work transfer = W1-2
• heat transfer Q1-2 = 0 J (heat insulation wall)
Process 2-1
• Work transfer W2-1= 0 J (no work done)
• Heat transfer =Q2-1

• He found that W1-2 = Q2-1

• I.e. in the cycle 1-2-1, W1-2 + W2-1 = Q1-2 + Q2-1
• in a cycle net work transfer = net heat transfer
• i.e. in a cycle Σ W = Σ Q
• In differential form , in a cycle
∫ δQ
oʃ δW = o
 INTERNAL ENERGY A PROPERTY?
From the first law we found
that,
In a cycle
P
2 C ΣQ = ΣW
Consider cycle 1-A-2-B-1
QA +QB = WA + WB
QA –WA = - QB + WB
B ΔUA = -ΔUB
Consider cycle 1-A-2-C-1
A QA +QC = WA + WC
QA-WA = -QC + WC
1 ΔUA = -ΔUC

V
i.e. ΔUB = ΔUC
i.e. U is independent of path followed, so U is a
property
 Practice problem 1(p66)
• A stationary mass of gas is compressed
without friction from an initial state of 0.3 m3
and 0.105 MPa to a final state of 0.15 m3 and
0.105 MPa. The pressure remaining constant
during the process. There is a transfer of 37.6
kJ of heat from the gas during the process.
How much does the internal energy of the gas
change?
-21.85 kJ
 Practice problem 2(p66)
• When a system is taken from state a to state b, in the
fig along the path acb, 84 kJ of heat flows into the
system and system does 32 kJ of work.
1. How much will the heat that flows into the system
along the path adb be, if the work done is 10.5 kJ? 62.5 kJ
2. When the system is returned from b to a along the
curved path, the work done on the system is 21 kJ.
Does the system absorb or liberate heat, and how
much of the heat is absorbed or liberated? -73 kJ
3. If Ua= 0 kJ and Ud= 42 kJ, find the heat absorbed in
the process ad and db. 52.5 kJ
10 kJ
P c b

a d

V
 Practice problem 3(p67)
• A piston and cylinder machine contains a fluid
system which passes through a complete cycle
of four processes. During a cycle, the sum of
all heat transfer is -170 KJ. The system
completes 100 cycles per minute. Complete
the following table showing the method for
each item, and compute the net rate of work
input in KW.
Process Q(KJ/min) W(KJ/min) ΔE(KJ/min)
a-b 0 2170 -----
-2170
b-c 21000 0 -----
21000
c-d -2100 -----
34500 -36600
d-a -----
-35900 -53670
----- -----
17770

Wnet = -283.3 kW
 Practice problem 4(p68)
• Internal energy of a certain substance is given by the following
eqn, -----------------u= 3.56 pυ + 84
Where u is in kJ/kg, P in kPa, υ in m3/kg.
A system composed of 3 kg of this substance expands from
initial pressure of 500 kPa and a volume of 0.22 m3 to a final
pressure of 100 kPa in a process in which pressure and
volume is related by Pυ1.2 = Constant.
• If the expansion is quasistatic find Q, ΔU and W for the
process. 36.5 kJ 91 kJ 127.5 kJ
• In another process the same system expands from same initial
state to same final state as in previous part, but the heat
transfer in this case is 30 kJ. Find the work transfer for this
process. 121 kJ
• Explain the difference in work transfer in both processes.
 Practice problem 5(p69)
• A fluid is confined in a cylinder by a spring loaded,
frictionless piston so pressure in the fluid is a
linear function of volume (P= a +bV). The internal
energy of the fluid is given by the equation
U= 34 + 3.15 PV
if the fluid changes from an initial state of 170 kPa,
0.03 m3 to final state of 400kPa, 0.06m3, with no
work other than done on the piston, find the
direction and magnitude of work and heat
transfer.
W= 8.55 kJ
Q= 68.05 kJ
 Practice problem 6(p70)
• A stationary cycle goes through a cycle shown in
the figure comprising the following processes.
• Process 1-2 isochoric (constant Volume) heat
addition of 235KJ/kg.
• Process 2-3 adiabatic (no heat transfer)
expansion to its original pressure with loss of 70
KJ/kg in internal energy.
• Process 3-1 isobaric (constant Pressure)
compression to its original volume with heat
rejection of 200 KJ/kg.
• Check whether this cycle follows 1st law.
Total Q = Total W = 35 kJ/kg
LENOIR CYCLE (PULSE JET ENGINE CYCLE)

P 2

1 3

V
 First law applied to open systems
Q Control surfaces
2

Mass (flow energy +

1 Kinetic energy +
Potential energy +
Internal energy )2

W
mass(flow energy+
Control volume
Kinetic energy + Q + m( FE + KE + PE + U )1 = m( FE + KE + PE + U )2 + W
potential energy +
internal energy)1 In a continuous process let m be the amount of matter passing through
the control volume in time t and Q J and W J be the amount of heat and
work transfer in time t. then above equation becomes.
Q’ +m’(FE+KE+PE+U)1 = m’(FE+KE+PE+U)2 +W’ ----------------(SFEE)
m’= 1 kg/s m’ = ρ A v kg/s = constant
v = 2 m/s
P= 0.3 MPa Law of conservation of mass
1
ρ = 1 Kg/m3
A= 0.5 m2
U= 1400 kJ/kg Shaft work
output in
KW
?

Q’
m’= 1 kg/s
v= 1 m/s
2 P = 0.1 MPa
ρ = 1 Kg/m3
A = 1 m2
U= 420 kJ/Kg
 Practice problem 7(p88)
• Air flows steadily at a rate of 0.5 kg/s through an
air compressor at 7 m/s velocity, 100 kPa
pressure and 0.95 m 3/kg volume and leaving at 5
m/s, 700 kPa and 0.19 m3/kg. internal energy of
air leaving is 90 kJ/kg greater than that of air
entering. Cooling water in the compressor jackets
absorbs heat from the air at the rate of 58 kW.
• Compute the rate of work input to the air in kW
• Find the ratio of inlet pipe diameter to outlet pipe
diameter.
 Practice problem 8(p90)
• In a steady flow apparatus, 135 kJ of work is done
by each kg of fluid. The specific volume of the
fluid, pressure and velocity at the inlet are 0.37
m3/kg, 600kPa and 16 m/s. The inlet is 32m
above the floor and the discharge pipe is at the
floor level. The discharge conditions are 0.62 m3
/kg, 100 kPa, and 270m/s. the total heat loss
between inlet and discharge is 9kJ/kg of the fluid.
In flowing through the apparatus, does the
specific internal energy increases or decreases
and by how much?
 Practice problem 9(p90)
• In a steam power station steam flows steadily
through a 0.2 m diameter pipeline from the
boiler to the turbine. At the boiler end, the
steam conditions are found to be, P=4 MPa,
T=400oc , h (specific enthalpy, u + P/ρ)= 3213.6
kJ/kg and υ= 0.084 m3/kg. there is a heat loss of
8.5 kJ/kg from the pipeline. Calculate the steam
flow rate.
 Practice problem 10(p91)
• A certain water heater operates under steady
flow conditions receiving 4.2 kg/s of water at
75oc temperature, enthalpy 313.93kJ/kg. the
water is heated by mixing with steam which is
supplied to the heater at temperature 100.2 oC
and enthalpy 2676 kJ/kg. the mixture leaves
the heater as liquid water at temperature
100oC and enthalpy 419 kJ/kg. how much
steam must be supplied to the heater per
hour?
SECOND
LAW
 CYCLIC DEVICES
• Heat engine-- is a device working in a cycle in which there is a net
heat transfer to the system and net work transfer from the system.
E.g. IC engines, power plants
• Heat pump – is a device working in a cycle in which there is a net
work transfer to the system and net heat transfer from the system.

FOR CONTINUOUS HEAT OR WORK TRANSFER A DEVICE

SHOULD WORK IN A CYCLE
Hydraulic turbine
 HEAT ENGINE CYCLE e.g.
Heat sink (atm air ) at P
lower temperature T2

Heat supply

V
Heat source at higher temperature T1
 ACTUAL OPERATION OF A

Spark plug
Air +fuel
PETROL ENGINE

ignition

exhaust
Suction

Idealized petrol engine V

cycle (Otto cycle)
 HEAT PUMP CYCLE e.g.
Heat sink (room air ) at P
lower temperature T2

Heat rejection

Heat supplied
AIR at≈ 300 K
V
Heat source (atm air) at lower temperature T1
 KELVIN PLANK STATEMENT OF
SECOND LAW
• It is impossible for a heat engine to produce net work in a
complete cycle. If it exchanges heat only with bodies at a single
fixed temperatures.
T1 –hot body temp
T1 T2 – cold body temp

T1 Q1 – heat supplied
from ignition
Qnet
HE W = Q1 - Q2
HE Wnet
Q2 – heat rejected to
atmospheric air

T2
Impossible according to second law. Possible according to
But possible according to the first law second law as well as first law
 PERFORMANCE PARAMETER OF HEAT
ENGINES
• Ratio of desired effect (net work output) to effort spent
(heat supplied)
• Efficiency
ɳ = (net work output / heat supplied) in a cycle
= W / Q1
= (Q1 - Q2 )/ Q1 = 1- Q2 / Q1
from this we find that no heat engine can have 100%
efficiency.
W is also called available energy i.e. maximum possible
net work that can be obtained from an engine.
 CLAUSIUS STATEMENT OF SECOND
LAW
• It is impossible to construct a device which, operating in a
cycle, will produce no effect other than the transfer of heat
from a cooler to a hotter body.
T2
T2
T1 – cold body temp Q2 – heat rejected
Q T2 – hot body temp to room air
HP W = Q 2 – Q1
HP
Q1 – heat supplied from
Q outside air
T1
T1
Impossible according to second law. Possible according to
But possible according to the first law second law as well as first law
PERFORMANCE PARAMETER OF HEAT
PUMPS
• Ratio of desired effect (heat supplied to room) to
effort spent (net work input)
• Coefficient of performance,
COP= (heat rejected by system/ net work input) in a
cycle
= Q2 / W
= Q2 / (Q2 - Q1 )
from this we find that COP of heat pumps is always
greater than unity.
EXPALAINING IRREVERSIBILITY USING
SECOND LAW
• Heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference.

500 K
medium
500 K

possible HP W
Now it is
operating as
100 K 100 K a heat pump
which
doesn’t need
So heat transfer through a finite Possible? work input.
temperature gradient is a
spontaneous process
 EFFICIENCY OF A CARNOT ENGINE
CYCLE (A Reversible Cycle)
• Efficiency of a reversible heat engine in which
heat is received solely at temp T1 from a heat
source reservoir and heat is rejected solely at
temperature T2 to a heat sink reservoir is given
P by ɳ = 1- Q2 / Q1 = 1- T2/T1
Isothermal compression (heat output+ work input) at T2

Adiabatic compression (no heat transfer + work input)

Isothermal expansion ( heat input + work output) at T1

Adiabatic expansion ( no heat transfer + work output)

V
 SOURCE RESERVOIRS AND SINK
RESERVOIRS EXAMPLES
Heat Source reservoir - is defined as a large body of
infinite heat capacity which is capable of supplying an
unlimited quantity of heat without change in
temperature
E.g. Sun

Heat Sink reservoir - is defined as a large body of

infinite heat capacity which is capable of absorbing an
unlimited quantity of heat without change in
temperature
E.g. atmospheric air.
 Practice problem 11(p130)
• A cyclic heat engine operates between a
source temperature of 800oC and sink
temperature of 30oC. What is the least rate of
heat rejection per net output of the engine in
KW ? 0.392 kW
 Practice problem 12(p130)
• A domestic refrigerator maintains a temperature of
-15oC. The ambient air temperature is 30oC. If the
heat leaks into the freezer at a continuous rate of
1.75 kJ/s what is the least power necessary to pump
this heat out continuously? 0.31 kW
 Practice problem 13
• It is proposed that solar energy can be used to
warm a large collector plate. This energy would in
turn be transferred as heat to a fluid within a
heat engine, and the engine would reject energy
as heat to atmosphere. Experiments indicate that
about 1880 kJ/m2 h of energy can be collected
when the plate is operating at 90oC. Estimate the
minimum collector area that would be required
for a plant producing 1kW of useful shaft power.
Atmospheric temperature may be assumed to be
20oC. 10 m2
 Practice problem 14
• A reversible heat engine in a satellite operates
between a hot reservoir at T1. and a radiating
panel at T2 . The radiation from the panel is
proportional to its area and to T24 . For a given
work output and value of T1 show that the area of
the panel will be minimum when T2/T1 = 0.75.
• Determine the minimum area of the panel for an
output of 1 kW if the constant of proportionality
is 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4 and T1= 1000K.
0.1672 m2
 GRADES OF ENERGY
High Grade energy Low grade energy
Mechanical work Heat or thermal
(Because in a heat pump all of the ( because in a heat engine a portion of heat
mechanical work can be converted energy is available as net work- second law)
to heat energy)
Heat derived from nuclear fission or fusion
Electric energy
Heat derived from the combustion of fossil
Water power fuels

Wind power

Kinetic energy of a jet

Tidal power
The bulk of high grade energy is obtained from sources of low grade energy
Complete conversion of low grade energy to high grade energy is impossible by
second law
 ENTROPY
(Measure of irreversibility of process)
• Efficiency of a Carnot cycle, P
ɳ = 1- Q2 / Q1 = 1- T2/T1
Q1 - Heat supplied to engine
T1 - Constant temperature
at which heat is supplied
Q2 - Heat rejected by engine
T2 - Constant temperature V
at which heat is rejected
Q2 / Q1 = T2 / T1
Q1 / T1 = Q2 / T2
Q1 / T1 - Q2 / T2 = 0

Σ cycle Q/T = 0 for a Carnot engine cycle.

i.e.
∫ δQ = 0 ( for a Carnot engine cycle)
O T
P Approximation of any
2
reversible process with a
series of infinite number of
c adiabatic and isothermal
b
processes

a
1

V
 Considering any reversible cycle
P

Approximation of any cycle with a

series of infinite number of
adiabatic and isothermal processes V
• So for this reversible cycle also we can write

∫ δQ = 0 ( for a reversible cycle)

O T
• We know that cyclic integral of any property = 0
• So δQ is a property , this property we call Entropy S.
T T 2

• δQ = T dS
• Q= ∫T ds (area under T-S curve) 1
for a reversible process. S
 CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY

∫ δQ = 0 ( for a reversible cycle)

O T

∫ δQ < 0 ( for an irreversible cycle)

O T

∫ δQ > 0 ( for an impossible cycle, since it

O T
violates second law)
 ENTROPY CHANGE DURING A PROCESS
2

• For a reversible process, dS = δQ

T 1

∫
S2 –S1= δQ
T 2
S

•For an irreversible process, dS > δQ

T
S –S >∫
2 1
δQ 1
T S
•For an impossible process, dS < δQ
T
∫
S2 –S1 < δQ
T
, since it violates second law)
PRINCIPLE OF INCREASE OF ENTROPY
• For any process we can write dS >= δQ/T
• For an isolated system, there is no energy transfer to or
from the system so δQ=0
• So dS >= 0 for an isolated system
• A system comprising of both system and surrounding is
called isolated system or a universe
• i.e (dS )universe>= 0
• (dS )system + (dS )surrounding >= 0
• ΔS system + ΔSsurrounding >= 0
• i.e Entropy of an isolated system or universe will
never decrese.
• for a reversible process (dS )universe =0
i.e. ΔS system + ΔSsurrounding = 0
EXPALAINING IRREVERSIBILITY USING
ENTROPY PRINCIPLE
• Heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference
Entropy change of
the system,
Hot body T2 surrounding
ΔS system = Q / T1
Entropy change of the
medium

Q surrounding,
ΔS surroundings = -Q / T2
Entropy change of the universe,
T1 system ΔS system + ΔS surroundings =
Cold body
Q (T2- T1 )/(T1 T2) > 0
So heat transfer through a finite Conversely if we consider Q flowing from
temperature gradient is a T1 to T2 , we will get ΔS universe < 0
spontaneous process which makes it an impossible process
 Practice problem 15(p171)
• One kg of water is brought in contact with a heat
reservoir at 373K. When the water has reached
373 K, find the entropy change of water, the heat
reservoir and of the universe. (take specific heat, c of
the water as 4.187 kJ/kg K) 0.183 kJ/K
• If water is heated from 273 to 373 K by first
bringing it in contact with a reservoir at 323 K and
then with a reservoir at 373 K, what will the
entropy change of the universe be? 0.098 kJ/K
• How will you propose to heat the water from 273
to 373 K to make it a reversible process ?
 WHY WE ARE BOTHERED TO MAKE A
PROCESS REVERSIBLE ?
• Carnot’s theorem- states that all heat engines
operating between a given constant temperature
source and a given constant temperature sink none
has a higher efficiency than a reversible engine.
• Available work, Wnet from a cyclic engine
decreases with irreversibility.
AVAILABILITY
(The reason we are bothered
about irreversibility)
RELATION BETWEEN
AVAILABILITY AND
ENTROPY
A REVERSIBLE ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
T Source T System
T1 =1000 T2=1000

Same
area

S S
1000 K ΔS ΔS’

Q=Heat given by source = Heat absorbed by the system

1000 K Q= T1 ΔS = T2 ΔS’
Since T1 = T2 ΔS = ΔS’
AN IRREVERSIBLE ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
T Source T System
T1=1000

T2=700

Same
area
S S
ΔS ΔS’
700 K
Q=Heat given by source = Heat absorbed by the system
1000 K Q= T1 ΔS = T2 ΔS’
Since T1 > T2 ΔS’ > ΔS
 AVAILABLE WORK FROM A
REVERSIBLE CARNOT CYCLE

T1 =1000 T2=1000

Available
work

T0=300

300K ΔS ΔS’

Let Heat given by source = Heat absorbed by the system

1000 K = Qi = 14000 J
i.e. Qi= T1 ΔS = T2 ΔS’ = 14000 J
ΔS=14 J/K and ΔS’= 14 J/K
300 KK
1000 In this case heat rejected Qo = To ΔS’ = 4200 J
In this case W = Qi – Qo = 14000 - 4200 = 9800 J
 AVAILABLE WORK FROM AN
IRREVERSIBLE CARNOT CYCLE
AVILABILITY DECREASES WITH IRREVERSIBILITY

T1=1000
T2= 700
Available
work
T0=300

300K ΔS ΔS’

Let Heat given by source = Heat absorbed by the system

700 K = Qi = 14000 J
i.e. Qi= T1 ΔS = T2 ΔS’ = 14000 J
ΔS=14 J/K and ΔS’= 20 J/K
300 KK
1000 In this case heat rejected Qo = To ΔS’ = 6000 J
In this case W = Qi – Qo = 14000 - 6000 = 8000 J
 Practice problem 16(p227)
• In a certain process, a vapor while condensing
at 420oC, transfer heat to water evaporating at
250 oC. The resulting steam is used in a power
cycle which rejects heat at 35oC. What is the
fraction of available energy in the heat
transferred from the process vapor at 420oC
that is lost due to irreversible heat transfer at
250oC ? 0.26
IDEAL GAS AND
REAL GAS
EQUATIONS
 Ideal gas equation
Derived from experiments at macroscopic level
• Avogadro’s law- Equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of
temperature and pressure contains equal no of molecules, (one mole of any
gas at 1 atm and 273K occupies a volume of 22.4L)
V  n (at constant T and P)
• Boyle’s Law – V  1/P (at constant absolute T and n)
• Charle’s Law – V  T (at constant absolute P and n)
• i.e. P V  n T ,
• PV = n R’ T
• which leads to constant of proportionality, R’- universal gas constant.
• R’= PV / nT = 1 atm 22.4L / 1mole 273K = 8.314 kJ/kmole K
• Pv’ =R’T where v’ is molar specific volume m3/kmol
• P V = m R T R-characteristic gas constant = R’/Molecular mass
• A hypothetical gas which obeys the general gas equation at all ranges of
temperatures and pressures is called an ideal gas.
 KINETIC MOLECULAR(MICROSCOPIC) THEORY
FOR EXPLAINING IDEAL BEHAVIOR (FROM WIKIPEDIA)
• The gas consists of very small particles known as molecules. This smallness of their size is
such that the total volume of the individual gas molecules added up is negligible compared to
the volume of the smallest open ball containing all the molecules. This is equivalent to stating
that the average distance separating the gas particles is large compared to their size.
• These particles have the same mass.
• The number of molecules is so large that statistical treatment can be applied.
• These molecules are in constant, random, and rapid motion.
• The rapidly moving particles constantly collide among themselves and with the walls of the
container. All these collisions are perfectly elastic. This means, the molecules are considered
to be perfectly spherical in shape, and elastic in nature.
• Except during collisions, the interactions among molecules are negligible. (That is, they exert
no forces on one another.)
• The average kinetic energy of the gas particles depends only on the absolute temperature of
the system. The kinetic theory has its own definition of temperature, not identical with the
thermodynamic definition.
• The time during collision of molecule with the container's wall is negligible as compared to
the time between successive collisions.
• Because they have mass, the gas molecules will be affected by gravity.
CAUSES OF DEVIATION OF A REAL GAS
FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOR At high temperature
and low pressure
•Total volume of
individual molecules
negligible

•Intermolecular
attraction or repulsion
negligible

At high pressure and

low temperature
•Total volume of
individual molecules
significant

•Intermolecular
attraction or repulsion
significant
 A REAL GAS EQUATION
Van der Walls gas equation
• (P + a/v’2) (v’-b)= R’ T or (P + a/v2) (v-b)= R T
• P is absolute pressure in Pa
• v’- molar specific volume m3/kmol
• v- specific volume m3/kg
• a/v’2- force of cohesion
• b- co-volume
• R’- universal gas constant-8.314 kJ/kmol K
• R- characteristic gas constant- R’ / molecular mass in kg/kmol
• Real gas conforms more closely with van der Walls Equation of
state, particularly at higher pressures, but is not obeyed at all
ranges of pressure and temperatures.
 Practice problem
• Atmospheric air at 1 atm pressure is having a
density of 1 kg/m3, specific heat ratio of 1.4, and
specific heat at constant pressure 1 kJ/kg
• Van der Walls gas constants for air is given by
a=1.368 bar (m3/kmol)2 b= 0.037 m3/ kmol
• Find characteristic gas constant
• Find the temperature of the air using ideal gas
equation and real gas equation.
 COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
• Z = Pv’/R’T
• Z- compressibility factor
• P- absolute pressure, Pa
• v’- molar specific volume, m3/mol
• R’- universal gas constant, 8.314 J/mol K
• T- absolute temperature, K
• For an ideal gas Z=1
• But for real gas Z not=1,
Real gas equation can be used that time but we need detailed data
like value of a and b.
• when detailed data on a particular gas is not available we can use
experiment data charts called “Generalized Compressibility chart”.
 GENERALIZED COMPRESSIBILITY
CHART
• Reduced property of a substance is the ratio of a property to its
critical property.
• Reduced pressure Pr = P/PC
• Reduced temperature Tr= T/Tc
• Reduced molar specific volume v’r= v’/v’C
• Reduced specific volume vr= v/vC
• Where subscript C denotes critical point(pressure and temperature at
which latent heat=0) which is a unique property for a substance.
• Compressibility factor Z= P v’/R’ T or Z= P v/R T
• Plot of Z versus Pr for different values of Tr for different gases is
called Generalized compressibility chart.
• A single Generalized compressibility chart can be used for almost all
gases.
GENERALIZED COMPRESSIBILITY
CHART
 Practice problem 17(p346)
• A gas Neon has a molecular weight of 20.183
kg/kmol and its critical temperature, pressure and
volume are 44.5 K, 2.73 MPa and 0.0416 m3/kg
mol. [Reading from the compressibility chart given
for a reduced pressure of 2 and a reduced
temperature of 1.3, the compressibility factor Z is
0.7]. what are the corresponding specific volume,
pressure, temperature and reduced volume?
P= 5.46 MPa, T= 57.85 K, v=3.05 x 10 -3 m3/kg, vr=1.48
Z

0.7

Pr
2
INTERNAL ENERGY AND ENTHALPY OF
AN IDEAL GAS
• Internal energy U and enthalpy H of an ideal gas is a function of
temperature alone
cP /cV = ɣ
• U =f(T)
given by, U= m cV T and u = cV T
cP - cV = R
i.e. change in internal energy of an ideal gas, cV = R/(ɣ-1)
ΔU = m cV ΔT and Δu = cV ΔT
dU = m cV dT and du = cV dT cP = ɣR/(ɣ-1)
• H= U +PV = m cV T + m R T = f(T)
given by, H = m cP T and h= cP T
i.e. change in enthalpy of an ideal gas,
ΔH = m cPΔT and Δh = cP ΔT
dH = m cP dT and dh = cP dT
 WORK DONE
HEAT TRANSFER
AND
CHANGE IN PROPERTIES
DURING A
REVERSIBLE PROCESS
UNDERGONE BY AN
IDEAL GAS
A CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS
(ISOCHORIC, V=C, dV=0)
P T
b b

a a
V S
Pa Va /Ta = Pb Vb/Tb
Pa/Pb = Ta / Tb
SOURCE Applying first law δQ - δW = dU
Here δW= P dV =0, so δQ= dU= m cV dT
Qab = m cV (Tb –Ta)
TdS = m cV dT
dS = m cV dT/T
i.e. ΔS =Sb – Sa = m cV ln (Tb/Ta)
A CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS
(ISOBARIC, P=C, dP=0)
P T

a b
a

V S
Pa Va /Ta = Pb Vb/Tb
Va/Vb = Ta / Tb
SOURCE Applying first law δQ - δW = dU
δW= pdV i.e. Wab = P(Vb – Va)
δQ= pdV + dU= dh = m cP dT i.e. Qab = m cP (Tb – Ta)
Tds = m cP dT
dS = m cP dT/T
i.e. ΔS = Sb – Sa = m cP ln (Tb/Ta)
A CONSTANT TEMPERATURE PROCESS
(ISOTHERMAL, T=C, dT=0, dU=0)
P T

a
a b

Pa Va /Ta = Pb Vb/Tb V S
Pa/Pb = Vb / Va i.e PV =PaVa = PbVb =C i.e. P=V/C
Applying first law δQ - δW = dU=0
SOURCE δW= PdV
δQ= PdV i.e. Qab = C ∫ abdV/V = PV ln (Vb / Va) =
Qab = mR T ln(Vb / Va) = Wab
TdS = PdV = C dV/V
dS = C/T dV/V
i.e. ΔS = Sb – Sa = mR ln(Vb / Va)
A CONSTANT ENTROPY PROCESS
(ISENTROPIC, S=C, dS=0, δQ=0)
P T
a
a

b b
V S
Pa Va /Ta = Pb Vb/Tb
PVɣ =PaVaɣ = PbVbɣ =C i.e. P=Vɣ/C
Applying first law δQ - δW = dU
δQ= 0
δW= PdV=dU i.e. Wab = C ∫ab dV/V = PV
ɣ ɣ (Vb-ɣ+1 -Va-ɣ+1)
Wab = mR (Tb - Ta)
TdS = 0
dS = 0
i.e. ΔS = S – S =0
 IDEAL GAS P-V-T RELATIONSHIPS FOR
ANY REVERSIBLE PROCESS a –b
• Any reversible process can be represented by
relation PVn= C
• Pa /Pb =(Vb /Va)n
• From ideal gas relation, Pa Va /Ta = Pb Vb /Tb
• Ta/ Tb = (Pa / Pb) (Va /Vb)
• i.e. Ta /Tb = (Vb /Va)n (Va /Vb) = (Vb /Va)n-1
Va / Vb = (Tb /Ta)1/(n-1)
• Also Ta /Tb = (Pa /Pb )(n-1)/n
(Pa /Pb ) = (Ta /Tb) n/(n-1) n=0 , for isobaric process
n= 1, for isothermal process
n= ɣ , for adiabatic(isentropic process)
n= α , for isochoric process
 P-V AND T-S DIAGRAM FOR VARIOUS
REVERSIBLE PROCESSES, PV n= C
COMPRESSION EXPANSION
P T
n= α n= ɣ n= α
n= ɣ

n= 1 n= 0

n= 0 O n= 1
O

HEAT REJECTION HEAT ADDITION

V S
Consider processes starting from O
 POLYTROPIC PROCESS PVn=C
(generalized Process)
• PVn = C Pa Van = Pb Vbn Polytropic index, n=(log Pa – log Pb)/(log Vb –log Va)
• P=C/Vn
• Wab = ∫ab PdV =∫ab C dV/Vn =C∫ab dV/Vn = P Vn (Vb-n+1 - Va-n+1) /(1-n)
i.e. Wab = m R (Tb – Ta)/(1-n) n not=1
• Applying first law Qab –Wab = ΔUab = m cV (Tb –Ta)
• Qab =Wab + ΔUab =m R (Tb – Ta)/(1-n) + m cV (Tb –Ta)
• For an ideal gas cV = R/(ɣ-1)
• i.e. Qab = m R (Tb – Ta)/(1-n) + m R (Tb –Ta)/(ɣ-1)
• = mR (Tb – Ta) [1/(1-n) + 1/(ɣ-1)]
i.e. Qab = m R (ɣ-n) (Tb – Ta ) / (1-n) (ɣ-1) n not=1
δQ – δW = dU
• δQ = δW + dU = PdV + m cV dT
• i.e TdS =PdV + m cV dT i.e. dS = PdV/T + m cV dT/T = m R dV/V +m cV dT/T
• ΔS = Sb – Sa = m R ln(Vb/Va) + m cV ln(Tb/Ta)
• cV = R /ɣ-1 also Vb/Va = (Tb/Ta) 1/(1-n)
• So ΔS = Sb – Sa = m R ln(Tb/Ta) /(1-n) + m R ln(Tb/Ta) /(ɣ-1) =
• m R ln(Tb/Ta) [1/(1-n) + 1/(ɣ-1) ]
• i.e. Sb – Sa = m R (ɣ-n) ln(Tb/Ta) / (1-n) (ɣ-1 ) n not=1
 Practice problem 18(p337)
• A certain gas has cP =1.968 and cV = 1.507 kJ/kg K. find its
molecular weight and characteristic gas constant.
• A constant volume chamber of 0.3 m3 capacity contains 2
kg of this gas at 5oC. Heat is transferred to the gas until
temperature is 100oC. Find the work done, the heat
transferred, and the change in internal energy enthalpy and
entropy.

R= 0.461 kJ/kg K, M= 18.04 kg/kg mol, W=0, Q= 286.33 kJ, ΔU = 286.33 kJ

ΔH = 373 kJ, ΔS = 0.921 kJ/K
 Practice problem 19(p338)
• Show that for an ideal gas, the slope of the
constant volume line on the T-S diagram is
more than that of the constant pressure line.
Hint: Tds = du + PdV = cV dT + PdV
i.e. (dT/dS)v = T/cV
(dT/dS)P= T/cP
since cV < cP (dT/dS)v > (dT/dS)P
 Practice problem 20(P339)
• 0.5 kg of air is compressed reversibly and
adiabatically from 80kPa, 60oC to 0.4 Mpa, and is
then expanded at constant pressure to the
original volume. Sketch these processes on the
P-V and T-S diagram. Compute the heat transfer
and work transfer for the whole path.

W total = 93.6 kJ, Qtotal = 527.85 kJ

 Practice problem 21(p342)
• A mass of 0.25 kg of an ideal gas has a pressure of
300kPa, a temperature of of 80oC, and a volume of
0.07 m3. the gas undergoes an irreversible adiabatic
process to a final pressure of 300 kPa and a final
volume of 0.10 m3, during which the work done on
the gas is 25 kJ. Evaluate the cP and cV of the gas
and increase in entropy of the gas.
cV = 0.658 kJ/kg K cP = 0.896 kJ/kgK
ΔS = 0.08 kJ/kgK
ANALYSIS OF CARNOT CYCLE AND
EFFICIENCY
P 3

❶ 4

❹
2
❷

1-2 ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION

❸
2-3 ADIABATIC COMPRESSION 1
3-4 ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION
SOURCE
SINK 4-1 ADIABATIC EXPANSION

V
 EFFICIENCY OF A CARNOT CYCLE
• ɳ = Wnet/Qi = (Qi + Qo)/Qi = 1+ Qo /Qi
= 1+ [ m R T1 ln(V2/V1)] / [ m R T3ln(V4/V3)]
=1 - [ T1 ln(V1/V2)] / [ T3 ln(V4/V3)]

• In process 1-2 T1 = T2
• In process 2-3 T2/T3 = (V3/V2)(ɣ-1)
• In process 3-4 T3 = T4
• In process 4-1 T1/T4 = (V4/V1) (ɣ-1)
• i.e. V3/V2 = V4/V1 i.e. V1/V2 = V4/V3
• i.e. ɳ =1-T1 /T3 = 1- T2 /T4
 Practice Problem 22(p132)
• Which is the more effective way to increase the efficiency of a Carnot
engine: to increase T1 keeping T2 constant ; or to decrease T2, keeping T1
constant ?
• HINT : efficiency is given by ɳ= 1-T2/T1
Differentiating ɳ keeping T1 constant,
[dɳ/dT2] T1= -1/T1
i.e. as T2 is decreased efficiency increases(-ve sign)

Differentiating ɳ keeping T2 constant,

[dɳ/dT1] T2= T2/T12
i.e. as T1 is increased efficiency increases
Since T1 > T2 , 1/T1 > T2/T12
i.e. [dɳ/dT2] T1 > [dɳ/dT1] T2
so more effective way for increasing efficiency of Carnot cycle is decrease
T2, keeping T1 constant.
 ANALYSIS OF OTTO CYCLE AND
EFFICIENCY
Compression ratio, rk= V1 /V2
P 3 Expansion ratio, re= V4 / V3
Swept volume
(STROKE VOLUME) = V1-V2

❶❹
2
4
❷❸

1-2 ADIABATIC COMPRESSION

2-3 ISOCHORIC HEAT ADDITION
3-4 ADIABATIC EXPANSION
SOURCE
SINK 4-1 ISOCHORIC HEAT REJECTION 1
V
 EFFICIENCY OF AN OTTO CYCLE
• ɳ = Wnet/Qi = (Qi + Qo)/Qi = 1+ Qo /Qi
= 1+ [ m cV (T1-T4)/mcV(T3-T2) ]
=1+ (T1-T4)/(T3-T2) = 1-(T4-T1)/(T3-T2)
• Let us try to rewrite this equation in terms of
compression OR expansion ratio
ɳ =1- (T4/T3) (1-T1/T4)/(1-T2/T3)
• In process 1-2 T1/T2 = (V2/V1)(ɣ-1)
• In process 3-4 T3/T4 = (V4/V3) (ɣ-1) = (V1/V2) (ɣ-1)
• i.e. T1/ T2 = T4/T3 i.e T1/T4 =T2/T3
• ɳ =1-T4/T3 = 1- (V3/V4)(1-ɣ)
• ɳ= 1- 1/rk(ɣ-1) Mean effective pressure ,
Pm = Wnet / swept volume
 Practice problem 23(p523)
• An engine working on the Otto cycle is
supplied with air at 0.1 MPa, 35oC. The
compression ratio is 8. Heat supplied is 2100
kJ/kg. calculate the maximum pressure and
temperature of the cycle, the cycle efficiency,
and the mean effective pressure ( for air cP =
1.005 kJ/kg K, cP= 0.718 kJ/kg K ) ? Also draw
T-S diagram for the cycle.
Pmax = 9.426 Mpa Tmax = 3633 K ɳ= 56.5 %
Pm=1.533 MPa
 ANALYSIS OF DIESEL CYCLE AND
EFFICIENCY Compression ratio r = V /V k 1 2
Cut-off ratio rc =
V3/V2
P 2 3
Expansion ratio re = V4/V3
rk = re rc
Swept volume
(STROKE VOLUME) = V1-V2
❶❹

4
❸

1-2 ADIABATIC COMPRESSION

❷
2-3 ISOBARIC HEAT ADDITION
3-4 ADIABATIC EXPANSION
SINK
SOURCE 4-1 ISOCHORIC HEAT REJECTION 1
V
 EFFICIENCY OF A DIESEL CYCLE
• ɳ = Wnet/Qi = (Qi + Qo)/Qi = 1+ Qo /Qi
= 1+ [ m cV (T1-T4) / mcP(T3-T2) ] cP/cV = ɣ
=1+ (1/ɣ ) (T1-T4)/(T3-T2) = 1- (1/ɣ )(T4-T1)/(T3-T2)
• Let us try to rewrite this equation in terms of compression, expansion and
cutoff ratios.
• In process 3-4 T4/T3 = (V3/V4)(ɣ-1) =1/re(ɣ-1)
i.e. T4=T3/re(ɣ-1) = T3 rc(ɣ-1) /rk(ɣ-1)
• In process 2-3 T2/T3 = (V2/V3) = 1/rc
i.e. T2=T3/rc
• in process 1-2 T1/T2 = (V2/V1)(ɣ-1) =1/rk(ɣ-1)
i.e. T1=T2 /rk(ɣ-1)
i.e T1=T3 /(rc rk(ɣ-1) )----sub for T2
• Now we got T1 T2 and T4 in terms of T3. substituting these values in ɳ
• ɳ =1- (1/ɣ ) [ T3 rc(ɣ-1) /rk(ɣ-1) - T3 /(rc rk(ɣ-1) ) ] / [ T3 -T3/rc ]
• Cancelling all T3 , ɳ =1 - (1/ɣ ) [rc(ɣ-1) /rk(ɣ-1) - 1/(rc rk(ɣ-1) )] / [1 -1/rc]

• ɳ =1- [1/(ɣ rk(ɣ-1))] [rcɣ – 1] / [rc - 1]

 Practice problem 24(p524)
• A Diesel engine has a compression ratio of 14 and
cut off takes place at 6% of the stroke (max volume –
min volume) . Find the air standard efficiency. Also
draw T-S diagram for the cycle.
• If an Otto cycle engine(pertol engine) is used with
same compression ratio, prove that efficiency of
Otto cycle is more. (take ɣ= 1.4)
Diesel = 60. 5 %
Otto = 65.2 %
 Practice problem 25(p525)
• In an air standard diesel cycle the compression
ratio is 16 and at the beginning of isentropic
compression the temperature is 15 oC and
pressure is 0.1 MPa. Heat is added until the
temperature at the end of the constant
pressure process is 1480 oC .
16
• Calculate cutoff ratio
• Calculate heat supplied per kg of air 884.4 kJ/kg
• Calculate the cycle efficiency and MEP 61.2 %
698 45 kPa
ANALYSIS OF BRAYTON CYCLE AND
EFFICIENCY
P 2 3 Compression Ratio, rk = V1/V2
Expansion ratio, re = V4/V3
Pressure ratio, rp = P2/P1= P3/P4

❸ 1 4
1-2 ADIABATIC COMPRESSION
❷ 2-3 ISOBARIC HEAT ADDITION
3-4 ADIABATIC EXPANSION
SOURCE
SINK 4-1 ISOBARIC HEAT REJECTION

V
 EFFICIENCY OF A BRAYTON CYCLE
• ɳ = Wnet/Qi = (Qi + Qo)/Qi = 1+ Qo /Qi
= 1+ [ m cp (T1-T4)/mcp(T3-T2) ]
=1+ (T1-T4)/(T3-T2) = 1-(T4-T1)/(T3-T2)
• Let us try to rewrite this equation in terms of compression,
expansion and pressure ratios
• In process 1-2 T2/T1 = (P2/P1)(ɣ-1)/ɣ
• In process 3-4 T3/T4 = (P3/P4) (ɣ-1)/ɣ = (P2/P1)(ɣ-1)/ɣ
• i.e. T1/ T2 = T4/T3 i.e. T1/T4 =T2/T3
• ɳ =1-T4/T3 = 1- (P4/P3) (ɣ-1)/ɣ = 1-1/rp(ɣ-1)/ɣ = 1- (V3/V4)(1-ɣ)

• ɳ= 1- 1/rk(ɣ-1)
• ɳ= 1- 1/rp(ɣ-1)/ɣ
 BRAYTON CYCLE POWER PLANT

Combustion chamber
P ( isobaric heat addition)
❸
❷
2 3

Compressor 1 4 Turbine
(adiabatic (adiabatic
❶ compression)
cooling chamber
V Expansion) ❹
( isobaric heat rejection)
 Practice problem 26(p530)
• In an ideal Brayton cycle air from the atmosphere at
1 atm, 300K is compressed to 6 atm and maximum
cycle temperature is limited to 1100 K by using a
large air fuel ratio. If the heat supplied is 100 MW
find,
• Thermal efficiency of the cycle 40.1%
• Work ratio= (Wturb – Wcomp)/Wturb 0.545
• Power output 40.1 MW
• Also draw the T-S diagram for the cycle