PSYCHOLOGY

PRESENTATION
 Made by/teammates:-

Arshpreet kaur

Bavleen kaur

TOPIC- Mehak Narang

LEARNING Ishvin kaur

Chetna

Disha
 Learning refers to any relatively permanent change in
behaviour or in the potential for behaviour brought about
through experience. • Learning is normally distinguished
from other changes in behaviour or in the predisposition to
behave in a certain way.

What is
learning? Lifelong Process: Continues from birth to old age.
What are the
features of Involves Change: Brings behavioral or knowledge-based
learning changes.Relatively Permanent: Long-lasting but requires
reinforcement. Experience-Based: Happens through
interaction and practice.Active Process: Requires conscious
effort and participation.Goal-Oriented: Focused on
achieving specific objectives.
 The simplest kind of learning is called
conditionig

Two types of conditionig have been

identified.
PARADIGMS
OF The first one is called classical
conditioning and the second one is
LEARNING called instrumental conditioning

In addition we have, observational

learning.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Introduction to Classical ConditioningClassical conditioning
was discovered by Ivan Pavlov while studying the process of digestion in dogs. Pavlov
observed that dogs began salivating not only when food was presented but also when
stimuli associated with food (like the sound of the experimenter’s footsteps) were
presented. This led him to study this phenomenon systematically.

▪ 2. Phases of ExperimentBefore
Conditioning.Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Food
was presented to the dog, which naturally caused
salivtion. Salivation in response to food was
termed the Unconditioned Response
(UCR).Neutral Stimulus (NS): Pavlov rang a bell,
which did not produce any salivation. This
demonstrated that the sound of the bell was a
neutral stimulus.During Conditioning:The bell
(NS) was paired with the food (UCS)
repeatedly.Each time the bell was rung, food was
presented immediately afterward.
▪ After Conditioning:Pavlov rang the bell
alone (without presenting the food).
The dog started salivating in response
to the sound of the bell alone.The bell,
which was initially a neutral stimulus,
had now become a Conditioned
Stimulus (CS), and the salivation in
response to the bell was termed the
Conditioned Response (CR).
DETERMINANTS
OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
▪ The time relation between stimuli refers to the temporal contiguity or the
timing with which the neutral stimulus (NS) and the unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) are presented. For effective classical conditioning to occur, the neutral
stimulus (NS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) need to be paired
together in time. This means that the neutral stimulus (which eventually
becomes the conditioned stimulus) should be presented just before or
simultaneously with the unconditioned stimulus.Types of Temporal Relations:

▪ 1. Simultaneous Conditioning: The NS and UCS are presented at the same time.
However, this is less effective because the association between the two stimuli
is weak.

▪ 2. Delay Conditioning: The NS is presented just before the UCS, and the two
stimuli overlap. This is the most effective form of conditioning

▪ .3. Trace Conditioning: The NS is presented, then removed, and after a brief
delay, the UCS is presented. The more the delay between the two, the weaker
the association.

▪ 4. Backward Conditioning: The UCS is presented first, followed by the NS. This
is generally ineffective and does not produce a strong conditioned response.
▪ Type of Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)The type of
unconditioned stimulus plays a significant role in
the effectiveness of classical conditioning. The
unconditioned stimulus is the one that naturally
triggers a response without any prior learning.
The stronger and more intense the UCS, the
more likely the subject will associate it with the
neutral stimulus (NS), leading to a more
powerful conditioned response.Example: A
strong shock (UCS) is more likely to create a
stronger conditioned response than a mild one.
 Operant Conditioning is a type of learning process in which behavior is modified
by its consequences, such as rewards or punishmentsSkinner’s ExperimentB.F.
Skinner, conducted an experiment to demonstrate operant conditioning. The
experiment is known as the “Skinner Box” or “Operant Conditioning Chamber”
experiment.A rat was placed in a special box called the Skinner box. The box had
a lever on one side and a food tray on the other. When the rat pressed the lever,
food pellets were released into the food tray.At first, the rat pressed the lever by
accident while exploring the box.

OPERANT/ However, as the rat associated the lever press with the food reward, it began to
press the lever more frequently. The rat’s behavior (lever press) was modified by
its consequence (food reward). The frequency of the lever press increased over
INSTRUMENTAL time as the rat learned to associate the behavior with the reward.

CONDITIONING
Skinner’s experiment demonstrated the principles of operant conditioning, where
behavior is modified by its consequences. The experiment showed that rewards
can increase the frequency of a behavior, while punishments can decrease it.
DETERMINANTS OF
OPERANT/
INSTRUMENTAL
CONDITIONING
▪ Type of reinforcements − Positive reinforcement
involves pleasant consequences that satisfy needs.
Negative reinforcement involves unpleasant and painful
consequences that lead to learning of
avoidance.Number and quality of reinforcements − The
course of operant conditioning is accelerated by
increase in number, amount and quality of
reinforcements.Schedule of reinforcement −
Continuous reinforcement elicits a desired response
every time during a trial. Intermittent reinforcement
elicits responses only intermittently.Delay in the
delivery of reinforcement − It results in a poor level of
conditioning and performance.
 When learning takes place, be it classical or open
conditioning, it involves the occurrence of certain
processes. These include reinforcement,
extinction, or non-occurrence of learned response,
generalization of learning to other stimuli under
some specifiable condition, discrimination between
reinforcing and non-reinforcing stimuli, and
KEY spontaneous recovery

LEARNING
PROCESSES 1) REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement refers to the
process of following a behavior with a
consequence that increases the likelihood of the
behavior occurring again.
▪ Types of ReinforcementThere are two main types of reinforcement:1. *Positive
Reinforcement*: Positive Reinforcement involves adding a pleasing or
desirable stimulus to the environment following a desired behavior. This
increases the likelihood of the behavior occurring again.Example: A child
shares their toys with a friend, and their parent gives them a sticker (a
pleasing stimulus). This increases the likelihood of the child sharing their toys
again.2. *Negative Reinforcement*: Negative Reinforcement involves removing
an unpleasant or undesirable stimulus from the environment following a
desired behavior. This also increases the likelihood of the behavior occurring
again.Example: A person is nagged by their partner to take out the trash. Once
they take out the trash, the nagging stops (an unpleasant stimulus is
removed). This increases the likelihood of the person taking out the trash
again.And there are two types of reinforcersA primary reinforcer is
biologically important since it determines the organism’s survival, e.g. Food
for a hungry organism. A secondary reinforcer is one which has acquired
characteristics of the reinforcer because of the organism’s experience with the
environment. We frequently use money and grades as reinforcers. They are
called secondary reinforcers
2) EXTINCTION
▪ Extinction occurs when a learned behavior
(conditioned response) fades away because it
is no longer reinforced.2. Example: In
classical conditioning, if a dog is trained to
salivate at the sound of a bell (conditioned
stimulus) paired with food (unconditioned
stimulus), and the bell is repeatedly sounded
without providing food, the salivation
response will gradually stop.3. Relevance:
Extinction is a natural process that helps in
unlearning responses that are no longer
useful or relevant.
3) GENERALIZATION
AND DISCRIMINATION
▪ Generalization refers to the tendency of a
conditioned response to occur in response to
stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned
stimulus.Definition: When an organism responds
in the same way to different stimuli that resemble
the conditioned stimulus, it is called
generalization.Example: If a dog is conditioned to
salivate at the sound of a bell, it may also salivate
when hearing a similar sound, like a chime or
buzzer.Purpose: Generalization helps organisms
adapt to similar situations in their environment
without needing to learn new responses for each
stimulus.
Discrimination is the ability to distinguish
between the conditioned stimulus and other
similar stimuli and respond differently to them

Definition: When an organism learns to respond

only to the specific conditioned stimulus and not
to other similar stimuli, it is called discrimination.

Example: If a dog salivates only to the sound of a

particular bell and not to similar sounds like a
buzzer or chime, it demonstrates discrimination

Purpose: Discrimination helps in fine-tuning

responses, allowing the organism to respond
appropriately to specific stimuli while ignoring
irrelevant ones.
4) SPONTANEOUS
RECOVERY
▪ After extinction, when there is a gap or rest period, and
the conditioned stimulus is presented again, the
conditioned response reappears briefly. This return of
the response is called spontaneous recovery.2.
Example: If a dog is conditioned to salivate at the sound
of a bell (conditioned stimulus) and this response
becomes extinct after repeated presentations of the
bell without food, the salivation (conditioned response)
may reoccur temporarily when the bell is rung after
some time.3. Importance:It shows that extinction does
not erase the learned behavior but temporarily
suppresses it.
 Observational learning is a type of learning that occurs by watching
and imitating the behavior of others. It is also known as social
learning or modeling, as individuals learn by observing the actions
and consequences experienced by others.

---Process of Observational Learning

. Imitation: The learner copies or replicates the behavior of a model

OBSERVATIONAL they observe.

LEARNING
Social Learning: This emphasizes learning through interaction with
the environment and observing others rather than direct experience.

. Modeling: The observed individual (model) provides an example of

behavior, which the learner can adopt.
▪ Bandura’s Bobo Doll ExperimentAlbert Bandura conducted an
experiment to demonstrate how observational learning works,
specifically through imitation and modeling.Setup of the
ExperimentParticipants: Children aged 3 to 6 years.Procedure:1. Children
were divided into groups and exposed to different models.2. One group
saw an adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll (e.g., hitting,
kicking, and yelling).3. Another group saw an adult behaving non-
aggressively towards the doll.4. A control group was not exposed to any
model
▪ Results
▪ Children who observed the aggressive model
imitated the aggressive behaviors when placed
in the same environment with the doll.Those
exposed to the non-aggressive model showed
minimal aggression.The control group displayed
no new behaviors towards the doll.Bandura’s
study demonstrated that individuals, particularly
children, are influenced by the behavior they
observe in their environment, supporting the
principles of observational learning.
Thankyouuuu