Political Development

Government Powers in Britain:

• The government can levy taxes, declare war, make foreign and domestic policies,
and control the military.
• There are concerns that these powers might be eroded by increasing integration
with Europe, as claimed by pro-England nationalists.

Democracy:

• Definition: A political system where ultimate authority is vested in the people. The
word democracy comes from the Greek words "demos" (people) and "kratos"
(authority).
• Forms: Democracy can be direct or indirect and representative.
• Modern Democracy: Involves complex interactions, compromises, and bargaining
among groups and institutions.

Democratic Creed:

1. Individualism: Government enables each person to achieve their highest potential.

2. Liberty: Individuals have the greatest freedom consistent with order.
3. Equality: All people are created equal with equal rights and opportunities.
4. Fraternity: Individuals cooperate to create a wholesome society.

Principles of Democracy:

• Popular Sovereignty: Ultimate power is vested in the people.

• Majority Rule with Minority Rights: Decisions are made based on majority rule,
protecting minority rights.
• Freedoms: Guarantees freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly, petition, and
equality before the law.
• Role of Politics: Politics, parties, and politicians are essential for democracy to
function.

Historical Perspective:

• Democracy was once seen as dangerous and unworkable but gained acceptance in
the 19th and 20th centuries.
 • It faced criticism for being mob rule, tolerating mediocrity, and being a sham.

Requirements for Democracy:

• Education and responsibility in society.

• Economic stability.
• Social cohesion and consensus.
• Acceptance of democratic rules, including frequent and fair elections and respect
for the opposition.

Democracy in Practice:

• Western Europe saw a boost in democracy with the decline of communist

governments in the 1980s and 1990s.
• The Third World is also moving towards democratic systems, undermining
authoritarian regimes.

Liberal Democracy:

• Commonly used to describe the political philosophy of America.

• Emphasizes that government serves the people and includes public debate and
frequent elections.

Liberalism and Democracy

Liberalism:

• Definition: A political view that seeks to change the status quo to improve
individual development and well-being.
• Focus: Emphasizes process and methods of solving problems rather than specific
programs.
• Historical Shift:
o 18th and 19th Centuries: Focused on individual freedom from government
restraints.
o 20th Century: Advocates government intervention to address societal
issues, such as civil rights.
• Modern View: Sees government as a positive force for societal improvement, not
necessarily a threat to individual freedom.

Democracy:
 • Definition: A political system where ultimate authority is vested in the people. The
word democracy comes from Greek "demos" (people) and "kratos" (authority).
• Forms: Can be direct (e.g., New England town meetings) or indirect and
representative.
• Key Concepts:
o Individualism: Government helps individuals achieve their potential.
o Liberty: Maximizes individual freedom consistent with order.
o Equality: Ensures equal rights and opportunities for all.
o Fraternity: Encourages cooperation to create a wholesome society.
• Principles:
o Popular Sovereignty: Power rests with the people.
o Majority Rule with Minority Rights: Decision-making respects the majority
while protecting minority rights.
o Essential Freedoms: Guarantees freedom of speech, press, religion,
assembly, petition, and equality before the law.
o Role of Politics: Politicians and political parties make democracy workable.

Challenges and Criticisms:

• Historically viewed as dangerous and unworkable but gained acceptance in the

19th and 20th centuries.
• Critics see it as mob rule or a sham that doesn't fully work in practice, often
bypassing referendums.

Requirements for Pure Democracy (Plano and Greenberg):

• Education and Responsibility: Society must be educated and responsible.

• Economic Stability: The state must be economically stable.
• Social Cohesion and Consensus: Society must have social cohesion and
agreement.
• Democratic Rules: Fair and frequent elections, respect for majority rule, and
protection of minority rights.

Direct Democracy:

• Definition: Citizens attend meetings, vote on issues, and accept majority

decisions.
• Participation: Everyone has the right to participate regardless of beliefs, gender, or
physical condition.
 • Challenges: Full participation is difficult to achieve in practice due to time
constraints, information overload, and logistical issues.

Modern Developments:

• Technological advancements like the Internet may favor direct democracy in the
future.
• Current systems like the "People's Panel" and e-petitions aim to engage public
opinion but face criticism.

Introduction to Government and Politics: Simplified Summary

Political Action and Social Life (Max Weber):

• Max Weber asked about the meaning of political action in the context of daily life.
• He questioned what makes political action political and its role in the ongoing
conduct of social life.

Political Institutions and Processes:

• Traditional study focused on institutions like the state, government, civil service,
courts, and democratic processes.
• Recent events, such as the Arab Spring, showed that political institutions can be
destabilized and are not always central to political action.

Revolutions:

• Revolutions are significant and rare events that cause rapid, fundamental, and
violent changes in society’s dominant values, political institutions, and leadership.
• Examples: American Revolution (1776), French Revolution (1789), Russian
Revolution (1917), Chinese Revolution (1949), Cuban Revolution (1959), Iranian
Revolution (1979).
• The Arab Spring reminds us that revolutionary political action is always possible.

How Revolutions Occur:

• Example: In Tunisia, Mohamed Bouazizi's self-immolation symbolized widespread

poverty, oppression, and humiliation, sparking a radicalization in people’s sense of
citizenship and power.
 • People realized their own power and capacity to act after living under deplorable
conditions for decades.

Sociological Interest:

• Sociology studies the conditions that lead to changes in citizenship and power
dynamics, such as those observed during revolutions.

Power and Authority

Power and Authority in Society:

• Definition: Power and authority involve political control and the way behavior is
directed or influenced.
• Sociologists' Approach: Sociologists focus on how power is used to guide
behavior, not just political systems.

Government and Conduct:

• Michel Foucault's View: Government is the "conduct of conduct," meaning the way
some act upon others to change their behavior.
• Power Relationships: Power exists between states and citizens, institutions and
clients, parents and children, etc.
• Resistance: Power requires the possibility of resistance; without it, there's only
force or violence.

Understanding Power:

• Power (1): Defined by Max Weber as the ability to realize one's will even against
resistance.
• Domination: Structured forms of power become institutionalized and hierarchical.
• Power (2): A capacity everyone has to create and act, shaping communities and
possibilities.

Positive Use of Power:

• Leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Mahatma Gandhi used nonviolent strategies
to create change without domination.

The Role of Politics:

 • Power and politics are about constructing better communities through collective
capacities.

Did Facebook and Twitter Cause the Arab Spring?:

• Social media provided anonymity and communication tools for organizing protests
and spreading awareness.
• Example: Khaled Said's death highlighted police corruption, leading to a large
protest group on Facebook.

Politics and the State

Definition of Politics:

• Origin: The term "politics" comes from the Greek "polis," meaning city-state.
• Aristotle's View: Politics is about creating a way of life conducive to achieving
human aspirations and the "good life." The ideal political form was a self-contained
community where people rule themselves.

Modern Nation-State:

• Definition: A nation-state is a political unit with boundaries that coincide with a

society, often defined by cultural, linguistic, or ethnic lines.
• Max Weber's Definition: Politics is the activity of striving to share or influence the
distribution of power within or among states.

Historical Development:

• The modern nation-state emerged relatively recently, formalized by the Peace of

Westphalia in 1648.
• Before this, there were no formal state institutions in foraging societies, and feudal
Europe had overlapping jurisdictions.

Sovereignty:

• Definition: Sovereignty is a central authority governing within a clearly defined

territory.
• Sovereign State System: The world is divided into separate, indivisible sovereign
territories, with 193 member states in the United Nations.
Thomas Hobbes' View:

• Social Order: Argued that social order relies on an unspoken contract between
citizens and the sovereign, where individuals give up their natural rights for law and
security provided by the sovereign.
• State of Nature: Without a sovereign, life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish,
and short."

Tension Between Democracy and Sovereignty:

• Democracy exists in tension with the absolute power of the sovereign state.
• The international state system is always potentially in conflict due to the lack of an
overarching sovereign.

Max Weber's Definition of the State:

• Control of Territory: The state is a community that claims a monopoly on the

legitimate use of physical force within a territory.
• Role of Violence: Weber emphasized that politics often involves the use of violence
to maintain control.

Why People Obey:

• Power vs. Authority: Weber distinguished between power (the ability to enforce
one's will) and authority (legitimate power that people accept and obey).

Types of Authority

Power vs. Authority:

• Power: The ability to achieve desired outcomes despite resistance.

• Authority: When power is perceived as legitimate and justified, making people
agree to follow it.

Weber's Three Types of Authority:

1. Traditional Authority:
a. Definition: Power legitimized by long-standing customs and traditions.
b. Examples: Monarchies, aristocracies, and the church.
 c. Modern Context: People follow traditional authority out of habit and
historical obligation.
2. Charismatic Authority:
a. Definition: Power based on a leader's personal qualities and charisma.
b. Examples: Jesus Christ, Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Adolf
Hitler.
c. Characteristics: Emerges in times of crisis, inspires followers through the
leader's personality, and offers radical solutions.
d. Challenges: Charismatic power is often unstable and short-lived.
3. Rational-Legal Authority:
a. Definition: Power legitimized by laws, written rules, and regulations.
b. Examples: Bureaucratic officials, civil services, judiciary.
c. Characteristics: Authority resides in the office, not the person, and is seen
as unbiased, predictable, and efficient.

Impact of Charisma in Modern Politics:

• Modern politics often combines rational-legal authority with charismatic

leadership.
• Image management in electoral campaigns focuses on creating a public image for
candidates.
• Charismatic leadership can distort rational debate but also draws people into
political life.

Democratic Will Formation

Anarchy vs. Organized Government:

• Anarchy: Means "without leader or ruler." Anarchism promotes organizing society

without formal state leadership, maximizing personal freedoms through voluntary
social arrangements.
• Hobbesian View: Without sovereign rule, society would descend into chaos and
lawlessness.

History of Anarchism:

• Developed in 19th-century Europe with thinkers like Pierre-Joseph Proudhon,

Mikhail Bakunin, and Peter Kropotkin.
 • Argued that states are artificial and unnecessary, and that society should consist of
self-governing collectivities.

Principles of Anarchism:

• Aimed to destroy state power and private property to create a cooperative,

egalitarian society.
• Emphasized the personal freedoms of individuals through voluntary, continually
renegotiated social arrangements.

Participatory Democracy:

• Based on the direct democracy of ancient Greek Athens, where citizens directly ran
the affairs of the city-state.
• Contrasts with modern representative democracy, where citizens elect
representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

Criticisms of Representative Democracy:

• Can introduce distortions, such as underrepresentation of certain groups and

influence of corporate interests and lobbying.
• Famous quote by Winston Churchill: "Democracy is the worst form of
government ... except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to
time."

Three Key Elements of Democracy:

1. Institutions of Democracy: Parliament, elections, constitutions, rule of law, etc.

2. Citizenship: Sense of individual dignity, rights, and freedom.
3. Public Sphere: Open space for public debate and deliberation.

Democratic Will Formation (Jürgen Habermas):

• Achieved through a deliberative process where the general will of the people
emerges from public interaction.
• Ideal Speech Situation: Everyone can participate equally in public discussion,
question assertions, and introduce ideas without restrictions.
• When these norms are violated, democratic will formation becomes distorted and
open to manipulation.
Political Demand and Political Supply

Democratic Will Formation:

• Process: In representative democracies, this occurs largely through political party

competition during elections.

Key Factors:

1. Political Demand:
a. Definition: Societal factors and social changes that create groups with
common interests.
b. Example: Economic changes affecting job types can influence support for
labor unions.
2. Political Supply:
a. Definition: Strategies and organizational capacities of political parties to
appeal to particular constituencies.
b. Example: The Liberal Party of Canada attempts to position itself in the
political center to attract the largest group of voters.

Political Spectrum:

• Left-Wing: Socialists advocating for progressive taxes and state redistribution of

wealth and services.
• Right-Wing: Economic conservatives advocating for minimal taxes and a market-
driven economy.
• Social Policy:
o Right: Authoritarianism, hierarchical decision-making.
o Left: Individual autonomy, expanded democratization.

Changes in Political Preferences:

• Postmaterialist Concerns: Since the 1960s, focus has shifted to quality of life
issues like personal autonomy, environmental integrity, and rights movements.
• Materialist Concerns: Previously focused on economic growth, personal security,
and military defense.

Kitschelt's Dynamics:

• Globalization and Free Trade:

 o Exposed Sectors: Favor free market policies (e.g., agriculture,
manufacturing).
o Sheltered Sectors: Favor redistributive policies (e.g., public service,
education).
• Postindustrial Economy:
o High Communication Skills: Value personal autonomy and
democratization.
o Instrumental Tasks: Prefer authoritarian and traditional social settings.

Political Party Strategies:

• Shift in Strategies: Parties need to adjust their strategies based on changes in

political demand.
• Example: Social democratic parties like the NDP may shift to the center or right but
risk alienating core supporters.

Canadian Context:

• Regional Allegiances: Important role in Canadian politics, making it an atypical

case compared to European politics.
• Political Preferences: Opinion polls indicate Canadians are still concerned with
the economy and unemployment.
• Nontraditional Political Activities: Increasing participation in protests, petitions,
and boycotts.

Direct vs. Representative Democracy:

• Declining Voter Participation: Especially among young people, leading to more

direct means of political engagement.

The De-Centring of the State: Terrorism, War, Empire, and Political

Exceptionalism

Dawn of the Planet of the Apes (2014):

• The film explores themes of mistrust, enmity, and provocation between apes and
humans, paralleling contemporary cycles of violence like the Israeli-Palestinian
conflict.
 • Initially, both communities live in isolation, but contact leads to political dynamics
and potential conflict.

Politics as Exception:

• Concept: Politics as exception emerges when normal rules are insufficient, leading
to extraordinary political decisions.
• Carl Schmitt: Argued that true political decisions arise in moments of crisis,
justifying emergency powers and suspension of laws.
• Example: Schmitt's justification for the Nazi regime's suspension of the Weimar
constitution.

Political Exceptionalism in the Film:

• Caesar and Koba: Caesar faces a moral dilemma when Koba's betrayal threatens
the apes' survival. Caesar suspends the apes' moral code to kill Koba, declaring
"Koba not ape!" to maintain the law.
• State of Exception: Caesar's decision exemplifies political exceptionalism, where
the law is fluid and dependent on the leader's decision.

Modern State System:

• State Sovereignty: Emerged after the Thirty Years War to maintain peace within
states and expel war to the margins of society.
• Temporary States of Exception: Constitutional mechanisms like emergency
powers allow for temporary suspension of laws during crises.

Normalization of Exception:

• Contemporary Observations: Temporary states of exception, such as wars and

crises, have become increasingly permanent and normalized.
• Examples: Global terrorism, contemporary wars, re-emergence of Empire, and
routine use of states of exception.

Terrorism: War by Non-State Actors

Role of Terrorism:

• Since 9/11: Terrorism has significantly impacted national and international politics.
 • Definition: The use of violence on civilian populations and institutions to achieve
political ends.

Characteristics:

• Typically involves non-state actors seeking radical political change.

• Challenges the state's legitimate monopoly on the use of force.

Examples:

• Al-Qaeda: Originated from American-funded efforts against Russian occupation in

Afghanistan. Known for attacks like the 1998 American embassy bombings, the
2001 World Trade Center attack, and the 2002 Bali bombings. Goals include ending
Western influence in the Middle East and establishing fundamentalist Islamic
caliphates.
• FLQ (Front de libération du Québec): Used bombings and kidnappings to press for
Quebec's independence.

Ambiguity of Terrorism:

• Definitions Vary: The definition of terrorism differs based on perspective.

• Three Phenomena:
o Political violence by non-state actors against legitimate governments.
o Political violence by governments violating human rights codes.
o Violence in war contravening rules of engagement, including against
civilians.

Controversial Perspectives:

• Noam Chomsky: Argues the U.S. government is a significant terrorist organization

due to its support for illegal wars, backing authoritarian regimes, and history of
destabilizing foreign governments and assassinating political leaders.

War: Politics by Other Means

Historical Conflicts:

• Political conflicts existed before modern nation-states, driven by desires for

territory, wealth, liberty, and autonomy.
• War is defined as organized group violence between politically distinct groups.
 • Carl von Clausewitz: War is the continuation of politics by other means.

20th Century Wars:

• World War I and II: Massive death tolls with 9 million killed in WWI and 61 million in
WWII.
• Advances in military technology and total war strategies increased casualties.
• Historical Pattern: Six major European wars involving alliances since the 17th
century.

Modern Warfare:

• Asymmetrical Warfare: Conflict between state armies and insurgent groups, often
with guerilla tactics.
• Full Spectrum Dominance: Significant imbalance of technical and military means
between combatants.
• Counter-Insurgency Strategies: Combine military action with social, political, and
humanitarian efforts (e.g., Canada's strategy in Afghanistan).

Global Post-Security Condition:

• Permanent Potential for Violence: Lethal violence is always a potentiality in

contemporary warfare.
• Normalization of Militarization: Society organizes itself for the production of
violence, demonizing enemies, and validating military violence.

Empire and Political Exceptionalism

Empire:

• Definition: Historically, an empire is a widespread organization of states and

people ruled by a centralized government (e.g., Roman Empire, Austro-Hungarian
Empire).
• Contemporary Empire: Refers to a global form of sovereignty with no fixed center,
organized around nodes of power like dominant nation-states, supranational
institutions (UN, IMF, WHO), and major corporations.
• Impact: Modern wars are increasingly internal police actions by coalitions on
humanitarian or security grounds, rather than conflicts between sovereign nation-
states.
Political Exceptionalism:

• Definition: A state of exception occurs when laws or constitutions are temporarily

suspended during crises, allowing leaders to claim emergency powers.
• Examples:
o Nazi Germany: Suspension of the Weimar Constitution from 1933-1945,
enabling actions like concentration camps and the Holocaust.
o Paraguay (1960s-1970s): Permanent suspension of constitutional
protections by Alfredo Stroessner except for one day every four years.
o U.S. (Post-9/11): George Bush's military order authorized indefinite
detention and military tribunals for suspected terrorists, leading to
Guantanamo Bay's detention practices.

Canadian Examples:

• October Crisis (1970): Pierre Trudeau used the War Measures Act to suspend civil
liberties and mobilize the military in response to the FLQ's kidnappings.
• Other Instances:
o Ministerial Security Certificates (2001): Indefinite detention of suspected
terrorists.
o Public Works Protection Act: Used during the Toronto G20 Summit (2010)
to detain protesters.
o Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (2002): Routine detention of
stateless refugees and "boat people."

Theoretical Perspectives on Government and Power

Disagreements Among Sociologists:

• Different views on the nature of power, politics, and the role of the state.
• Discussions often become political and divisive.

Key Questions:

• Why is the government in the form of the state needed?

• Could society function without state government?
• What is the purpose of the state?

Sociological Approaches:
 • Structural Functionalism
• Critical Sociology
• Symbolic Interactionism

Functionalism:

• Talcott Parsons: Political organization is about attaining collective goals desirable

for the system.
• Purposes of Modern Government:
o Planning and directing society
o Meeting collective social needs
o Maintaining law and order
o Managing international relations

Strengths and Weaknesses of Functionalism:

• Strength: Allows abstraction from particular societies to examine collective

decision-making.
• Weakness: Treats the system as independent or neutral, overlooking power
dynamics and inequality.

Pluralist Theory:

• Definition: Society consists of competing interest groups with diverse goals.

• Role of the State: Acts as a neutral mediator to maintain equilibrium among
competing interests.
• Criticism:
o The system maintains inequality.
o Some interests are fundamentally antagonistic and irreconcilable.
o Politics disrupts systems and equilibrium, unlike mere administration.

Conclusion:

• Functionalism and pluralist theory offer insights into the role of the state but also
have limitations in addressing power dynamics and political conflict.

Critical Sociology on Government and Power

Marxist Tradition:
 • Marx and Engels: The state serves the interests of capital, acting as a committee
for managing bourgeois affairs.
• Nicos Poulantzas:
o Accumulation Function: Maintains conditions for capitalist investment and
profitability.
o Legitimation Function: Promotes legitimacy of the social order and secures
social harmony.
o Coercive Function: Uses force to repress social unrest.
• The state may act against immediate capitalist interests to sustain long-term
stability.

Feminism:

• Catherine MacKinnon: Feminism lacks a unified theory of the state.

• The state can be both an ally and an oppressor for feminist concerns.
• Royal Commission on the Status of Women (1970): Example of state transforming
gender relations.
• State's Role in Patriarchy: Enforces male domination and subordination of
women.
• Critique of Jurisprudence: Challenges the neutrality of the law and abstract rights
from women's concrete experiences.

Michel Foucault:

• State as an Abstraction: Conceals widespread "micro-power" relationships

throughout society.
• Disciplinary Power: Focuses on enhancing human capacities through practices in
schools, hospitals, armies, etc.
• Critique: The state superimposes rights to hide domination inherent in disciplinary
mechanisms.
• Local Sites of Power: Challenge power at local levels where it is directly
experienced.

Symbolic Interactionism on Government and Power

Framework:

• Grounded in the works of Max Weber and George H. Mead.

• Focuses on the meanings attributed to politics through communicative interaction.
Key Concepts:

• Symbols of Power: Figures, emblems, or individuals representing power and

authority (e.g., Parliament Buildings, Canadian flag).
• Image Politics: Manipulation of political symbols and imagery to influence public
perception.

Micro-Sociological Focus:

• Interested in face-to-face interactions and small-scale exchanges in politics.

• Examines the creation of mutual understanding and consensus through
interactions.

Image Management:

• Erving Goffman: Described how individuals present a "face" to the group and
manage impressions.
• Political Stage: Politicians use image management and branding to create
symbolic, mythic images.

Critique of Image Politics:

• Critics argue it replaces political substance with superficial style.

• Symbolic interactionists note that persuasive meaning in politics is a
communicative process.

Image Events:

• Environmental Movements: Use visual imagery to bring marginalized issues into

public debate (e.g., Greenpeace's Zodiac boats).
• Emotional Resonance: Image events can stir emotions and transform public
perception.