Chapter 7: Other emerging technologies

Introduction
Dear students, in the previous chapter, you had studied some emerging technologies like data
science, artificial intelligence, the internet of things and augmented reality and their ethical issues.
In this chapter, you are going to discuss other emerging technologies like nanotechnology,
biotechnology, block-chain technology, cloud and quantum computing, autonomic computing,
computer vision, embedded systems, cybersecurity, and 3D printing.
After accomplishing this chapter, Students will be able to:

➢ Explain nanotechnology and its application in different sectors.

➢ Explain biotechnology and its application in different sectors.
➢ Explain block-chain technology and its application.
➢ Has gain insights about the cloud, quantum and autonomic computing, their differences,
and applications.
➢ Explain how computer vision works and its application.
➢ Identify and explain embedded systems and their pros and cons.
➢ Describe cybersecurity, types of cybersecurity treat and its benefits.
➢ Distinguish the difference between additive manufacturing and 3D printing.

7.1.Nanotechnology

Activity 7.1
➢ Explain Nanoscale? Compare it with meters? Give examples in Nanoscale?

Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is

about 1 to 100 nanometers. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of
extremely small things and can be used across all the other science fields, such as chemistry,
biology, physics, materials science, and engineering.

7.1.1. How it started

Activity 7.2
➢ What do you think the need to study materials in Nanoscale?

The ideas and concepts behind nanoscience and nanotechnology started with a talk entitled
“There’s plenty of room at the bottom” by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical
Society meeting at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech) on December 29, 1959, long

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before the term nanotechnology was used. In his talk, Feynman (see Figure 7.1) described a process
in which scientists would be able to manipulate and control individual atoms and molecules. Over
a decade later, in his explorations of ultraprecision machining, Professor Norio Taniguchi coined
the term nanotechnology. It wasn't until 1981, with the development of the scanning tunneling
microscope that could "see" individual atoms, that modern nanotechnology began.

Figure 7.1 Physicist Richard Feynman, the father of nanotechnology

7.1.2. Fundamental concepts in nanoscience and nanotechnology

It’s hard to imagine just how small nanotechnology is. One nanometer is a billionth of a meter or
10-9 of meters. Here are a few illustrative examples:

➢ There are 25,400,000 nanometers in an inch

➢ A sheet of newspaper is about 100,000 nanometers thick

➢ On a comparative scale, if a marble were a nanometer, then one meter would be the size of
the Earth

Nanoscience and nanotechnology involve the ability to see and to control individual atoms and
molecules. Everything on Earth is made up of atoms—the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the
buildings and houses we live in, and our own bodies.

But something as small as an atom is impossible to see with the naked eye. In fact, it’s impossible
to see with the microscopes typically used in high school science classes. The microscopes needed
to see things at the nanoscale were invented relatively recently about 30 years ago.

As small as a nanometer is, it's still large compared to the atomic scale. An atom has a diameter of
about 0.1 nm. An atom's nucleus is much smaller about 0.00001 nm. Atoms are the building blocks

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for all matter in our universe. You and everything around you are made of atoms. Nature has
perfected the science of manufacturing matter molecularly. For instance, our bodies are assembled
in a specific manner from millions of living cells. Cells are nature's nanomachines. At the atomic
scale, elements are at their most basic level. On the nanoscale, we can potentially put these atoms
together to make almost anything.

In a lecture called "Small Wonders: The World of Nanoscience," Nobel Prize winner Dr. Horst
Störmer said that the nanoscale is more interesting than the atomic scale because the nanoscale is
the first point where we can assemble something -- it's not until we start putting atoms together
that we can make anything useful.

People are interested in the nanoscale – because it is at this scale that the properties of materials
can be very different from those at a larger scale. We define nanoscience as the study of phenomena
and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where properties
differ significantly from those at a larger scale; and nanotechnologies as the design,
characterization, production, and application of structures, devices, and systems by controlling
shape and size at the nanometer scale.

The properties of materials can be different at the nanoscale for two main reasons:

➢ First, nanomaterials have a relatively larger surface area when compared to the same mass
of material produced in a larger form. This can make materials more chemically reactive
(in some cases materials that are inert in their larger form are reactive when produced in
their nanoscale form), and affect their strength or electrical properties.
➢ Second, quantum effects can begin to dominate the behavior of matter at the nanoscale
particularly at the lower end – affecting the optical, electrical and magnetic behavior of
materials. Materials can be produced that are nanoscale in one dimension (for example,
nanowires, nanorods, and nanotubes), in two dimensions (plate-like shapes like
nanocoating, nanolayers, and graphene) or in all three dimensions (for example,
nanoparticles)

Today's scientists and engineers are finding a wide variety of ways to deliberately make materials
at the nanoscale to take advantage of their enhanced properties such as higher strength, lighter
weight, increased control of light spectrum, and greater chemical reactivity than their larger-scale
counterparts.

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 Activity 7.3
➢ As you discussed before, understanding the behavior of the material at Nanoscale
advantageous. What do you think about the advantages of nanotechnology in medicine
and agriculture?

7.1.3. Applications of nanotechnology:

➢ Medicine: customized nanoparticles the size of molecules that can deliver drugs directly to
diseased cells in your body. When it's perfected, this method should greatly reduce the
damage treatment such as chemotherapy does to a patient's healthy cells.
➢ Electronics: it has some answers for how we might increase the capabilities of electronics
devices while we reduce their weight and power consumption.
➢ Food: it has an impact on several aspects of food science, from how food is grown to how
it is packaged. Companies are developing nanomaterials that will make a difference not
only in the taste of food but also in food safety and the health benefits that food delivery.
➢ Agriculture: nanotechnology can possibly change the whole agriculture part and
nourishment industry anchor from generation to preservation, handling, bundling,
transportation, and even waste treatment.
➢ Vehicle manufacturers: Much like aviation, lighter and stronger materials will be
valuable for making vehicles that are both quicker and more secure. Burning motors will
likewise profit from parts that are all the more hardwearing and higher temperature safe.

7.2.Biotechnology

Activity 7.4
➢ What do you think biotechnology is all about? Just begin by defining the two words bio
and technology?
➢ Do you think biotechnology is an old science? If your answer is yes, why? Give some
concrete examples of ancient biotechnology products?

It is the broad area of biology involving living systems and organisms to develop or make products,
or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives
thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use".

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At its simplest, biotechnology is technology based on biology - biotechnology harnesses cellular
and biomolecular processes to develop technologies and products that help improve our lives and
the health of our planet. We have used the biological processes of microorganisms for more than
6,000 years to make useful food products, such as bread and cheese, and to preserve dairy products.

Brewing and baking bread are examples of processes that fall within the concept of biotechnology
(use of yeast (= living organism) to produce the desired product). Such traditional processes
usually utilize the living organisms in their natural form (or further developed by breeding), while
the more modern form of biotechnology will generally involve a more advanced modification of
the biological system or organism.

One example of modern biotechnology is genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is the process
of transferring individual genes between organisms or modifying the genes in an organism to
remove or add a desired trait or characteristic.

Today, biotechnology covers many different disciplines (e.g. genetics, biochemistry, molecular
biology, etc.). New technologies and products are developed every year within the areas of e.g.
Medicine (development of new medicines and therapies), agriculture (development of genetically
modified plants, biofuels, biological treatment) or industrial biotechnology (production of
chemicals, paper, textiles, and food).

7.2.1. History
When Edward Jenner invented vaccines and when Alexander Fleming discovered antibiotics, they
were harnessing the power of biotechnology. And, of course, modern civilization would hardly be
imaginable without the fermentation processes that gave us beer, wine, and cheese.

When he coined the term in 1919, the agriculturalist Karl Ereky described ‘biotechnology’ as “all
lines of work by which products are produced from raw materials with the aid of living things.” In
modern biotechnology, researchers modify DNA and proteins to shape the capabilities of living
cells, plants, and animals into something useful for humans. Biotechnologists do this by
sequencing or reading, the DNA found in nature, and then manipulating it in a test tube – or, more
recently, inside of living cells.

Activity 7.5
➢ Write down some biotechnology applications in agriculture, medicine environment?

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 7.2.2. Application of biotechnology
➢ Agriculture (Green Biotechnology): Biotechnology had contributed a lot to modify the
genes of the organism known as Genetically Modified Organisms such as Crops,
Animals, Plants, Fungi, Bacteria, etc. Genetically modified crops are formed by the
manipulation of DNA to introduce a new trait into the crops. These manipulations are done
to introduce traits such as pest resistance, insect resistance, weed resistance, etc.
➢ Medicine (Medicinal Biotechnology): This helps in the formation of genetically modified
insulin known as humulin. This helps in the treatment of a large number of diabetes
patients. It has also given rise to a technique known as gene therapy. Gene therapy is a
technique to remove the genetic defect in an embryo or child. This technique involves the
transfer of a normal gene that works over the non-functional gene.
➢ Aquaculture Fisheries: It helps in improving the quality and quantity of fishes. Through
biotechnology, fishes are induced to breed via gonadotropin-releasing hormone.
➢ Environment (Environmental biotechnology): is used in waste treatment and pollution
prevention. Environmental biotechnology can more efficiently clean up many wastes than
conventional methods and greatly reduce our dependence on methods for land-based
disposal. Every organism ingests nutrients to live and produces by-products as a result.
Different organisms need different types of nutrients. Some bacteria thrive on the chemical
components of waste products. Environmental engineers use bioremediation, the broadest
application of environmental biotechnology, in two basic ways. They introduce nutrients
to stimulate the activity of bacteria already present in the soil at a waste site or add new
bacteria to the soil. The bacteria digest the waste at the site and turn it into harmless
byproducts. After the bacteria consume the waste materials, they die off or return to their
normal population levels in the environment.

7.3.Blockchain technology

Activity 7.6
➢ What do you think blockchain is all about? Just begin by defining the two words block
and chain?
➢ Do you know anything about bitcoin? If your answer is yes, is it related to blockchain?
➢ Do you think blockchain is an old science? Can you guess who coined the term
blockchain?

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Originally blockchain is a growing list of records, called blocks, that are linked
using cryptography. Each block contains a cryptography hash of the previous block, a timestamp,
and transaction data (generally represented as a Merkle tree).

A blockchain is, in the simplest of terms, a time-stamped series of immutable records of data that
is managed by a cluster of computers not owned by any single entity. Each of these blocks of data
(i.e. block) is secured and bound to each other using cryptographic principles (i.e. chain).

“Blocks” on the blockchain are made up of digital pieces of information. Specifically, they have
three parts:

1. Blocks store information about transactions like the date, time, and dollar amount of your
most recent purchase from Amazon. (NOTE: This Amazon example is for illustrative
purchases; Amazon retail does not work on a blockchain principle)

2. Blocks store information about who is participating in transactions. A block for your
splurge purchase from Amazon would record your name along with Amazon.com, Inc.
Instead of using your actual name, your purchase is recorded without any identifying
information using a unique “digital signature,” sort of like a username.

3. Blocks store information that distinguishes them from other blocks. Much like you and I
have names to distinguish us from one another, each block stores a unique code called a
“hash” that allows us to tell it apart from every other block. Let’s say you made your
splurge purchase on Amazon, but while it’s in transit, you decide you just can’t resist and
need a second one. Even though the details of your new transaction would look nearly
identical to your earlier purchase, we can still tell the blocks apart because of their unique
codes.

When a block stores new data it is added to the blockchain. Blockchain, as its name suggests,
consists of multiple blocks strung together. In order for a block to be added to the blockchain,
however, four things must happen:

1. A transaction must occur. Let’s continue with the example of your impulsive Amazon
purchase discussed in the introduction part of blockchain technology. After hastily clicking
through multiple checkout prompt, you go against your better judgment and make a
purchase.

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 2. That transaction must be verified. After making that purchase, your transaction must be
verified. With other public records of information, like the Securities Exchange
Commission, Wikipedia, or your local library, there’s someone in charge of vetting new
data entries. With blockchain, however, that job is left up to a network of computers. These
networks often consist of thousands (or in the case of Bitcoin, about five million )
computers spread across the globe. When you make your purchase from Amazon, that
network of computers rushes to check that your transaction happened in the way you said
it did. That is, they confirm the details of the purchase, including the transaction’s time,
dollar amount, and participants. (More on how this happens in a second.)

3. That transaction must be stored in a block. After your transaction has been verified as
accurate, it gets the green light. The transaction’s dollar amount, your digital signature, and
Amazon’s digital signature are all stored in a block. There, the transaction will likely join
hundreds, or thousands, of others like it.

4. That block must be given a hash. Not unlike an angel earning its wings, once all of a block’s
transactions have been verified, it must be given a unique, identifying code called a hash.
The block is also given the hash of the most recent block added to the blockchain. Once
hashed, the block can be added to the blockchain.

By design, a blockchain is resistant to modification of the data. It is "an open, distributed ledger
that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way".
For use as a distributed ledger, a blockchain is typically managed by a peer-to-peer network
collectively adhering to a protocol for inter-node communication and validating new blocks. Once
recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without the alteration of all
subsequent blocks, which requires the consensus of the network majority. Although blockchain
records are not unalterable, blockchains may be considered secure by design and exemplify a
distributed computing system.

The blockchain network has no central authority; it is the very definition of a democratized system.
Since it is a shared and immutable ledger, the information in it is open for anyone and everyone to
see. Hence, anything that is built on the blockchain is by its very nature transparent and everyone
involved is accountable for their actions.

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 7.3.1. History
The first work on a cryptographically secured chain of blocks was described in 1991 by Stuart
Haber and W. Scott Stornetta. They wanted to implement a system where document timestamps
could not be tampered with. In 1992, Bayer, Haber, and Stornetta incorporated Merkle trees to the
design, which improved its efficiency by allowing several document certificates to be collected
into one block.

The first blockchain was conceptualized by a person (or group of people) known as Satoshi
Nakamoto in 2008. Nakamoto improved the design in an important way using the Hash cash like
the method to add blocks to the chain without requiring them to be signed by a trusted party. The
design was implemented the following year by Nakamoto as a core component of the
cryptocurrency bitcoin, where it serves as the public ledger for all transactions on the network.

In August 2014, the bitcoin blockchain file size, containing records of all transactions that have
occurred on the network, reached 20 GB (Gigabyte). In January 2015, the size had grown to almost
30 GB, and from January 2016 to January 2017, the bitcoin blockchain grew from 50 GB to
100 GB in size.

The words block and chain were used separately in Satoshi Nakamoto's original paper but were
eventually popularized as a single word, blockchain, by 2016.

7.3.2. Blockchain Explained

Activity 7.7
➢ From your previous discussion, what is a transaction in blockchain? Does transaction
have a cost in blockchain? Why?
➢ Can you give a concrete example of blockchain?

A blockchain carries no transaction cost. (An infrastructure cost yes, but no transaction cost.) The
blockchain is a simple yet ingenious way of passing information from A to B in a fully automated
and safe manner. One party to a transaction initiates the process by creating a block. This block is
verified by thousands, perhaps millions of computers distributed around the net. The verified block
is added to a chain, which is stored across the net, creating not just a unique record, but a unique
record with a unique history. Falsifying a single record would mean falsifying the entire chain in
millions of instances. That is virtually impossible. Bitcoin uses this model for monetary
transactions, but it can be deployed in many other ways.

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Think of a railway company. We buy tickets on an app or the web. The credit card company takes
a cut for processing the transaction. With blockchain, not only can the railway operator save on
credit card processing fees, it can move the entire ticketing process to the blockchain. The two
parties in the transaction are the railway company and the passenger. The ticket is a block, which
will be added to a ticket blockchain. Just as a monetary transaction on the blockchain is a unique,
independently verifiable and unfalsifiable record (like Bitcoin), so can your ticket be. Incidentally,
the final ticket blockchain is also a record of all transactions for, say, a certain train route, or even
the entire train network, comprising every ticket ever sold, every journey ever taken.

But the key here is this: it’s free. Not only can the blockchain transfer and store money, but it can
also replace all processes and business models that rely on charging a small fee for a transaction
or any other transaction between two parties.

Blockchain may make selling recorded music profitable again for artists by cutting out music
companies and distributors like Apple or Spotify. The music you buy could even be encoded in
the blockchain itself, making it a cloud archive for any song purchased. Because the amounts
charged can be so small, subscription and streaming services will become irrelevant.

7.3.3. The Three Pillars of Blockchain Technology

Activity 7.8
➢ What are the most important principles in blockchains? Is it possible for the blockchain
to be centralized? If your answer is no, Why?

The three main properties of Blockchain Technology are:

1. Decentralization
➢ In a decentralized system (see Figure 7.2), the information is not stored by one single entity.
In fact, everyone in the network owns the information.
➢ In a decentralized network (see Figure 7.2), if you wanted to interact with your friend then
you can do so directly without going through a third party. That was the main ideology
behind Bitcoins. You and only you alone are in charge of your money. You can send your
money to anyone you want without having to go through a bank.

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 Figure 7.2 comparisons of a centralized and decentralized network

Activity 7.9
➢ Can you give a concrete example of centralized and decentralized systems?
➢ Do you know about BitTorrent? What is it? For what purpose you use it?
➢ Is BitTorrent centralized or decentralized? Why?

2. Transparency
Activity 7.10
➢ What do you think about transparency in blockchain? Is transparency in governance
related to transparency in blockchain?

➢ One of the most interesting and misunderstood concepts in blockchain technology is

“transparency.” Some people say that blockchain gives you privacy while some say that it
is transparent. Why do you think that happens?
➢ A person’s identity is hidden via complex cryptography and represented only by their
public address. So, if you were to look up a person’s transaction history, you will not see
“Bob sent 1 BTC” instead you will see “1MF1bhsFLkBzzz9vpFYEmvwT2TbyCt7NZJ
sent 1 BTC”.
➢ So, while the person’s real identity is secure, you will still see all the transactions that were
done by their public address. This level of transparency has never existed before within a
financial system. It adds that extra, and much needed, level of accountability which is
required by some of these biggest institutions.

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 3. Immutability

➢ Immutability, in the context of the blockchain, means that once something has been entered
into the blockchain, it cannot be tampered with.

Activity 7.11
➢ Do you think immutability is valuable for financial institutions? If your answer is yes,
Why?

➢ The reason why the blockchain gets this property is that of the cryptographic hash function.

➢ In simple terms, hashing means taking an input string of any length and giving out an output
of a fixed length. In the context of cryptocurrencies like bitcoin, the transactions are taken
as input and run through a hashing algorithm (Bitcoin uses SHA-256) which gives an
output of a fixed length.

➢ Let’s see how the hashing process works. We are going to put in certain inputs. For this
exercise, we are going to use the SHA-256 (Secure Hashing Algorithm 256).

➢ As you can see, in the case of SHA-256, no matter how big or small your input is, the
output will always have a fixed 256-bits length. This becomes critical when you are dealing
with a huge amount of data and transactions. So basically, instead of remembering the input
data which could be huge, you can just remember the hash and keep track.

7.3.4. How Blockchain Works

Picture a spreadsheet that is duplicated thousands of times across a network of computers. Then
imagine that this network is designed to regularly update this spreadsheet and you have a basic
understanding of the blockchain.

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Information held on a blockchain exists as a shared and continually reconciled database. This is a
way of using the network that has obvious benefits. The blockchain database isn’t stored in any
single location, meaning the records it keeps are truly public and easily verifiable. No centralized
version of this information exists for a hacker to corrupt. Hosted by millions of computers
simultaneously, its data is accessible to anyone on the internet.

To go in deeper with the Google spreadsheet analogy, read the following scenario:

“The traditional way of sharing documents with collaboration is to send a Microsoft Word
document to another recipient and ask them to make revisions to it. The problem with that scenario
is that you need to wait until receiving a return copy before you can see or make other changes
because you are locked out of editing it until the other person is done with it. That’s how databases
work today. Two owners can’t be messing with the same record at once. That’s how banks maintain
money balances and transfers; they briefly lock access (or decrease the balance) while they make
a transfer, then update the other side, then re-open access (or update again). With Google Docs
(or Google Sheets), both parties have access to the same document at the same time, and the single
version of that document is always visible to both of them. It is like a shared ledger, but it is a
shared document. The distributed part comes into play when sharing involves a number of people.

Imagine the number of legal documents that should be used that way. Instead of passing them to
each other, losing track of versions, and not being in sync with the other version, why can’t all
business documents become shared instead of transferred back and forth? So many types of legal
contracts would be ideal for that kind of workflow. You don’t need a blockchain to share
documents, but the shared documents analogy is a powerful one.”

Activity 7.12
➢ From the previous scenario, can you differentiate Microsoft word sharing, google docs
sharing and blockchain sharing? Which one is more related to BitTorrent sharing?

The reason why the blockchain has gained so much admiration is that:

➢ It is not owned by a single entity, hence it is decentralized

➢ The data is cryptographically stored inside

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 ➢ The blockchain is immutable, so no one can tamper with the data that is inside the
blockchain

➢ The blockchain is transparent so one can track the data if they want to

7.3.5. Why do people use the peer-to-peer network?

Activity 7.13
➢ What is peer to peer means? Does it have a relationship with BitTorrent?

One of the main uses of the peer-to-peer network is file sharing, also called torrenting. If you are
to use a client-server model for downloading, then it is usually extremely slow and entirely
dependent on the health of the server. Plus, as we said, it is prone to censorship.

However, in a peer-to-peer system, there is no central authority, and hence if even one of the peers
in the network goes out of the race, you still have more peers to download from. Plus, it is not
subject to the idealistic standards of a central system.

Comparison between Traditional Centralized Downloading and Decentralized Peer-to-Peer

Downloading (see Figure 7.3)

Figure 7.3 central and peer-to-peer downloading

7.3.6. Application of blockchain

Activity 7.14
➢ List some applications of blockchain in business, file storage, in supply chain auditing?

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A. The sharing economy
➢ With companies like Uber and Airbnb flourishing, the sharing economy is already a proven
success. Currently, however, users who want to hail a ride-sharing service have to rely on
an intermediary like Uber. By enabling peer-to-peer payments, the blockchain opens the
door to direct interaction between parties a truly decentralized sharing economy results.
B. Crowdfunding
➢ Crowdfunding initiatives like Kickstarter and GoFundMe are doing the advance work for
the emerging peer-to-peer economy. The popularity of these sites suggests people want to
have a direct say in product development. Blockchains take this interest to the next level,
potentially creating crowd-sourced venture capital funds.
➢ In 2016, one such experiment, the Ethereum-based DAO (Decentralized Autonomous
Organization), raised an astonishing $200 million USD in just over two months.
Participants purchased “DAO tokens” allowing them to vote on smart contract venture
capital investments (voting power was proportionate to the number of DAO they were
holding).
C. Governance
➢ By making the results fully transparent and publicly accessible, distributed database
technology could bring full transparency to elections or any other kind of poll taking.
Ethereum-based smart contracts help to automate the process.
➢ The app, Boardroom, enables organizational decision-making to happen on the blockchain.
In practice, this means company governance becomes fully transparent and verifiable when
managing digital assets, equity or information.
D. Supply chain auditing
➢ Consumers increasingly want to know that the ethical claims companies make about their
products are real. Distributed ledgers provide an easy way to certify that the backstories of
the things we buy are genuine. Transparency comes with blockchain-based timestamping
of a date and location — on ethical diamonds, for instance — that corresponds to a product
number.
➢ The UK-based Provenance offers supply chain auditing for a range of consumer goods.
Making use of the Ethereum blockchain, a Provenance pilot project ensures that fish sold
in Sushi restaurants in Japan have been sustainably harvested by its suppliers in Indonesia.

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 E. File storage
➢ Decentralizing file storage on the internet brings clear benefits. Distributing data
throughout the network protects files from getting hacked or lost.
➢ Interplanetary File System (IPFS) makes it easy to conceptualize how a distributed web
might operate. Similar to the way a BitTorrent moves data around the internet, IPFS gets
rid of the need for centralized client-server relationships (i.e., the current web). An internet
made up of completely decentralized websites has the potential to speed up file transfer
and streaming times. Such an improvement is not only convenient. It’s a necessary upgrade
to the web’s currently overloaded content-delivery systems.

7.4.Cloud and quantum computing

7.4.1. Cloud computing

Activity 7.15
➢ What do you think cloud computing is? Is it related to the term cloud?

Cloud computing is a means of networking remote servers that are hosted on the Internet. Rather
than storing and processing data on a local server, or a PC's hard drive, one of the following three
types of cloud infrastructure is used.

The first type is a public cloud. Here a third-party provider manages the servers, applications, and
storage much like a public utility. Anyone can subscribe to the provider’s cloud service, which is
usually operated through their own data center.

A business or organization would typically use a private cloud. This might be hosted on their on-
site data center, although some companies host through a third-party provider instead. Either way,
the computing infrastructure exists as a private network accessible over the Internet.

The third option is a hybrid cloud. Here private clouds are connected to public clouds, allowing
data and applications to be shared between them. Private clouds existing alone can be very limiting,
and a hybrid offers a business more flexibility. Often a hybrid cloud includes multiple service
providers. Hybrids can offer more computing capacity for a business application when the need
for its spikes. This sudden expansion into the public cloud is known as cloud bursting. Hybrids
also enable applications to keep sensitive client data in a private cloud but connect to end-user
software in a public cloud.

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Cloud computing services can focus on infrastructure, web development or a cloud-based app. These
are often regarded as a stack; all are on-demand, pay-as-you-go. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
gives you management of the whole deal: servers, web development tools, applications. Platform as
a Service (PaaS) offers a complete web development environment, without the worry of the hardware
that runs it. Finally, Software as a Service (SaaS) allows access to cloud-based apps, usually through
a web browser interface. SaaS is the top of the stack. Cloud computing has been around since 2000.
Yet it’s only in the last 10 years that major players like IBM, Amazon, and Google have offered
commercially viable, high-capacity networks.

7.4.2. Advantages of cloud computing

Activity 7.16
➢ List some applications of cloud computing in business, file storage?

Well, much like with any utility -a business benefits from economy of scale, which means cheap
computing power. Because a cloud provider’s hardware and software are shared, there’s no need
for the initial costly capital investment. And it goes much further than that. Businesses save on the
electricity required 24/7 to power and cool that computing infrastructure. In effect, energy costs
are shared.

It gets better. Cloud providers have vast resources of computing power at their fingertips. They
can allocate these whenever required with just a few mouse clicks. Cloud providers source on a
global scale, so they can deliver the precise bandwidth, storage and power business needs when it
needs it.

The cloud allows you and multiple users to access your data from any location. Smartphone,
laptop, desktop, wherever you are, you can access the data you need at any time.

With cloud computing a business processes its data more efficiently, increasing productivity.
Maintenance is much cheaper, often free, so reliability is rarely a worry. Cloud computing allows
CEOs to focus on running their business.

7.4.3. Quantum computing

Quantum computers truly do represent the next generation of computing. Unlike classic
computers, they derive their computing power by harnessing the power of quantum physics.
Because of the rather nebulous science behind it, a practical, working quantum computer still
remains a flight of fancy.

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Give clients access to a quantum computer over the internet, and you have quantum cloud
computing. Currently, the only organization which provides a quantum computer in the cloud is
IBM. They allow free access to anyone who wishes to use their 5-qubit machine. Earlier this year
they installed a 17-qubit machine. So far over 40,000 users have taken advantage of their online
service to run experiments.

Not to be outdone, Google provided the fastest quantum computer with 53qubits and speed of 200
seconds computation while the supercomputer took 10000 years.

So, what is qubit and how many do you need?

Qubit is short for a sequence of quantum bits. With a classic computer, data is stored in tiny
transistors that hold a single bit of information, either the binary value of 1 or 0. With a quantum
computer, the data is stored in qubits. Thanks to the mechanics of quantum physics, where
subatomic particles obey their own laws, a qubit can exist in two states at the same time. This
phenomenon is called superposition.

So, a qubit can have a value of 1, 0, or some value between. Two qubits can hold even more values.
Before long, you are building yourself an exponentially more powerful computer the more qubits
you add.

Quantum computer theory was first rooted in the 1980s and only now are the first rudimentary
machines being constructed. Quantum computers are big machines, reminiscent of the old
mainframe computers of the 1960s. One serious logistical problem is the need for deep-freezing
of the superconducting circuits. Only at sub-zero temperatures can the qubits maintain a constant,
predictable superposition. Heating up qubits can result in calculation errors.

7.4.4. Advantages of quantum computing

Getting a quantum computer to function usefully is an exciting prospect for scientists. Their
gargantuan computing power would allow them to crunch very long numbers. They would be able
to make complex calculations that would only overwhelm classic computers.

Accessing a cloud-based quantum computer combines the benefits of both technologies

exponentially. Quantum computing could help in the discovery of new drugs, by unlocking the
complex structure of chemical molecules. Other uses include financial trading, risk management,

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and supply chain optimization. With its ability to handle more complex numbers, data could be
transferred over the internet with much safer encryption.

7.5.Autonomic computing (AC)

Activity 7.17
➢ What is autonomous? What is computing? What do you think about autonomous
computing?

Autonomic computing (AC) is an approach to address the complexity and evolution problems in
software systems. It is a self-managing computing model named after, and patterned on, the human
body's autonomic nervous system. An autonomic computing system would control the functioning
of computer applications and systems without input from the user, in the same way, that the
autonomic nervous system regulates body systems without conscious input from the individual.
The goal of autonomic computing is to create systems that run themselves, capable of high-level
functioning while keeping the system's complexity invisible to the user.

It refers to the self-managing characteristics of distributed resources, adapting to unpredictable

changes while hiding intrinsic complexity to operators and users. Initiated by IBM in 2001, this
initiative ultimately aimed to develop computer systems capable of self-management, to overcome
the rapidly growing complexity of computing system management, and to reduce the barrier that
complexity poses to further growth.

7.5.1. Characteristics of Autonomic Systems

An autonomic system can self-configure at runtime to meet changing operating environments, self-
tune to optimize its performance, self-heal when it encounters unexpected obstacles during its
operation, and of particular current interest. Protect itself from malicious attacks. An autonomic
system can self-manage anything including a single property or multiple properties (see picture
below).

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 Figure 7.4 Autonomic Characteristics

Autonomic systems/applications exhibit eight defining characteristics:

➢ Self-Awareness: An autonomic application/system “knows itself” and is aware of its state

and its behaviors.
➢ Self-Configuring: An autonomic application/system should be able to configure and
reconfigure itself under varying and unpredictable conditions.
➢ Self-Optimizing: An autonomic application/system should be able to detect suboptimal
behaviors and optimize itself to improve its execution.
➢ Self-Healing: An autonomic application/system should be able to detect and recover from
potential problems and continue to function smoothly.
➢ Self-Protecting: An autonomic application/system should be capable of detecting and
protecting its resources from both internal and external attacks and maintaining overall
system security and integrity.
➢ Context-Aware: An autonomic application/system should be aware of its execution
environment and be able to react to changes in the environment.
➢ Open: An autonomic application/system must function in a heterogeneous world and
should be portable across multiple hardware and software architectures. Consequently, it
must be built on standard and open protocols and interfaces.
➢ Anticipatory: An autonomic application/system should be able to anticipate to the extent
possible, its needs and behaviors and those of its context, and be able to manage itself
proactively

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 7.6.Computer vision

Activity 7.18
➢ What do you think about computer vision? Does it mean computers can see and interpret
as humans do? If your answer is yes, how can computers can see?

7.6.1. History
The origins of computer vision go back to an MIT undergraduate summer project in 1966. It was
believed at the time that computer vision could be solved in one summer, but we now have a 50-
year old scientific field that is still far from being solved.

Early experiments in computer vision took place in the 1950s, using some of the first neural
networks to detect the edges of an object and to sort simple objects into categories like circles and
squares. In the 1970s, the first commercial use of computer vision interpreted typed or handwritten
text using optical character recognition. This advancement was used to interpret written text for
the blind. As the internet matured in the 1990s, making large sets of images available online for
analysis, facial recognition programs flourished. These growing data sets helped make it possible
for machines to identify specific people in photos and videos.

7.6.2. Definition
It is an interdisciplinary scientific field that deals with how computers can be made to gain a high-
level understanding of digital images or videos. From the perspective of engineering, it seeks to
automate tasks that the human visual system can do.

Computer vision tasks include methods for acquiring, processing, analyzing and understanding
digital images, and extraction of high-dimensional data from the real world in order to produce
numerical or symbolic information, e.g. in the forms of decisions. Understanding in this context
means the transformation of visual images (the input of the retina) into descriptions of the world
that can interface with other thought processes and elicit appropriate action. This image
understanding can be seen as the disentangling of symbolic information from image data using
models constructed with the aid of geometry, physics, statistics, and learning theory.

Another way to define computer vision is through its applications. Computer vision is building
algorithms that can understand the content of images and use it for other applications.

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 7.6.3. How computer vision works
1. Acquiring an image: Images, even large sets, can be acquired in real-time through video,
photos or 3D technology for analysis.
2. Processing the image: Deep learning models automate much of this process, but the
models are often trained by first being fed thousands of labeled or pre-identified images.
3. Understanding the image: The final step is the interpretative step, where an object is
identified or classified.

There are many types of computer vision that are used in different ways:

➢ Image segmentation partitions an image into multiple regions or pieces to be examined

separately.

➢ Object detection identifies a specific object in an image. Advanced object detection

recognizes many objects in a single image: a football field, an offensive player, a defensive
player, a ball and so on. These models use an X, Y coordinate to create a bounding box and
identify everything inside the box.

➢ Facial recognition is an advanced type of object detection that not only recognizes a human
face in an image but identifies a specific individual.

➢ Edge detection is a technique used to identify the outside edge of an object or landscape to
better identify what is in the image.

➢ Pattern detection is a process of recognizing repeated shapes, colors and other visual
indicators in images.

➢ Image classification groups images into different categories.

➢ Feature matching is a type of pattern detection that matches similarities in images to help
classify them.

Simple applications of computer vision may only use one of these techniques, but more advanced
users, like computer vision for self-driving cars, rely on multiple techniques to accomplish their
goal.

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 7.6.4. Applications of computer vision
Activity 7.19
➢ Do you think that the way computer vision works is similar to humans' vision?
➢ Write down some specific applications of computer vision?

Computer vision is being used today in a wide variety of real-world applications, which include:

➢ Optical character recognition (OCR): reading handwritten postal codes on letters (Figure
7.5a) and automatic number plate recognition (ANPR);

➢ Machine inspection: rapid parts inspection for quality assurance using stereo vision with
specialized illumination to measure tolerances on aircraft wings or auto body parts (Figure
7.5b) or looking for defects in steel castings using X-ray vision;

➢ Retail: object recognition for automated checkout lanes (Figure 7.5c);

➢ Medical imaging: registering pre-operative and intra-operative imagery (Figure 7.5d) or

performing long-term studies of people’s brain morphology as they age;

➢ Automotive safety: detecting unexpected obstacles such as pedestrians on the street, under
conditions where active vision techniques such as radar or lidar do not work well (Figure
7.5e).

➢ Surveillance: monitoring for intruders, analyzing highway traffic (Figure 7.5f), and
monitoring pools for drowning victims;

➢ Fingerprint recognition and biometrics: for automatic access authentication as well as

forensic applications

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Figure 7.5 Some industrial applications of computer vision: (a) optical character recognition (OCR) (b) mechanical inspection
(c) retail (d) medical imaging (e) automotive safety (f) surveillance and traffic monitoring

7.7.Embedded systems

Activity 7.20
➢ What is the word embed mean? How can you define embedded systems?

It is a controller with a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electrical system, often
with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including
hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems control many devices in common use
today. Ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors manufactured are used in embedded systems.

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Modern embedded systems are often based on microcontrollers (i.e. microprocessors with
integrated memory and peripheral interfaces), but ordinary microprocessors (using external chips
for memory and peripheral interface circuits) are also common, especially in more complex
systems. In either case, the processor(s) used may be types ranging from general-purpose to those
specialized in a certain class of computations, or even custom designed for the application at hand.
A common standard class of dedicated processors is the digital signal processor (DSP).

7.7.1. Advantages and disadvantages of embedded system

Advantages of Embedded

➢ Easily Customizable
➢ Low power consumption
➢ Low cost
➢ Enhanced performance

Disadvantages of Embedded systems

➢ High development effort

➢ Larger time to market

7.7.2. Basic Structure of an Embedded System

Figure 7.6 shows the basic structure of an embedded system.

Figure 7.6 Basic structure of an embedded system

➢ Sensor − It measures the physical quantity and converts it to an electrical signal which can
be read by an observer or by any electronic instrument like an A2D converter. A sensor
stores the measured quantity to the memory.

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 ➢ A-D Converter − An analog-to-digital converter converts the analog signal sent by the
sensor into a digital signal.

➢ Processor & ASICs − Processors process the data to measure the output and store it to
the memory.

➢ D-A Converter − A digital-to-analog converter converts the digital data fed by the
processor to analog data.

➢ Actuator − An actuator compares the output given by the D-A Converter to the actual
(expected) output stored in it and stores the approved output.

7.8.Cybersecurity

Activity 7.21
➢ Can you describe cybersecurity? Begin by defining the two words cyber and security?
Do you think cybersecurity is important? Why?

7.8.1. Definition
It is the protection of computer systems from the theft of or damage to their hardware, software,
or electronic data, as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide.

The field is becoming more important due to increased reliance on computer systems, the
Internet and wireless network standards such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, and due to the growth
of smart devices, including smartphones, televisions, and the various devices that constitute the
Internet of Things. Due to its complexity, both in terms of politics and technology, cybersecurity
is also one of the major challenges in the contemporary world.

Cybersecurity is often confused with information security but it focuses on protecting computer
systems from unauthorized access or being otherwise damaged or made inaccessible. Information
security is a broader category that looks to protect all information assets, whether in hard copy or
in digital form.

The term cybercrime is used to describe an unlawful activity in which computer or computing
devices such as smartphones, tablets, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), etc. which are stand-
alone or a part of a network are used as a tool or/and target of criminal activity. It is often
committed by the people of destructive and criminal mindset either for revenge, greed or

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adventure. Combating this is a multi-disciplinary affair that spans hardware and software through
to policy and people all of it aimed at both preventing cybercrimes occurring in the first place, and
minimizing its impact when it does.

7.8.2. Cybersecurity measures

Activity 7.22
➢ How can someone secure himself/herself from hackers or digital criminals? Do you think
securing yourself is important at this time?

The following are some security measures to be taken to prevent cybercrimes:

➢ Staff awareness training: - Human error is the leading cause of data breaches, so you
need to equip staff with the knowledge to deal with the threats they face. Training courses
will show staff how security threats affect them and help them apply best-practice advice
to real-world situations.
➢ Application security: - Web application vulnerabilities are a common point of intrusion
for cybercriminals. As applications play an increasingly critical role in business, it is vital
to focus on web application security.
➢ Network security: - Network security is the process of protecting the usability and
integrity of your network and data. This is achieved by conducting a network penetration
test, which scans your network for vulnerabilities and security issues.
➢ Leadership commitment: - Leadership commitment is the key to cyber resilience.
Without it, it is very difficult to establish or enforce effective processes. Top management
must be prepared to invest in appropriate cybersecurity resources, such as awareness
training.
➢ Password management: - Almost half of the UK population uses ‘password’, ‘123456’
or ‘qwerty’ as their password. You should implement a password management policy that
provides guidance to ensure staff create strong passwords and keep them secure.

7.8.3. Types of cybersecurity threats

➢ Ransomware: - It is a type of malicious software. It is designed to extort money by
blocking access to files or the computer system until the ransom is paid. Paying the ransom
does not guarantee that the files will be recovered or the system restored.

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 ➢ Malware:- itis a type of software designed to gain unauthorized access or to cause damage
to a computer[64].
➢ Social engineering: - it is a tactic that adversaries use to trick you into revealing sensitive
information. They can solicit a monetary payment or gain access to your confidential data.
Social engineering can be combined with any of the threats listed above to make you more
likely to click on links, download malware, or trust a malicious source.
➢ Phishing: - it is the practice of sending fraudulent emails that resemble emails from
reputable sources. The aim is to steal sensitive data like credit card numbers and login
information. It’s the most common type of cyber-attack. You can help protect yourself
through education or a technology solution that filters malicious emails.

7.8.4. Benefits of cybersecurity

Benefits of utilizing cybersecurity include:

➢ Business protection against malware, ransomware, phishing, and social engineering.

➢ Protection for data and networks.
➢ Prevention of unauthorized users.
➢ Improves recovery time after a breach.
➢ Protection for end-users.
➢ Improved confidence in the product for both developers and customers.

7.8.5. Cybersecurity vendors

Vendors in cybersecurity fields will typically use endpoint, network and advanced threat protection
security as well as data loss prevention. Three commonly known cybersecurity vendors include
Cisco, McAfee, and Trend Micro.

Activity 7.23
➢ Can you mention some cybersecurity threats you face?
➢ Write down some benefits of cybersecurity measures?
➢ List down some anti-virus vendors?

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 7.9.Additive manufacturing (3D Printing)

Activity 7.24
➢ Define additive manufacturing? Just begin by defining the two words additive and
manufacturing?
➢ What is the 3D printer?

Are “3D printing” and “additive manufacturing” (AM) the same thing? In general, we know that
terms stretch over time to include more than just their default meanings. Whatever the name, new
ways of fabricating directly from bytes to stuff are radically changing the what, where, how, and
when of making objects. What roles, then, do the two terms “additive manufacturing” and “3D
printing” play in describing new ways of making?

Let’s start by considering what the experts have to say:

➢ The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) equates the two terms in their
definition: “Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, uses computer-aided
design to build objects layer by layer.”

➢ Wikipedia says, “Today, the precision, repeatability, and material range has increased to
the point that 3D printing is considered as industrial production technology, with the name
of additive manufacturing.”

➢ Author Deve Turbide puts it simply, suggesting that additive manufacturing is “the
industrial version of 3D printing”.

7.9.1. 3D Printing: It's All About the Printer

When MIT invented binder jet printing in the 1980s, they wrote: “three-dimensional printing is a
process under development at MIT for the rapid and flexible production of prototype parts, end-
use parts, and tools directly from a CAD model.”

Today our concept of “3D printing” is much broader, but the term is often associated
with filament-based plastic printers, which are the pride and joy of many a hobbyist and self-
described maker. But there are also binder jet printers, laser metal 3D printers, as well as glass and
clay 3D printers[66].

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 7.9.2. Additive Manufacturing: A Bytes-to-Parts Supply Chain
“Additive manufacturing” (AM) is a big-picture term more at home in the boardroom than the
factory floor or garage. Naturally, AM separates itself from older, subtractive technologies like
milling. Otherwise, the term is less about the 3D printer itself, and more about the manufacturing
process transformed by 3D printing.

What is that transformation? AM changes the way we think about inventory and supply chain,
taking parts from the point of manufacture to the point of use?

AM is flexible in the time it takes to load a file, from anywhere in the world. It enables customized
parts, in volume, and involves stocking raw materials like filament and printing spare parts on
demand.

Additive manufacturing (AM) describes types of advanced manufacturing that are used to create
three-dimensional structures out of plastics, metals, polymers and other materials that can be
sprayed through a nozzle or aggregated in a vat. These constructs are added layer by layer in real-
time based on digital design. The simplicity and low cost of AM machines, combined with the
scope of their potential creations, could profoundly alter global and local economies and affect
international security.

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